Six Levels of Organization of the Human Body

Cell – smallest independently functioning unit of all organisms in animals, a cell

contains cytoplasm, composed of fluid and organelles.

Cellular – cells are made up of molecules.

Organ – functionally distinct structure composed of two or more types of tissues.

Organ System – group of organs that work together to carry out particular
function.

Organism – living being that has a cellular structure and that can independently
perform in all physiologic function necessary for life.

Tissue – group of similar or closely related to cells that act together to perform a
specific function.

The Basic Principles of Study the Human Body

Anatomic Position – a body is erect or standing erect face facing forward arms
at the sides palm turn forward thumbs pointing lateral ward feet together.

Body Planes – are imaginary lines made through the body wall or through an
organ when sectioning.

a. Midsagittal or medial plane – external symmetrical sections of the body

lengthwise into right and left halves.

b. Frontal or coronal plane – a symmetrical anterior and posterior section.

c. Transverse or horizontal or cross-sectional plane – horizontal section of

body into superior and inferior sections.

d. Body cavities – spaces within the body that house and protect the internal
organs (viscera)

- dorsal or posterior body cavities, ventral or anterior body cavities.

a. Dorsal or posterior cavities

Cranial cavity

 Contains and protects the brain.

 Within the skull or cranial bones.
 Most superior in location
Spinal Cavity

 Contains and protects the spinal cord.

 Within the vertebral bones
 Most inferior in location

b. Ventral or anterior cavities

 Larger than the dorsal cavities

 Separated into two by the diaphragm thoracic cavity and
abdominal pelvic cavity

Thoracic Cavity

 Above the diaphragm protected by rib cage divided by

membrane into:
Pericardial cavity – heart
Pleural cavity – lungs
Medias tenum – between the two lungs

Abdominopelvic cavity – below the diaphragm divided into two by

an imaginary line from the top of the pubic bone (pubis symphysis)
to the sacral promontory.

Abdominopelvic Cavity

Abdominal Cavity contains the following:

 Liver
 Gallbladder
 Stomach
 Pancreas
 Spleen
 Intestines
 Kidneys
Pelvic Cavity contains the following:
 Urinary bladder
 Rectum
 Anus
 Female Reproductive System
 Internal Male Reproductive Structures
 Body Regions
Axial Region consists of:

 Head
 Neck
 Thorax (chest)
 Abdomen
 Pelvis

Appendicular Region consists of limbs:

Upper Extremities – shoulder, upper arms, forearms, wrists, and

hands.

Lower Extremities – thighs, legs, ankles, and feet.

Abdominal Regions
 Subdivided into regions by imaginary lines
 Two vertical lines and two horizontal lines

Two vertical lines drawn downward from the centers of the collar
bones.

One upper horizontal line drawn at the lower edge of the rib cage;

One lower horizontal line drawn at the lower edge of the hip bones.

a. Upper Abdomen

 Right Hypochondriac Region

 Epigastric Region
 Left-hypochondriac Region

Abdominal Region Organs Found

Right Hypochondriac Region
Right Lumbar Region
Right Inguinal / Iliac Region
Greater part of the right lobe of the liver
Hepatic Flexure of the Large Intestines
Part of the Right Kidney
Ascending colon of large intestines
Part of the right kidney
Part of the ileum of small intestine
Cecum and appendix

Epigastric Region
Umbilical Region
Hypogastric Region
Left Hypochondriac Regions
Left Lumber Region
Left Inguinal / Iliac Region
Termination of ileum
Greater part of the left lobe and part of
the right lobe of the liver with gallbladder
Part of the stomach duodenum
Upper end of the spleen
Parts of the kidneys and suprarenal
glands
Greater part of the transverse colon
Part of duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
Ileum
Urinary Bladder (Distended) in children
Uterus – when pregnant
Sigmoid flexure of large intestine
Duodenum – preparation of absorption
through small finger like protrusions
called “villi” begins.
 Shortest
Jejunum – specialized for absorption
through its lining by enterocytes, small
nutrients particles which have been
precisely digested enzymes in the
duodenum.
Ileum – its main function is to absorb
vitamin B12, bile salts and other products
that were not absorbed by jejunum.
Part of the stomach
Spleen
Tail of the pancreas
Splenic flexure of the large intestine
Descending colon of large intestine
Part of Jejunum
Left Kidney
Sigmoid colon of large intestine
Jejunum and Ileum
Abdominal Regions
 The abdominopelvic region can be divided into four quadrants. These
quadrants are defined by the intersection of the sagittal plane with the umbilical plane
(the transverse plane through the navel)

Clinicians use these regions to determine the organs found and tissues that may
be causing pain or discomfort in that region.

Quadrants
Right Upper Quadrant The right upper quadrant contains the
right portion of the liver, gallbladder,
right kidney, small portion of the
stomach, and transverse colon, and
parts of small intestine.

Pain in this region is associated with

Left Upper Quadrant
Right Lower Quadrant
infection, and inflammation in the
gallbladder and liver or peptic ulcers
in the stomach.
The left upper quadrant is the location of
the left portion of the liver, part of the
stomach, the pancreas, left kidney,
spleen portions of the transverse, and
descending colon, and parts of the
small intestine.
Pain in this region is associated with
malrotation of the intestines and colon
In the right lower quadrant sits the
cecum, appendix, part of the small
intestine, the right half of the female
reproductive system and the right
ureter.

Pain in this region is must commonly

Left Lower Quadrant
associated with appendicitis
The left lower quadrant houses the
majority of the small intestines, some of
the large intestines, the left half of the
female reproductive system, and the
left ureter.

Pain in this region is generally associated

with colitis (inflammation of the large
intestine as well as pelvis
inflammatory disease) and ovarian
cysts in female.
 Anatomical Terminologies
Direction Terminologies Description
Superior Toward the head
Inferior (caudal/caudad) Toward the feet or tail region
Anterior (ventral) Toward the front
Posterior (dorsal) Toward the back
Medial (Center) Toward or near the midline
Lateral Farther or away from midline
Proximal Near the trunk
Distal Away from the trunk

Superficial Near the surface

Deep Far from the surface
Peripheral Away from the central axis
Parietal Walls of the body activity
Visceral Internal organ

Common Names Anatomical Terminologies

Head Cephalic
Neck Cervical
Shoulder/Acromial Scapula
Back of elbow Olecranon
Back Dorsal
Loin Lumbar
Buttock Gluteal
Behind the knee Popliteal
Calf Sural

Sole of foot Plantar

Heel of foot Calcaneal
Great toe Hallux
Anterior Surface of hand Palmar or volar
Toes/Finger Digital or phalangeal
Leg Crusal
Front of the knee Patellar
Thigh Femoral
Palm Metacarpal

Hand Manual
Wrist Carpal
Forearm Antebrachial
Arm Brachial
Armpit Axillary
Face Facial
Forehead Frontal
Chin Mental
Mouth Oral

