ANALOG ELECTRONICS 3.

METHODS OF ANALYSIS

1. Introduction
Having understood the fundamental laws of circuit theory (Ohm’s law and
Kirchhoff’s laws), we are now prepared to apply these laws to develop two powerful
techniques for circuit analysis: nodal analysis, which is based on a systematic
application of kirchhoff’s current law (KCL), and mesh analysis, which is based on a
systematic application of kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) . The two techniques are so
important that this chapter should be regarded as the most important in the book.
Students are therefore encouraged to pay careful attention.
With the two techniques to be developed in this chapter, we can analyze any
linear circuit by obtaining a set of simultaneous equations that are then solved to obtain
the required values of current or voltage.

Simultaneous equations in two and three unknowns in this book will be solved as
follows.

Simultaneous equations in two unknowns

+ =
+ =

∆ ∆
= = = =
∆ ∆
and

Simultaneous equations in three unknowns

+ + =
+ + =
+ + =

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2. Assumed direction of current

In applying Kirchhoff’s laws to electrical networks, the question of assuming
proper direction of current usually arises. The direction of current flow may be
assumed either clockwise or anticlockwise. If the assumed direction of current is not the
actual direction, then on solving the question, this current will be found to be negative.
If the answer is positive, then assumed direction is the same as actual direction.

However, the important point is that once a particular direction has been
assumed, the same should be used throughout the solution of the question.

N/B

When only one source is responsible for power in a circuit (or network), the
currents direction are imposed by the source. But when two or more sources (not in
series), are responsible for power in a circuit (or network), the currents direction
are choosen arbitrary (“any how”) unless for standard circuits such as diode,
transistor and electric machine circuits.

3. Nodal analysis
Nodal analysis provides a general procedure for analyzing circuits using node
voltages as the circuit variables. Choosing node voltages instead of element voltages as
circuit variables is convenient and reduces the number of equations one must solve
simultaneously.
In nodal analysis we are interested in finding the node voltages. Given a circuit
with n nodes, the nodal analysis of the circuit involves taking the following three steps.

Steps to determine node voltages:

1. Select a principal node as the reference node. Assign voltages , , ..... , to the
remaining − 1 principal nodes. The voltages are referenced with respect to the
reference node. The reference node is commonly called the ground since it is assumed
to have zero potential. A reference node is indicated by any of the following symbols in
fig. 3.1.

Figure 3.1

2. Apply KCL to each of the − 1 nonreference nodes. Use Ohm’s law to express the
branch currents in terms of node voltages.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node voltages.

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Examples

1) Calculate the node voltages in the circuit shown in fig. 2a given that, R = 2 Ω,
R = 4 Ω, R = 6 Ω, I = 5 A, and I = 10 A.

Solution

Consider fig. 3.2b, where the circuit in fig. 3.2a has been prepared for nodal analysis.
Notice how the currents are selected for the application KCL. Except for the branches
with current sources, the labelling of the currents is arbitrary.

I I

R R I)
I I*
R R R R I
I

(a) (b)

Figure 3.2

From KCL,

• I = I + I) (1)
• I + I) = I + I* (2)

• From Ohm’s law, Eqn. (1) and (2) becomes:

−
+ = +
, ,
and
−
+ + =+ +
, ,

. . .
⟺ 5= + ⟺ 3 − = 20
)
(3)

. .
10 + =5+ 2
⟺ 120 + 3 −3 = 60 + 2
) 6
and

⟺ 3 −5 = −60 (4)

So we have,

3 − = 20
3 − 5 = −60

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=
00 10
= 13.33 ⟹ = 13.33
*2

50 10
= = 20 ⟹ = 20
*2

2) Using Node voltage method, find the branch currents in the circuit shown in fig. 3.3a
with E = 8 V , R = 5 Ω, R = 6 Ω, R = 10 Ω, and E = 10 V.

R R R V R

+ + +

E R E E R E

(a) (b)

Figure 3.3

Solution

Consider fig. 3.3b, where the circuit in fig. 3.3a has been prepared for nodal analysis. I ,
I , and I are assumed direction of current but may turn out to be the actual direction if
positive.

From KCL,

• I =I +I (1)

• From Ohm’s law, Eqn. (1) become:

9 . . .29 5 . . .2 0
= + ⟺ = +
: :; : * 0 1

⟺ 6<8 − = = 3 + 5< + 10=

⟺ 14 = −2 ⟹ = −0.14
9 . 520. ) . 0. )
Now, I = = = 1.628 > ; I = = = −0.014 > (this means that
: * :; 0
the actual direction of I is opposite to the one fig. 3.3b).

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.29 0. )2 0
I = = = 1.64 >.
: 1

Exercise

1) Using Node voltage method, find the branch currents in the circuit shown in fig. 3.4a,
given that, E = 8 V , R = 5 Ω, R = 6 Ω, R = 10 Ω, and E = 10 V.

0.20 A ; 0.50 A ; 0.70 A

R R R E R

E R E I R R) E

(a) (b)

Figure 3.4

2) Using Node voltage method, find the current in , for the network shown in fig. 3.4b,
with I = 2 A , R = 2 Ω, R = 3 Ω, R = 2 Ω, R ) = 2 Ω, E = 2 V and E = 4 V.

