UNIT 4

Based on Complete 20th Century History for Cambridge IGCSE®

Background information
In 1941, the last great empire of the last century joined forces with the emerging empires of the new century. However,
the alliance between Great Britain, US, and Soviet Union was not to last much beyond the defeat of Germany in May 1945.

By end of 1949, Europe was divided into two blocs: Soviet (oppression and regulations)/US (close relations) → US-friendly
countries were in NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation)

The division of Europe was symbolised by the fate of Germany after WW2. Initially carved into 4 zones of occupation, with
Berlin in the Soviet zone but similarly divided up, the failure of Stalin’s plans to unite Berlin led to the unification of the 3
Western zones and the formal creation of West and East Germany.

Both sides blamed each other for the breakdown in relations. The US believed that the Soviets with the dictatorial ruling of
Stalin was trying to spread communism across Europe, and probably beyond. Stalin insisted his actions were done with the
sole purpose of Soviets’ own security after a conflict which had caused enormous damage to their population and
landscape.

Stalin was suspicious of the US as he regarded their policies as attempts to build a global economic empire, with the US at
the centre, therefore, tried to protect the Soviets’ interest and security.

Why did the USA-USSR alliance begin to break down in 1945?

1. Ideological differences

US
(i) Democracy:
- Free and multi-party elections
- People could hold any religious/political beliefs
- Freedom of speech
- Rights laid out and protected by a written constitution
(ii) Economy:
- Capitalist

USSR
(i) Communism
- One-party rule
- No political opposition allowed
- Despite the formation of constitution in 1936, citizens had few rights
- Millions of innocent people were persecuted during the 1930s
- Religious beliefs not tolerated
(ii) Economy
- Controlled by the state
- Subjected to long-term central planning

After the Communists gained power in Russia in Oct 1917, western powers (USA & Britain) intervened the Russian Civil War
against the communists → led to the building-up of Soviet fear of the West capitalists

During the 1930s, Stalin believed that the Britain and France were happy for Hitler to expand in the East → led Stalin to
seek a defensive alliance with Germany in Aug 1939 called the Nazi-Soviet Pact

For their part, western political leaders were suspicious for the Soviets for two reasons:
1. Feared that the communists shared the ambitions the Russian Tsars who had preceded them and wanted to
expand into central Europe and the Eastern Mediterranean
2. Senior communists had talked about need for worldwide revolution, increasing the likelihood of a conflict
between communism and capitalism in the future
 These tensions contributed to an uneasy relationship during the WW2

2. Wartime disagreements

After the USSR was invaded by Germany in June 1941, the public was presented with a positive image of relations between
the USA, Britain, and the USSR. → common goal of defeating the Nazism and the terrible conditions the Russians endured
in the Eastern front

The allies cooperated with each other during the war

- Britain: Sent merchant ships across the Baltic to supply USSR with war-time materials
- USA: Agreed to extend Lend-Lease programme to the Soviet Union (Programme to lend/lease/sell military
equipments to countries fighting Germany/Italy/Japan)

President Roosevelt, Stalin, and Winston Churchill met for the first time at Tehran in Nov 1943, where they agreed on the
date for the invasion of France.

Despite this, the tension between the Western and Eastern allies were ever-present
- Stalin: Obsessive secrecy = avoided to share battle plans with Britain and the USA
- Churchill: Did not share the Enigma codes with the USSR
- British & US pilots: Flew supplies and aircraft to the USSR and often complained of distrust from the Soviets. They
were given money to spend, yet were prohibited to move freely around the port

At a political level, suspicions about the conduct of their allies were voiced in Whitewall, Washington, and Moscow.

Attitude towards Germany and the post-war world

By the end of 1944, two things were obvious:
1. Allies were going to win the War
2. Soviet Union was going to play a much greater role in world affairs

In Oct 1944, Churchill met Stalin to discuss post-war “spheres of influence”, where the two leaders agreed to assign their
respective influences in south-eastern Europe.

The big 3 (Stalin, Churchill, Roosevelt) met to discuss the nature of post-war world

1. First meeting (Feb Yalta 1945)

ISSUE AGREEMENT

What to do with Germany after it was defeated
-Only unconditional surrender would be acceptable
-There was to be no separate peace
-Germany (and its capital Berlin) would be temporarily
divided into 4 occupation zones
-Germany’s eastern border would be moved westwards
-Reparations would be payments in kind, a total $20 billion
to be paid,

Establishment of the UN -Initially it was to consist of all the states at war with
Germany
-The Security Council would consist of five permanent
members, each with a power of veto
-Arrangements were made to convene the UN held in San
Francisco, June 1945

Getting the USSR to enter the war against Japan -Stalin agreed to intervene the war against Japan after
Germany was defeated
-In return, the USSR was given territory lost to Japan
during the 1904-5 Russo-Japanese War, and Outer
 Mongolia and Manchuria would be Soviet spheres of
influence

The future of Poland -A provisional government would be established

incorporating members of the pro-Soviet “Lublin”
government, and the exiled “London” Poles, who fled
from the German and Soviet armies in 1939
-Free and fair multi-party elections would be held as soon
as possible

Some believe that Yalta conference was a good example of wartime cooperation, while others believe that it had marked
the beginning of the wartime alliance

What changed between the Yalta (Feb 1945) conference and the Potsdam (July 1945) conference?