Groin Inguinal
Breast Mammary
Navel Umbilical
Pubis Pubic
 Cell / Cytology
Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the students shall be able to:

1. Explain why the cell is regarded as the structural and functional unit of life, and

2. Describe the cell as to its anatomy and physiology

I. General Features of the Cell

II. Anatomy of the Cell

A. Cell membrane or plasma membrane

 Structure of plasma membrane

 Physics – chemical properties of cell membrane
 Functions of plasma membrane

B. Protoplasm

a. Cytoplasm

1. Cytoplasmic organelles
2. Endoplasmic reticulum
3. Mitochondria
4. Ribosomes
5. Golgi Complex
6. Lysosomes
7. Centrioles
8. Microtubules
9. Microfilaments
10. Peroxisomes

b. Nucleus

III. Classification of cells – somatic cells and reproductive cells

General Features of a cell
 A cell is the structural and functional units off all living things
 The cell is a complex system capable of independent existence and it is
therefore, can exist.
 The size of the cell is variable in different portions of the body yet despite
in variations in size, there is remarkable constancy of the internal structure
of all cells.

Anatomy of A Cell
From the standpoint of anatomy, the cell may be roughly divided into two
components:
1. Plasma membrane or cell membrane
2. Protoplasm: Cytoplasm and nucleus

Cell membrane or Plasma membrane

 Is the thin, doubled layered membrane that forms the outermost
covering of a cell.
 The membrane is a selective screen that allows only certain
substances to center and leave the cell or a gatekeeper of the cell.
 It maintains the boundary and integrity of the cell itself by keeping
the cell and its contents separate and distinct from the surrounding
environment.

A. Structure of a cell membrane: The Models

Danielli and Dawson Model:

 The membrane consists of these layers, the outer mononuclear

protein layer, bimolecular lipid layer and an inner mononuclear
protein layer.
 The bimolecular lipid is interrupted by hydrophilic molecules which
connect the two other layers and provides transmembrane
channels (pores) for transport of water molecules and ions.
 Compare a plasma membrane into a sandwich
 Fluid-mosaic model of membrane structure:
 Formulated by S. Jonathan and Garth Nicolson
 The word mosaic refers to the many different proteins embedded
on or with the phospholipid layer
 The membrane is double layer (bilayer) composed of mainly
phospholipids and proteins and;
 Is fluid rather than solid in nature
 The phospholipid bilayer forms a fluid or "sea" in which specific
protein float like icebergs.
 Being fluid, the membrane is in a constant state of flux, shifting and
changing yet still retaining its basic structure and properties.
 The phospholipid are represented as looking like balloons on
strings arranged in biomolecular layer or bilayer.
 The biomolecular layer resembles a sandwich with the spherical
heads as the "bread" of the sandwich and the inward facing tails as
the "meat"
 The phospholipid have one-charged end and one-charged stick in
the cytoplasm while the uncharged ends face each other in the
middle layer.
 The tails or the lipid portions of the phospholipid molecules are
attracted to each other and are repelled by water (hydrophobic)
 The heads or the phosphate portions line up over the entire cell
surface and are attracted to water (hydrophilic)
 The proteins are embedded in the cell membrane like tiles in a
mosaic or like iceberg floating in the fluid phospholipids
 All proteins are capable of moving about in the flexible double layer
of phospholipids molecules

B. Physio-chemical properties of cell membrane

1. Lipoprotein in nature - substances which are soluble in the lipid

layer of the cell membrane would therefore have easy access to the
interior of the cell
2. Semi-permeability -allows substances of similar or lesser sizes
with the pores (approximately 7 ang strums in diameter) to get in,
while at the same time preventing large substances from entering
the cell.
3. Selective permeability - allow entrances of large molecules
provided they are needed by the cell, made possible by activity of
carrier enzyme systems in the cell membrane.
 4. Core conductor - allows the cell membrane to propagate a
wave of excitation throughout its entirely.
5. Condenser - allows the cell membranes to store large amounts
of energy (in the form of ATP) within it - a properly important for
excitation process.
6. Rectifier - allows the cell membrane to go back to its original
state after being excited so that the cell once again become
excitable.
7. Resistor - refers to the resistance offered by the cell membrane
to the flow of substances across it - a properly that helps maintain
cellular integrity.
8. Receptor site - this is a specialized portion of some cells which
would serve as a basis for attachment for transmitter agents before
the cell can become excited.

Functions of cell membrane

1. Separate the inside of a cell from the outside environment.

2. Separate cell from one another
3. Separate the various parts within the cell
4. Provides an abundant surface on which chemical reactions occur
and,
5. Regulates the passage of materials into and out of cells and from
one part of a cell to another

A. Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm is the portion of the cell outside the nucleus.
Metabolic reactions take place here. It is divided into two:
a. An outer cytoplasm called ectoplasm which is homogenous, rigid
and non-granular and
b. An inner cytoplasm called endoplasm which is granular, and
which contains the contains the cytoplasmic organelles and
inclusions.
 It is a viscous fluid and heterogenous system consisting mostly of
water and is composed principally of CHON although other
elements such as CA, K, Na, and S are also present.
 The cytoplasm also contains many organic compounds such as
carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins
 Cell Structures

B. Protoplasm
Physically, the protoplasm is the lining living substances within
the cell composed of nuclear and cytoplasm. This is an aggregate
crystalloids and colloids. It is a fluid, viscid and transparent part of
the cell.
o Colloids and crystalloids are types of fluids for
replacement often intravenously (via tube straight into the
blood)
o Crystalloids - are aqueous solutions of mineral salts or
other water-soluble molecules.
o Colloids - contain danger insoluble molecules, such as
gelation, blood itself is a colloid.
 Chemically, composed of elements (96% - carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen and nitrogen and traces of CA, P, K, S, I, Na, CL, Mg, Cu,
Co, Mn, Zn, etc.) in organic compounds (water, salts, mineral, and
gases) and organic compounds (carbohydrates, proteins and lipids
and nucleic acids.)
 Endoplasmic Reticulum

Rough
Smooth ER - lack of ribosomes, concerned w/ fatty acids
synthesis, glycogenesis and glycogenolysis

1.2 Ribosome- small dense particles associated w/ Rough ER seat

of protein synthesis
1.3 Mitochondria – ovoid, granular, filaments or sausage-shape
bodies. Chief center of cellular respiration.
- (powerhouse of the cell)
1.4 Lysosome - membranous "bags containing powerful digestive enzymes;
abundant in white blood cells that phagocytose bacteria and potentially harmful
substance
- suicide bag; digestive bag; cellular garbage disposal
- capable of digesting worn-out or non-usable cell structures and foreign
substances that enter the cell.