0.67 A

4. Mesh analysis
Mesh analysis provides another general procedure for analyzing circuits, using
branch currents as the circuit variables. Recall that a loop is a closed path with no
node passed more than once. A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other
loop within it. In fact, a mesh is an independent loop.

Nodal analysis applies KCL to find unknown voltages in a given circuit, while
mesh analysis applies KVL to find unknown currents.

Steps to determine branch currents:

1. If the branch currents are not indicated on the given circuit, then indicate them
arbitrary.
2. Take your mesh in either clockwise or counterclockwise direction.
3. Apply KVL to each mesh.
4. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown branch currents.

Examples

1) Use mesh analysis to find the branch currents in the circuit of fig. 3.5a, given that:

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E = 8 V , R = 5 Ω, R = 6 Ω, R = 10 Ω, and E = 10 V.

R R R R

I I I
E R E E R E
1 2

(a) (b)

Figure 3.5

Solution

Let the current flowing in the network be as shown in fig. 3.5b.

In mesh 1 we have: ? − + , − + , = 0

⟺ ? − + , − <+ + + =, = 0 ⟺ <, + , =+ + + , = ?

⟹ 15@A + AB@C = D (1)

In mesh 2 we have: ? − + , − + , = 0

⟺ ? − + , − <+ + + =, = 0

⟺ + , + <, + , =+ = ?

⟺ AB@A + AE@C = AB

⟹ F@A + D@C = F (2)

So we have:

15+ + 10+ = 8
5+ + 8+ = 5

1) *0
+ = = 0.2 > ⟹ + = 0.2 >
0 *0

G* )0
+ = = 0.5 > ⟹ + = 0.5 >
0 *0

+ = + + + = 0.2 + 0.5 = 0.7 > ⟹ + = 0.7 >

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2) Calculate the current in R * of the circuit shown in fig. 3.6a, given that:
E = 10 V , R 0 = 8 Ω, R = 4 Ω, R = 6 Ω, R = 3 Ω, R ) = 7 Ω and R * = 5 Ω.

R R R R
I
I I −I
R* R*
2 3
R R) R R)
I −I I −I +I
I
R0 R0
E 1 E

(a) (b)

Figure 3.6

Solution

Let the current flowing in the network be as shown in fig. 3.6b.

In mesh 1 we have: ? − + ,0 − <+ − + =, − <+ − + + + =,) = 0

⟺ <,0 + , + ,) =+ − <, + ,) =+ + + ,) = ?

⟹ AD@A − AB@C + I@J = AB (1)

In mesh 2 we have: −+ , − + ,* + <+ − + =, = 0

⟺ + , − <, + , =+ − + ,* = 0

⟹ J@A − I@C − F@J = B (2)

In mesh 3 we have: + ,* − <+ − + =, + <+ − + + + =,) = 0

⟺ + ,) − <, + ,) =+ + <, + ,) + ,* =+ = 0

⟹ I@A − AJ@C + AD@J = B (2)

So we have:

18+ − 10+ + 7+ = 10
3+ − 7+ − 5+ = 0
7+ − 13+ + 18+ = 0

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18 −10 7 18 −10
∆= K 3 −7 −5 3 −7 K
7 −13 18 7 −13

∆= 18 × −7 × 18 + −10 × −5 × 7 + 7 × 3 × −13 − <7 × −7 × 7 + −13 × −5 × 18 + 18 × 3 × −10=

= −2268 + 350 − 273 − <−343 + 1170 − 540=

⟹ ∆= −CAMA − CDI = −CNID

10 −10 7 10 −10
∆O = K 0 −7 −5 0 −7 K
0 −13 18 0 −13

= 18 × −7 × 18 − <−13 × −5 × 10=

⟹ ∆@A = −CCED + EFB = −AEAD

18 10 7 18 10
∆O = K 3 0 −5 3 0K
7 0 18 7 0

= 10 × −5 × 7 − <18 × 3 × 10=

⟹ ∆O = −JFB − FNB = DMB

18 −10 10 18 −10
∆O; = K 3 −7 0 3 −7 K
7 −13 0 7 −13
= 10 × 3 × −13 − <7 × −7 × 10=

⟹ ∆O = −JMB + NMB = ABB

∆P 1 5
Now, + = = = 0.65 > ⟹ + = 0.65 >
∆ )G5

∆P 5Q0
+ = = = 0.36 > ⟹ + = 0.36 >
∆ )G5

∆P; 00
+ = = = 0.04 > ⟹ + = 0.04 >
∆ )G5

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N/B

You may use any other method you know in solving simultaneous equations.

Exercise

Determine the current supplied by each battery in the circuit shown in fig. 3.7, given
that E = 20 V, E = E = E) = 5 V, E* = 30 V, R = 5 Ω, R = 3 Ω, R = 4 Ω, R ) = 2
Ω, and R * = 8 Ω.

R R E R*

E R R) E*
E E)

Figure 3.7

@A = C. FE R; @C = B. IN R; @J = A. DC R; @N = N. MI R; @F = J. AF R

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