The big 3 met again in Potsdam in July 1945, two months after Germany's unconditional surrender. Developments in
eastern Europe and changes in personnel ensured that the meeting in Potsdam was very different from that of Yalta.

On the eve of the conference, Truman informed Stalin that the USA had successfully tested an atomic weapon. The USA and
Britain had kept their plans on development of atomic weapons secret during the war. → Stalin already knew it as Soviet
agents from Manhattan project/British intelligence had already provided him with much information = building distrust

Changes in..
(i) USA
- Roosevelt had died and been replaced by Harry S. Truman
- He was inexperienced in dealing with international affairs and believed that Stalin should keep to the agreements
at Yalta
(ii) Britain
- Winston Churchill was replaced by Clement Attlee after his defeat in the election
(iii) USSR
- Liberated Eastern Europe and was starting to install sympathetic governments, while targeting political opponents
- No free elections had so far been held in any of these countries
- No change really, Stalin was still a leader and was determined to look after interests of the USSR
- Top priorities: Get reparations out of Germany, make sure they will not be invaded through eastern Europe
 Potsdam conference deteriorated in relations between the Allies

Agreements Disagreements

The Polish/German border was to be settled at the Did not agree over the future government of Poland and
Oder-Neisse line the Soviet-controlled government at lublin continued to
run the country

Germany would be denazified and war crimes trials were They disagreed over the future of Germany. Stalin wanted
to be held in Germany and Japan to dismember Germany, and prevent it developing its own
industry

Germany would be governed by an Allied Control Council The USSR wanted access to Germany’s industrial heartland
in Berlin where each decision required a unanimous in Ruhr. This was rejected
verdict and the country would be treated as a single
economic unit

Each country was allowed to take reparations from its own Stalin wanted to gain a foothold in Japan, a demand that
zone of occupation. The USSR could also take some Truman rejected
equipment from the industrialised western zones.

The Council of Foreign Ministers (CFM) would be

established to deal with the defeated European countries

As Germany was defeated, the focus shifted to reconstruction of the war-damaged countries.

In Eastern zone, Soviets collected reparations to rebuild themselves. However, the USA and Britain believed that production
from the factories in their zones should be traded for agricultural products in the Soviet zone. The Soviets disagreed, and
the US had to pay for food imports themselves and Britain had to introduce bread rationing at home in 1946 to export
wheat to Germany.

In May 1946, the commander of the American zone, General Clay, stopped the delivery of reparations to the Soviets, and
two months later merged the American and Britain zones into a single economic unit called ‘Bizona’

Divisions emerged in how the four occupying powers approached the political structure of their respective zones. While the
Soviets merged the Social Democratic and Communist parties into the Socialist Unity Party, in the western zones a
multi-party system emerged which represented the respective political traditions of the USA, France, and Britain.

How had the USSR gained control of Eastern Europe by 1948?

Stalin had intended to create “spheres of influence” in eastern and central Europe for some time. Indeed, his dealings with
Roosevelt and Churchill had convinced him that this would be acceptable to the Western powers.

By the end of 1948, the extent of Soviet control in eastern Europe stretched, and the western observers thought that Stalin
had ambitions to extend his influence into the Mediterranean and beyond.

However, Soviet control over eastern Europe was not achieved immediately and Stalin used a variety of methods to assert
his influence.
Elsewhere, Stalin was prepared to grant nearby countries more freedom..

(i) Finland
- USSR retained control over Finland’s foreign policy, yet gave up control over domestic policy
(ii) Yugoslavia
- Tito established a communist state with close ties to the Soviet Union, but which wasn’t controlled by it

Between June 1945 - Aug 1946, he put continued pressure on the Turkish government to give the Soviet Union a naval base
on the Dardanelles, a narrow strait linking the Mediterranean and the Black sea. → This had been a long-standing goal of
the Russian Tsars since the end of the Crimean War in 1856.

When Stalin knew that Truman was trying to support the Turkish government’s opposition to his proposal he backed down.

How did the USA react to Soviet expansionism?

→ US had no real interest in the area taken over by the USSR, yet they soon started to compare Stalin’s actions to Nazi
aggression in the 1930s and 1940s

1. Early uncertainty

Truman’s initial response to situation in Europe was confused and uncertain:

- Dismissed his Commerce Secretary Henry Wallace for arguing that the USA must build bridges with the USSR
- However, he also locked away a secret report recommending a tougher stance towards the USSR

However, two contributions to the debate over future American policy towards Europe and the USSR had a significant
impact on the President and provided him with a clearer sense of direction:
- First contribution came from “long telegram”, written by George Kennan, an American diplomat based in Moscow
and an expert on Soviet policy → Provided Truman with an invaluable insight into Soviet attitudes after the WW2
and provided guidance on how to manage the problem
The following month, Truman listened to former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill deliver a powerful case for
greater American intervention in European affairs. His “Iron curtain” speech stated that with the absence of firm action the
whole of Europe could be in danger.