1.5 Centrioles - paired rod-shaped bodies that lie at right angles to each other,
and they lie close to the nucleus
- during cell division, the centrioles direct the formation of the mitotic spindle

1.6 Microtubules- are tube-like structures similar to the tubular components of

the centriole and cilia
- maintenance of cell shape; a role in the movement of cilia; movement of
chromosomes during the anaphase stage, and movement of the component of
the cell.
1.7 Microfilaments - are organelles present in all cells but more highly
developed a muscle cell; there are two kinds - actin & myosin
- for muscular contraction, involved in cytoplasmic streaming; movement of
secretory materials w/ in the cell; responsible for the elasticity and viscosity of the
protoplasmic geL.

1.8 Peroxisomes - membranous sacs containing powerful oxidase enzymes that

use molecular oxygen to detoxify a number of harmful or poisonous substances
including formaldehyde and alcohol.
- these carry out metabolic reactions toon and destroy hydrogen peroxide which
is toxic to the cell.
- these are especially numerous in liver and kidney cells which are very active in
detoxification

1.9 Golgi complex - consisting of a stack of several membranous saccules w/

associated vacuoles and vesicles. This is believed to be the site for the
concentration of protein and polysaccharides. Also, a site for the completion of
the synthesis of carbohydrates.

2. Cytoplasmic inclusions - lifeless accumulation of the substances (ergastic

substances) and are dispensable parts of a cell.
1.) granules - zymogen. fat glycogen, protein granules
2.) pigments - carotenoids, hemoglobin, melanin.
 3.) crystals - solid inclusions rare in animal cells but more common in plant
cells.
Ex- calcium oxalate
4.) vacuoles-minute cavities having more fluid than the rest of the
cytoplasm and surrounded by a membrane called Tonoplast.
- There are more common and bigger in plant cells and are present in
protozoans but are very rare in animals.
-Functionally, plays an important role in maintaining cell turgidity, and in
some cells like protozoans, they are for digestion.

B. Nucleus
 the most conspicuous body in the cell surrounded by the
cytoplasm.
 considered as the “governing body” of the cell, and is bounded by a
double membrane complex
 Functionally, is the control center of the cell and is necessary for
cell reproduction. It is the site of the “genes" or genetic material
(DNA).

Parts of Nucleus
1.) Nuclear Membrane - doubled layer membrane surrounding the nucleus
which is continuous or with the ER membrane. Regulates entrance and exit of
substances into and out of the nucleus.
2.) Nucleoplasm (nuclear sap or karyolymph) – colorless fluid within the
nucleus, containing Chromatin granules/materials for building (DNA)
3.) Nucleolus – dark-containing, a spherical body in the nuclear sap believed to
be the center of protein and RNA synthesis
4. Chromatin - threadlike structures which condense and become chromosomes
during cell division; composed of proteins (Histone and non-histone) and nucleic
O acids (DNA and RNA)
-they are the active form of chromosomes.
-the DNA controls the formation of the enzymes b in the cell and thus
controls chemical reactions w/in the cell. Also controls cell division

III. Classification of cells

(2 main groups of cells in the body)
1.) somatic or body cells - cells that
a. connects body parts - fibroblast
b. cover and line' body organs – epithelial cells
c. moves organs and body parts - skeletal and smooth muscle cells
 d. stores nutrients - fat cells or adipocytes
e. fight disease - macrophage
f. gather information and control body functions -nerve cells or neurons

2.) sex cells or reproductive cells or gametes cells for the perpetuation of
life which the sperm cells and egg cells.

Additional Sir Rafil Discussions:

Cytoplasm

 minute organs
 undergone metabolic processes because of the organelles

Glycogenesis

 formation of glycogen from sugar

 contains sapharites
 monosaccharides to polysaccharides
 complex carbohydrate
o Fructose
o Glucose

Protein Synthesis – building blocks of protein / nucleic acids

Glycogenolysis – destroying attached sugar, mutrabaho sa smooth ER

Ribosomes – not all ribosomes attached from ER some are free and unattached

Mitochondria – source of energy / powerhouse of the cell

ATP / Adenosine – transport substances and out of triphosphate the cell across
the plasma membrane.

Active cells – oxytiocites – skeletal system

Phagocytes – harmful substances – it can destroy digest or dissolve foreign

particles, “bacteria” eating cells

Lysosomes – powerful enzymes; abundant with white blood cells

Lysozymes – composed powerful digestive enzymes, dissolve or digest bacteria.

 Tissue / Histology
At the end of the activity the students shall be able to:

1. Classify and characterize the epithelial tissues

2. Identify and describe the body parts composed of epithelial tissues and,

3. Appreciate the functions of the epithelial tissues

Epithelial Tissues
Characteristics:

1. Always occurs in sheets and composed of single or several layers of

epithelial cells.
2. Cells are closely packed tog
3. Scant intracellular substances or matrix between the cells.
4. Non-vascularized therefore, nourished by the lymph and by diffusion of
nutrients from the underlying connected tissues
5. Innervated or highly supplied with nerves

Classification: According to shape of component cells:

1. Squamous Epithelia – having flattened or spindle shaped cells.
2. Cuboidal Epithelia – having cube-like or square shaped cells.
3. Columnar Epithelia – having rectangular – shaped cells or the height
exceeds the width.

III- Classification: Basis of classifying epithelial tissues.

A. According to number of cellular layers:
1. Simple Epithelia – having single layer or cells.
2. Stratified Epithelia – having 2 or more layer of cells.

IV. Types of Epithelial tissues

A. Simple Squamous Epithelium is composed of a single layer of very flat
cells, the nucleus in each individual cell is dark and centrally located.
Found in the stratum corneum of the skin’s alveolar sacs of lungs,
Bowmans’s capsule of a nephron – kidney.
 SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM

TOP VIEW SIDE VIEW

B. Simple Columnar Epithelium has a tube of epithelial cells is tall and

slender. The nucleus of every cell is oval and located near the base. Found
in the inner lining of the intestine.

C. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium has a squarish or cubed shaped cells, some

are triangular. The nucleus of each is spherical or oval and large. The
cytoplasm is slight glandular. Found lining the kidney tubules.

SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM

D. Stratified Squamous Epithelium has several layers or epithelial cells with
squamous shaped cells in the outermost layer white the inner layers are made
up of different shapes of cells. Close to the basement membrane are cuboidal
or columnar shaped cells.

This is the most common stratified epithelium. Found in the Epithelium lining
of the human skin.

STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM

E. Stratified Columnar Epithelium has columnar cells in its superficial layer

and polyhedral cells in the basal layer. Found in lining the cavernous urethra,
anal mucous membrane and pharynx.

STRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM

F. Stratified Columnar Ciliated Epithelium has columnar cells in its superficial
and polyhedral cells in the basal layer but with cilia at the surface of
superficial cells. Found in the nasal surface of soft palate; larynx.

STRATIFIED COLUMNAR CILIATED EPITHELIUM

G. Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium is a type of epithelia tissue found mainly in

glands, which specialized in selective absorption and secretion by the gland
into blood or lymph vessels. It has several layers of cell with cube-like cells in
its superficial surface. The layer of squamous epithelial cell beneath are the
cuboidal cells replace damage cells as need to maintain the epithelial thing.
Found in sweat glands, parotid glands, and mammary glands.

STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM

 V. The Glandular Epithelium

Glandular Epithelium in a specialized epithelium for secretion hence

named as glands. A gland consists of one or more cells that make and
secrete a particular product called a secretion. Secretion is active process in
the glandular cells obtain the needed materials form the blood and use them to
make their secretion, which they then discharge.

A. Endocrine Glands
B. Excocrine Glands
a. Functional basic or according to the mechanism the secretions
are released:
1. Merocrine
2. Apocrine
3. Holocrine
b. Structural classification:
1. Unicellular glands (one-called)
2. Multicellular glands
2.1 According to the shape of secretory parts
2.1.1 Simple Glands
2.1.2 Compound Glands
2.1.3 Combination
2.2 According to the arrangement of the excretory
ducts:
2.2.1 Simple Glands
2.2.2 Compound Glands
c. According to the nature of secretions:
1. Mucous Glands
2. Serous Glands
3. Serous-mucous Glands

VI. Major Types of Glands develop from Epithelial Tissues:

A. Endocrine Glands – are ductless glands or glands without connection with
the surface. The secretion called hormones diffuse directly into the blood
stream. examples are thyroid glands, adrenal glands, and pituitary
glands.
B. Exocrine Glands are duct glands or glands having excretory passageway
of the secretions; transporting the secretions to the body cavities or the
body surface.
These have two parts: a. The secretory portion which consists of secreting
cells producing the secretion: b. The secretory passageway of the
secretions.
Examples are sweat glands, oil glands and mammary glands.

ENDOCRINE & EXOCRINE GLANDS

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
 IX. ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM RAFILT
IX. ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM

B. EXOCRINE GLANDS - are duct

glands or glands having excretory
passageway of the secretion,
transporting the secretions to the body
cavities or the body surface.
These have two parts:
a. The secretory portion which
consists of secreting cells producing
the secretion.
b. The excretory passageway of the
secretions.
Examples: Sweet glands, mammary glands and oil glands.

EXOCRINE GLANDS ARE FURTHER CLASSIFIED

a. According to the mechanisms the secretions are released or the functional basis of
classification:
1. MEROCRINE GLAND - are glands whose secretions exit the cell via exocytosis.
In this method of secretion, there is no cell damage. An example of merocrine
secretion is the eccrine sweat glands are simple coiled tubular glands present
throughout the body but most numerous in the roles of the feet.

CELLULAR MECHANISM OF SECRETION FOR CLASSIFICATION

2. APOCRINE GLANDS - are glands that form buds of the membrane which break
off into the duct, losing part of the cellular membrane in the process.

A well-known apocrine gland is the breast-milk producing mammary gland.

Apocrine sweat glands are branched glands.

The secretion apocrine sweat glands or odoriferous glands because of its

odorous or malodorous perspiration than the eccrine sweat glands. Found in the
axilla, perineum, labia majora, scrotum and prepuce.
3. HOLOCRINE GLANDS - are glands whose cellular membrane ruptures to
release its product into the duct. The entire secreting cells are dislodged to
become a part of secretion. Sebaceous glands are a representation of holocrine
secretion.

b. Structurally the exocrine glands are classified into:

1. Unicellular glands - are one-celled glands, and
2. Multicellular glands - are many-celled glands.

1. Goblet cells - are unicellular exocrine glands: so named for their shape, these
glands secrete mucus and found in the epithelial lining of the respiratory, urinary,
digestive, and reproductive system.

2. Multicellular glands - are further classified

2.1 according to the shape of secretory parts, glands are
2.1.1 Simple glands - have straight tubular, coiled tubular, acinar
or alveolar (flash-like)
2.1.2 Compound glands - can be tubular, acinar
2.1.3 Combination: tubulo-acinar
 C. According to the nature of recreations: The glands are either:

1. Muc
ous

glands - secrete a protein called mucin, which with water forms

the substance known as mucus, this slimy material serves to
lubricate the body, thus lessening friction and aiding locomotion in
swimming animals.
Sublingual glands are pure mucous glands,

Sublingual glands are pure mucous glands are: either:

Mucus is a normal, slippery and stingy fluid substance produced by many lining tissues
in the body.
It is an essential and moisturizing layer to keep critical order from dying out.
Mucus also acts as a trap for irritants like dust, smoke or bacteria.
 2. Serous glands -
secrete more liquid opalescent
fluid composed of water and
proteins, such as the digestive
enzyme amylase. Examples are
the parotid gland, exocrine cells
of the pancreas and gastric chief
cells.

3. Serous mucous
glands - are mixed glands
containing both the serous and
mucous secretory unit, Examples
are submandibular y and
pancreas.

Muscular Tissues

Objectives. At the end of the activity, the students shall be able to

1. Identity and characterize the muscle tissues.
2. locate the areas or parts of the body where these muscles are founds and
3. Appreciate the function of these muscle tissues

Outline of the topic

I. General Feature of Muscle Tissues
II. Types of Muscle Tissue
a. Skeletal Muscle tissue
b. Smooth Muscle tissue
c. Cardiac muscle tissue.

GENERAL FEAUTURES OF MUSCLE TISSUES

 The muscle tissues are sometimes called contractile tissues. It is though
the shortening and the cleaning of their contractile fibrillar components,
the myofibrils the muscular tissues perform mechanical work.
 The myofibrils are made up of even smaller thread like structures called
myofilaments which are composed of contractile protein, actin, myosin.
 MUSCLE TISSUE

There are three types of muscles based on their microscopic appearance,

nervous and location. There are the following:

1. Skeletal or striated - voluntary muscle attached to boners or skeleton.

2. Cardiac or striated - heart involuntary muscle composed or the heart
3. Visceral or smooth – involuntary, non-striated composed of the wall
the blood vessels and digestive tract.

A. SKELETAL OR SERIATED MUSCLE - Are made up of fibers, each fiber is

a single cell. A muscle fiber is long cylindrical multi-nucleated. (Nuclei are
elongated and lie at the periphery of the cell just beneath the sarcolemma -

- They are straited in both longitudinal and transverse direction.

- Having nerve supply or inner rated hence voluntary

SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE

 These striations depend on the fact that each fiber wrists each of disc that
alternate regularly along its length. these striations are due to the contractile
proteins (actin, myosin, and troponin)

 Alternating light (isotropic) and dark (anisotropic) bands along the length of the
perfectly aligned myofibrils give the muscle fibers whole it's striped appearance.

Skeletal Muscle Tissue

- The position of the dark band (anisotropic) of one adjacent myofibril is in

the center.

- The alternating with the dark bands is the light (isotropic) bands. The Fiber
is completely enclosed with structural membrane the sarcolemma and
inside the sarcolemma in the sarcoplasm.

- They are found attached to bones hence called Skeletal Muscle.

Sarcomeres are the actual contractile unit of muscle which extends from the
middle 1 band to the middle of the next along the length of myofibrils.
Visceral or Smooth muscle tissue

 The cells are spindle - shaped each with a centrally located nucleus. Each cell is
surrounded by a mass of fibers called myofibrils which do not appear striated and
are the contractile parts of muscle tissues.

 Spindle shaped cells with oral nucleus and centrally located.

 They are found the walls of the digestive tract such as stomach, intestines,
esophagus among others.

 As the mouth muscle contracts the cavity of an organ. alternately becomes

smaller (constricts unsmooth muscle contraction)
 or enlarge (dilates on smooth muscle relaxation) so that substances are
propelled through the organ along pathway.

 smooth muscle contract much more slowly than the other three types.
CARDIAC MUSCLE TISSUE

 The fibers have cross striation similar to the straited muscle tissue. The fibers are
branching up with one another appearing like a network of fibers with Antinous
material.

 the cardiac cells are uninucleate, relatively short, branching cells that tightly
together at junctions called in intercalated dishes

 The intercalated the fiber are transverse markings on the fiber are quite different
from the striation of the myofibrils.

 The intercalated dishs contain gap junctions that allows to pass freely from cell to
cell resulting in rapid conduction of the exciting electrical impulses across the
heart.

- In Voluntary Muscle Tissue

 - norming the walls of the heart as it contract the heart acts as a pump and
properly blood through the blood heart.

Nervous Tissue
Objectives:

At the end by the activity, the students shall be able to:

1. Describe the neuron as the structural and functional unit of nervous tissue;

2. Understand the structure, location, and functions of the glial or neuroglial cells.

3. Characterized the neuronal processes of the neuron, and

4. Appreciate the functions and physiologic properties of a neuron

5. Classify the neurons.

 Outline Of the Topic
I. Introduction

A. Neuroglial or glial cells

a) Ependymal cells
b) Astrocytes
c) Oligodendrocytes
d) Satellite cells
e) Schwann cells

B. Neuron or nerve cells

a) Soma or perikaryon or body

b) Neurites or neuronal processes; axon, and dendrites

C. Classification of neurons

Introduction
 Nervous tissue is conductile tissue capable of transmitting or conveying nerve
impulse or electrochemical impulses from one part of the body to another, thus
exhibit two physiologic properties of irritability and conductivity.
 Irritability is the ability of nervous tissue to respond to the changes of the
environment.
 Conductivity is the ability of the nervous to transmit or convey nerve impulses
from one part of the body to another.
 Structurally, nervous tissue is made up of just two principal cell populations:
neuron and supporting cells also called as neuroglia or glial cells.
The Neuroglial or glial cells are the supporting cells in the CNS include the
several cell type that serve the needs

1. By acting as phagocytes;

2. By protecting and myelinating the delicate neurons and,

3. By acting as selective barriers between the capillary blood supply and

neurons.

Types of Neuroglial or glial cells

A. Central Nervous System

A. Ependymal cells

B. Astrocytes

C. Microglia

D. Oligodendrocytes

B. Peripheral Nervous System

A. Satellite Cell

B. Schwann Cell

Types of Neuroglia
Ependymal Cells
 Ependymal cell is a type of neuroglial cell that forms the epithelial cells lining of
the ventricles (cavities) in the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord.
 Ependymal cells also gives rise to the epithelial layer that surrounds the choroid
plexus, a network of blood vessels located in the walls of the lateral ventricles
(the two largest ventricle, which occur as a pair in the cerebral hemisphere)
 Choroid plexus forms the cerebrospinal fluid of the CSF.

Central Canal of Spinal Cord

Astrocytes
 Astrocyte, star-shaped neuroglial cell that is found in the nervous system in both
invertebrates and vertebrates.

Astrocytes can be subdivided into:

1. Fibrous astrocytes

2. Protoplasmic Astrocytes

Fibrous astrocytes
 They are prevalent among
myelinated nerve fibers in the
white matter of the central
nervous system.
 The organelles seem in
neurons also are seen in
astrocytes, but they appear to
be much sparser.
 The fibrous astrocytes are
characterized by the presence
of numerous fibrils in their cytoplasm
  The main processes exit the cell in a radia direction (hence the name astrocyte,
meaning "star-shaped cell"), forming expansions and end feel at the surfaces of
vascular capillaries.

Protoplasmic astrocytes
 These cells occur in the gray matter of the central nervous system
 They have fewer fibrils within their cytoplasm and cytoplasmic organelles are
sparse, so that the soma or the body are shaped by surrounding neurons and
fibers.
 The processes of protoplasmic astrocytes also make the contact with capillaries.

Functions of astrocytes:
1. Physical and metabolic support for neurons

2. Detoxification (removal of poison/toxins)

3. Guidance during migration

4. Regulation of energy metabolism

5. Electrical insulation (for unmyelinated axons)

6. Transport of blood-borne materials to the neurons,

7. And the reaction injury.

Oligodendrocytes
  From Greek meaning cells with a few branches or oligodendroglia are a type of
neuroglia whose main functions are to provide support and insulation to axons in
the central nervous system.
 These are equivalent to the function performed by Schwann Cells in the
peripheral nervous system.
 Oligodendrocytes create the myelin sheath which is 80% lipid and 20% protein.

Microglia
 Microglial cells are small, the smallest of all
neuroglia. Their nuclei are typically oval-
shaped, and projecting from their cell bodies
are slender elongated processes that enable
the cells to move via chemotaxis (movement
along a chemical gradient)
 Microglia is known to mediate immune
response in the central nervous system by
acting as macrophages, clearing cellular
debris and dead neurons from nervous tissue
through the process of phagocytes (cell
eating)

Satellite cells
 Are small, flattened cells found in the ganglia of the peripheral nervous system.
The dorsal root, ganglia located on either side of the spinal cord contain the most
prominent satellite cell.

Schwann cells
  Also called as neurilemma
cell, are cells in the peripheral
nervous system that produce
the myelin sheath around
neuronal axis.
 The most important of the
supporting cell found in pros
which insulate nerve fibers.
 These cells are equivalent to a
type of oligodendrocytes which
occur in the central nervous
system
 Are important function of the Schwann cell is to myelinate the axons of the PNS.
 Myelin, which is a fatty layer that insulate the axon, helps to increase the
saltatory conduction of the neuron.
 A myelinating schwann cells wraps around a single axons.

Nerve Cells or Neurons

 Neurons are the structural and functional units of the nervous tissue. They are
specialized to transmit messages (nerve impulses) from one part of the body to
another. Neurons differ structurally, but they have many features in common.
 All neurons have a cell body from which slender process or fibers, or neurites
extend.
 Neuron cell bodies are typically found in the CNS in clusters called nuclei,
sometimes they reside in ganglia (clusters of neuron cell bodies outside the
CNS) they make up the gray matter of the nervous system.
 Neuron processes or neurites are running through the CNS form tracts of white
matter. In the PNS, they form the peripheral nerves.
 There are two neurites: axon and dendrites.
 These differ structurally and functionality.
 The neuron processes that conduct currents toward cell body are called
dendrites, and those carry impulses away from nerve cell body are called
axons.
 Neurons have only one axon (which may branch into collaterals) but may have
many dendrites, depending on the neuron type.

Classification of Neurons
A. Functional Classifications:

1. Afferent Neurons or sensory neurons

 are carrying impulses from the sensory receptors (internal organs and skin) to
the CNS whose cell bodies are always found in the ganglia outside the CNS.
 Sensory receptors are the distal ends dendrites that are activated by specific
changes occurring nearby
 Distal ends serves as dendrites.

2. Efferent Neurons or motor neurons

 are neurons carrying impulses from the CNS to the viscera and/or muscles
glands whose cell bodies are always located in the CNS.
 These terminates into the effector organs or structures are carried out (reflex act
or reflex)
 -multipolar

3. Association neuron or interneurons or internuncial neurons

 are neurons that connect the motor and sensory neurons in neural pathway
whose cells bodies are always located in the CNS.
B. Structural Classification (based in the number of the neuronal
processes extending from the cell body.)
1. Multipolar neurons

o are neurons having several dendrites with single neuron. All motor and
association neurons are multipolar neurons. The most common structural
type of neurons.

2. Bipolar neurons

o are neurons having an axon and dendrites.

o Rare in adults and are found only in some special sense organ (eyes,
nose)

3. Unipolar neurons

o are neurons are single process emerging from the cell body.
o Dendrites are small branches at the end of the axon; the rest of the parts
are axon.
o Sensory neurons found in PNS ganglia are unipolar.

According to the presence or absence of myelin sheath:

1. Myelinated or medullated nerve fibers have myelin sheath - white matter

2. non-myelinated or non-medullated nerve fibers are devoid of myelin sheath -

gray matter

Axolemma - specific name of plasma membrane.

Cells forms the myelin sheath - schwann cells

Neurilemma and sheath of Schwanns - outer layer of myelin sheath.

 Basic Differences Between Axon and Dendrites
Basis Axon Dendrite
Number per neuron Single Numerous
Unbranched except the
Presence of branches terminal end and collateral Highly branched
branches
Function Convey messages away Convey messages towards
from the soma or body the soma or body
Size and length Larger and longer Smaller and shorter

Receptors are sensory organs.

 Connective Tissue Proper
Objective:

At the end of the activity, the students shall be able identify to and characterize
the connective tissue proper.
 Identify and characterize the connective tissue proper

 Recognize the body parts composed of the connective tissue proper and,

 Appreciate the importance of the connective tissue proper in organ formation.

Outline of the Topic:

I: General Feature and Functions of the connective tissue 
II: CTP-connective tissue proper
III: CTP - connective fibers
IV: Embryonal connective tissue
V: Adult connective tissue

I. General Features of Connective Tissues:

1. Found in all parts of the body; it is abundant and widely distributed of the
tissue types.

2. Perform variety of functions but they primarily protect, support and bind
together other tissues of the body, repair of all body tissues.

3. Compose of cells, and extra cellular matrix.

4. The non-living. material between the cells, the Extracellular matrix is primarily
responsible for the strength associated with the connective tissue, but its
firmness and relative amount vary.

The matrix has two components:

a. ground substance is chiefly glycoprotein and large

polysaccharides, maybe liquid, gel issue, or very hard,
hard matrix as in bone and cartilage.

b. fibers which provide support include allogeneic or

collagenous (white fibers), elastic (yellow) fiber and
reticular (tine collagenic) fibers.
 5. The cells vary according to shape and functions. Among these are the
fibroblasts, plasma cells, mast cells, macrophages, pigment cells and blood cells.

6. They are grouped into three, namely connective tissue proper (embryonal
and adult connective tissues), supporting tissue (bone and cartilage) and
vascular tissue (blued)

Functions Of Connective Tissue

1. support and connect other tissues from the connective tissue health that
surrounds muscle cells, to the Tendons that attach muscles to bones, and to the
skeleton that "supports the positions of the body.

2. Protection is another major function of connective tissue in the form of fiber of

capsules and bones that protect dedicate organs and, of course, the skeletal
system

3. Specialized cells (macrophages) in connective tissue defend the body from

microorganisms that enter the body.

4. Transport liquid, nutrients, waste, and chemical messengers in ensured

by specialized liquid connective tissues, such as blood and lymph.

5. Adipose cells store surplus energy in the form of fat and contribute to the
thermal insulation of the body.

Terminologies:
Perimysium Achilles
Epimysium
Ligaments
Endomysium
Perichondrium aponeurosis
Periosteum
Tendons
Fibroblasts 
- are common and numerous and
prevent in all types of connective
tissues
- these are flat, large, and branching
with many processes.
- fiber, forming well and production of
ground substances.
- active during tissue injury and repair
forming fiber.
Plasma Cells
- are small, round or irregularly shaped cell
whose nucleus has chromatin materials
arranged like the "spoke of the wheel"
pattern,
- actual formers of circulating antibodies.

Mast

Cells/Mastocytes
-are large, polyhedral, or flattened cells with small nuclei,
-most numerous along blood vessel beds, -
- motile but slow-moving welly,
- contains granules rich in heparin (anticoagulant substance) and serotonin
(vasoconstrictor substance at the site of injury).
Macrophages or histiocytes.

- are regularly shaped cells with short processes and smaller nuclei, 
- are phagocytic cells in inflammatory conditions.

 Adipose cells or
adipocytes 
- are large, brilliant, spherical
cells,
-cytoplasm is reduced to a thin
membrane which surrounds a fat
droplet
- thickened in that part which
contains the flattened nucleus
with a central mass the
chromatin.
- signet ring appearance cell.
Excess fat is stored in lipocytes, which
expand in size until the fat in used for
fuel.

Reticular Cells

- Reticular cells is a type of

fibroblasts that synthesis
collagen and use it to
produce reticular fibers.

-The cells surround the

fibers with its cyptoplasma,
isolating it from other
tissues component and
cells.

- They are found in many

tissues including the spleen
lymph nucleus and lymph
nucleolus.
Mesenchymal Cells
 - stellate in shape with processes
 - Large nucles with clear nucleolus
 - with basophilic cyptoplasm 
 - Found along the walls of the blood vessels
 - Functionally: undifferentiated cells and multiple developmental potential.

Pigments Cells

- resemble the fibroblast but

whose cytoplasm contains
pigment granules that never
invade the nucleus.

- Epidermal melanocytes
found in common mole and
are responsible in the
manufacture of melanin
granules keratinocytes.

III. Component tissue Fiber

Collagenous or white fiber

- most common,
- consists of bundles of tine waves fibrils (fibrillae)
Which are cemented together:
- Fibers do not branch freely
- have an album inside protein, collagen, which yields collagenous or white
Fibers

Elastic or yellow fibers

- Homogeneous, straight and stretchable fibers,

and stretchable Fibers.
- Each fiber branches and anastomosis freely,
- compose of protein elastin

Reticular Fiber

- Are tine, vary branched and form network

which make them hard to distinguish.
- on boiling, yield reticulin
- Believed to be immature forms of white Fibers.
Mesenchyme

1. Mesenchyme is the first

connective tissue to develop in the
embryo, is the stem cell line from
which cell connective tissue are later
denied.

Clusters of mesenchymal cell are

scattered throughout adult tissue and
supply the cell needed for
replacement and repair after a
connective tissue injury.

The mesenchymal cell is a multi

potent adult stem well. These cells
can differentiate into any type of
connective tissue cells needed for repair and healing of damaged tissue.

Mucous connective tissue

2. Mucous connective tissue or

Wharton’s jelly is the second type of
Embryonic connective tissue forms in
the umbilical cord. This tissue is no
longer present after birth, leaving only
scattered mesenchymal Cells
throughout the body

The distinctive cells are primitive

fibroblasts which may be spindle
shaped or stellate cells.

Adaptive/Adipose Tissue

Characteristics:
1. Contains predominantly fat cells,
many fibroblasts, macrophages and
mast cells.

2. These forms protective pads, around

the kidney and various of their
structures.
3. It also constitute a storage as an insulating material to consent body heat

Dense fibrous tissue

Characteristics:

1. Contains predominantly Collagenous

Fibers and closely arrange side by side
in parallel bundles. 

2. This is a silvery white, strong and

tough yet perfecting pliant, sparingly
supplied with nerves and blood vessels

3. It is a part of the supporting

framework of the body like, tendons,
ligaments, aponeurosis, membranes
and tissue.

Reticular Tissue

Characteristics:

1. Forms a network of slender,

branching reticular Fibers, with
reticular cells overlaying them.

2. Branches of cyptoplasm of
reticular cells form a framework
of the spleen, lymph, nodes,
and bone.

3. It functions as part of the

body's complex immune
mechanism by filtering injuries
substances out of the blood and
lymph and reticular cells and
other certain kinds of cells
phagocytose them.

Areolar Connective Tissue

 1. The most widely distributed tissue
variety in the body

2. It is soft, pliable, "cobwebby", tissue

that cushions and protects the body
organs it wraps;

3. Its fluid matrix contains all types of

fibers which form a loose network

4. It functions as a universal packing

tissue and connective tissue "glue"
because it helps to hold the internal
organs together and in their proper
positions.

5. All types of cells and fibers exist with

fibroblasts and Collagenous Fibers predominating. 

Supportive Tissue

Bone Tissue and Cartilage Tissue

I. Bone Tissue
A. Characteristics of Bone Tissue
B. Types of Bone Tissue
1. Compact bone; Osteon, Lamellae
2. Spongy Bone
C. Type of Bone Cells
II. Cartilage Tissue
A. Characteristics
B. Types
1. Hyaline Cartilage
2. Elastic Cartilage
3. Fibro-Cartilage
4.
III. Summary: Basic differences between bone tissue and Cartilage Tissue

I. Bone Tissue (Osseous Tissue)

A. Characteristics of Bone Tissue
 1. Hard specialized connective tissue calcified collagenous extracellular
substance
2. Highly vascularized and provided with blood vessels, nerves, and
lymphatic vessels.
3. Serve as a supporting structure of man hence, called the
skeleton/framework of the body.
4. hardness and rigidity of bone is due to the presence
of mineral salt in the osteoid matrix, which is to crystalline complex of
calcium and phosphate
(Hydroxyapatite)
5. Calcified bone contains about 25% organic matrix (2-5% of which are
cells), 5% water and 70% inorganic mineral (Hydroxyapatite)
6. Organic component of the bone tissue is mainly
collagen called ossein.
7. Bones are organs, although they consist primarily of
osseous tissue in their nerves, fibrous tissue lining their cavities, and
muscles and epithelial tissue
in their blood vessels.
8. Serve as the storage of calcium, a leverage of
locomotion and for muscle attachment
9. astrocytes are the mature bone cells; lodged
within the lacunae (arranged circularly around the Haversian canal)

10. periosteum is the outer covering of bone tissue

B. Types of Bone Tissue

1. Compact or dense bone tissue forms the hard external layer of all
bones and surrounds the medullary cavity, or bone marrow cavity
- provides protection and strength to bones
- compact bone tissue consists of units called osteons or Haversian
systems.

2. Spongy bone tissue or cancellous bone forms

- the inner layer of all bone.
- Spongy bone tissue does not contain osteons that constitute compact
bone tissue.

Instead, it consists of trabeculae, which are lamellae that are arranged as

rods or plates
- Spongy bone reduces the density of bone and allows the ends of long
bones to compress as the result of stresses applied to the bones
- Spongy bone is prominent in areas of bones that are not heavily
stressed or where stresses arrive from many directions.
-The epiphyses o extremities of long bones such as the neck of the
femur, are subject to stress from many directions
 - Red bone marrow is found between the trabeculae of the spongy bone
tissue
- Blood vessels within this tissue deliver nutrients to osteocytes and
remove waste.
- The red bone marrow of the femur and the interior of other large
bones, such as the pelvic bone (ilium, ischium and pubis). forms blood
cells.

What is an Osteon?

- smallest unit of a bone tissue

- cylindrical structures that contain a mineral matrix and living osteocytes
connected by canaliculi, which transport blood. They are aligned parallel to the
Iong axis of the bone
 - An osteon or Haversian canal system is no composed concentric lamella
surrounding the Haversian canal.

Parts of an Osteon
- The Haversian Canal System is the center of the innermost concentric lamellae
and contains the bones blood vessels and nerve fibers. The osteocytes and a
system of tiny tubules called canaliculi.
- Concentric lamellae are in the form of rings with the largest enclosing a second
smaller - and the second enclosing the third.
- Every tiny-like substance is called concentric lamellae (4-20 in a system)
- In the margin between 2 consecutive concentric lamellae are tiny spaces called
lacunae and are lodged in the bone cell called osteocytes

The Lamellae
1. Periosteal lamellae is outer circumferential
lamellae - forming the outermost layer lying
parallel to and beneath the periosteum.
2. Concentric lamellae - bone matrix forming rings around the Haversian canal
3. Interstitial lamellae bony matrix between Haversian system.
4. Endosteal lamellae - innermost layer lining parallel and inner to the end
osteum.

C. Bone cells
Bone consists of four types of cells:
1. osteoblasts matrix synthesizing cell responsible for bone growth
found at the edge of the bone.
2. osteoclasts - Bone resorbing cells.
3. osteocytes mature bone cell that maintains the bone matrix within
lacunae
4. osteoprogenitor or Osteogenic cells, stem cell

1.) Osteoblast - bone cells that are responsible for bone formation.
- Synthesize and secrete the organic part and inorganic - part of the
extracellular matrix of bone tissue, and collagen fibers.
- become trapped in these secretions and differentiate into less active
osteocytes.
2.) Osteoclast – are larger bone cells with up to 50 nuclei.
- are large multinucleated bone cells which absorb bone tissue during
growth and healing
- are multinucleated cells that contain numerous mitochondria and
lysosomes
- they remove bone structure releasing lysosomal enzymes and acids that
dissolve the bony matrix.
- bone may also reabsorbed for remodeling, if the applied stresses have
changed.
 - bone resorption is resorption of bone tissue, that is the process by which
osteoclasts break down the tissue in bones and release the mineral, resulting in
a transfer of calcium from bone tissue to the blood.
3.) Osteocytes- mature bone cells and are the main cells in bony connective
tissues; these cells cannot divide.
- maintain normal bone structure by recycling the mineral salts in the bony
matrix.
4.) Osteo progenitor or osteogenic cells- squamous
stem cells that divide 'to produce daughter
cells that differentiate into osteoblasts.
- are important in the repair of fractures.

CARTILAGE TISSUE

Characteristics of Cartilage tissue:

1. Firm, tough, and flexible

2. Chondrocytes are the mature cartilage cells; lodge inside the lacunae and are
scattered.
3. The ground substance is semi-rigid and contains a proteins – carbohydrates
complex called
4. No blood and nerve supplies
5. Nourishment is by seepage through matrix from the perichondrium (the outer
covering of cartilages).
6. Component fiber may be collagenous or elastic

A. Hyaline Cartilage
 The cells (chondrocytes)
are usually spherical.
Cytoplasm is highly
vasculated with one or more
nuclei.

 The body of the cartilage cell

fills the cavity (lacuna) which
occupies in the interstitial
substance. The cells are
believed to elaborate matrix.

 The matrix is semi-

transparent and has
opalescent bluish tint.
 The connective tissue
envelops that form the outermost covering of the cartilage is known as the
perichondrium. It is through the perichondrium that the cartilage cells dense its
nutritions. Costal cartilage connects the ribs to the sternum.

 Found in nose, trachea, or bronchi.

B. Elastic Cartilage

 Elastic Cartilage is more or

less similar to the first
except that the extracellular
substance is penetrated by
elastic fibers in all
directions.

 The fiber forms network

which is often dense and
are continuous with that of
the perichondrium.

 This type of cartilage is

abundant in the external
ear, wall of the eustachian tube and epiglottis larynx.
C. Fibro Cartilage

 The matrix is pervaded with

weary collagenous fibers
forming bundles between
which are scattered
cartilage cells which lie in
rows.

 Found in the intervertebral

disc that forms a strong
flexible material connecting
between bones. Fibrous
cartilage

BASIS BONE CARTILAGE

Bone is strong and

Cartilage is flexible
Flexibility nonflexible connective
connective tissue.
tissue.

It has hard matrix made of

Components of ground Matrix is made of proteins
proteins, calcium, and
substances and sugars.
phosphorus.
 It cannot bend It can bend

Vascularization Blood vessels are present Blood vessels are absent

Canaliculi connections Canaliculi connections

Presence and absence of
are between bone cells, are absent between
Canaliculi
osteocytes. chondrocytes.
It provides support and
It provides shape and
flexibility to the body and
Functions skeletal support to the
also smoothen bone
body
surface at joints.

Location It forms skeleton It is found in nose, ear.

 Introduction of Skeletal System
Osteology

 The study of the structure, formation and functions of the bones of the body.

Functions: rigid framework of the body protection to the visceral organs site of
muscle attachment internal support of the body storage of CA and K blood cell
formation.

Regional Classification
Axial Skeleton – longitudinal axis of the body includes 80 bones.

Cranial bones – 8 Facial bones – 14

Ear Ossicle – 6 Hydroid bones – 1

Vertebrae – 26 Ribs – 24

Sternum – 1

Appendicular Skeleton – forms the upper and lower limbs or extremities attach
to the axial skeleton includes 126 bones.

Upper Extremities

Humerus – 2 Radius – 2

Ulna – 2 Carpals – 16

Metacarpals – 10 Phalangea – 28

Clavicle – 2 Scapula – 2

Classification of Bones
1. According to shape
2. According to histologic texture
3. According to development
According to shape:

1. Long bones

 Are boner whose length is greater than its width.

 The most obvious long bones are the bones in the arm and legs.
 A typical long bone has three parts are diaphysis, medullary cavity and epiphysis
 Diaphysis or shaft is a strong bone of compact bone with a hallow space in the
center.
 Medullary cavity is the space inside the shaft and filled yellow bone marrow
 Epiphyses are the ends of or extremities of a long and consists of an outer
compact and an inner spongy portion.

2. Miniature long bones

 are relatively shorter than long bones

 Devoid of medullary cavity
 Are represented by the ribs, clavicle, and phalanges.

3. Short bones

 are having the same dimensional in length, width, and thickness but they are
shaped irregularly.
 Are cubical in shape and consist of spongy bone covered with compact bone
 Represented by carpus, and tarsus.

4. Flat bones

 Are relatively thin or curved more often than they are flat.
 Are compose of two plates of compact bones with a layer of spongy bone
between them
 Include the ribs, scapulae, sternum, and bone of the cranium

5. Irregular bones

 have no particular shape

 Include the vertebrae, jaw bone, hip bones and many facial bones

According to the histologic texture:

1. Compact bone or dense bone

 is dense and looks smooth and homogenous

  Appears as a continuous hard mass with minute space and can be seen only
under the microscope
 Fewer spaces and found only at the extent.

2. Spongy bone or cancellous bone

 is compose of small needle-like pieces of bone called trabeculae.

 Lots of open spaces which are filled up with bone marrow
 Bigger cavities and are found interior of a bone tissue

According to developmental origin:

1. Membrane

 Develop directly from the mesenchyme of the embryo forming a membrane

(intramembranous ossification)
 Ossification - process of bone formation
 Represented by the flat bones of the skull

2. Cartilage

 Develops from mesenchyme passing through a performed hyaline cartilage

model (endochondral ossification)
 Represented by long bones