Development of the “containment” doctrine

In March 1947, Britain announced that they could no longer afford to sustain its support for the Greek government in the
civil war with the communists. Therefore, in order to prevent Greece and probably Turkey from going into the communist
hands, the USA had to act quickly.

Also, in France and Italy the communist parties sponsored by Moscow came into power with the economic hardship after
the war, and the failure of the coalition government to deal with the situation made communists taking over more likely.

Therefore, Truman introduced a policy of containment which consisted two elements:

1. Truman doctrine
- Helping any country threatened by totalitarian aggression
2. Marshall aid
- Creation of European recovery programme

(i) Truman doctrine

- In March 1947, Truman persuaded the congress to provide $400 million in aid for Greece, claiming that the world
is divided between the free and the oppressors, so that he will help to defend those who want freedom.
(ii) The European Recovery Programme (Marshall Aid)
- Announced by George Marshall (Secretary of state) in June 1947 at Harvard University. The aims were to stabilise
the growth of communism in European democracies. 16 countries accepted the aid and it would also be applied
to the western zones in Germany.
- Lasted 4 years and provided $13.3 billion. By doing this, Marshall was hoping to create stronger markets for US
exports. Stalin refused to allow Soviet bloc states to participate.

Stalin’s response
Stalin did not really care about the Truman doctrine, yet he hated the Marshall aid as he thought it would lead to a creation
of US-dominated capitalist alliance directed against the USSR, making it difficult to spread communism. In response, Stalin
convened a conference of the Communist party leaders in Sept 1947, establishing COMINFORM to maintain the unity of
assembled nations under Moscow’s control. Stalin also used this as an opportunity to tighten his control over
Czechoslovakia.

What were the consequences of the Berlin Blockade?

The issue on the future of Germany was the toughest issue the allies faced. Even so, broad agreements were made.

→ However, by the end of Potsdam conference, divisions over future of GGermany started to push the allies apart
The blockade
Stalin’s responses to the introduction of new currency:
- Blockading West Berlin, blocking all traffic moving west to east.
- He increased pressure on the city by turning off all gas and electricity supplies
→ By doing these, he hoped he could force the other three powers out of Berlin and remove an awkward symbol of
western life from his zone

According to the declassified CIA reports, Truman was fully aware of Stalin’s desire to drive the 3 powers out of Berlin, yet
was not certain how to respond as doing nothing will make his doctrine an empty threat and using armed forces will be too
provocative.

Britain, US, and France decided to supply city’s inhabitants via a huge airlift (Operation Vittles)
- Lasted 11 months
- 300,000 flights
- Coal, food, petrol and etc were sent to west Germany
- 65 of German, British, American lives were taken
→ Soviets did not fire directly on the aircraft, yet they jammed the radios and shined searchlights on the pilots to blind
them

Stalin lifted the blockade in May 1949, having failed his goal of uniting the city under Soviet control.

The consequences of the blockade

- The crisis resulted in breakdown in relations between superpowers and established a political, military, and
territorial division of Europe.
- In April 1949, USA joined the NATO and other eleven states including Britain and France joined in 1949
- The western powers had encouraged political activity in their zones since elections were held to elect a mayor for
Berlin in June 1947. Former communist Reuter won the election (he was a strong critic of the Soviet Union).
Creation of a new constitution for the country started the following year.
- In May 1949, the formal political unification of the western zones took place with the creation of the Federal
Republic of Germany (West Germany), with the Basic Law providing the basis of the new country’s constitution.
The first national elections took place in Aug 1949 and Konrad Adenauer, leader of the right-wing Christain
Democrats, became the first chancellor of West Germany. Although he had control over domestic policy, the
occupying powers still controlled West GGermany’s foreign policy until 1951, when the West German Foreign
Office was created.
- West Berlin was not a part of West Germany, and British, French, and American forces remained there to defend
the city from future attack from the east
- The Soviets reacted by creating a German Democratic Republic in East Germany, based on the people’s council
formed in 1948 in the Soviet zone. All positions in the new state were in the hands of the communist Socialist
Unity Party (SED).
- East Berlin was part of East Germany, and became the country’s capital
- The USSR did not immediately create a military alliance to mirror NATO, yet it tightened its control over its
satellite states. → 1947 COMINFORM (coordinate the activities of European communist parties) / 1949
COMECON (mutual economic assistance) = direct national economies of the Soviet bloc

→ Although the Berlin blockade had shown the West’s vulnerability to Soviet aggression in east Berlin, the conclusion of
the crisis arguably stabilised the situation regarding Germany’s position in Europe. However, 2 factors threatened this.
1. Pre-1950, the priority of the USA was to develop better relations between western European states, and
supported the development of the ECSC. Wary of French opposition to german rearmament US secretary
Of State, Dean Ascheson believed that dispute over German unification could scupper the ECSC.
2. In May 1955, West Germany joined NATo on the condition that it possessed no biological, chemical, or atomic
weapons, whilst Great Britain and the US wanted to maintain forces in West Germany. Shortly after this the USA,
France and Britain formally ended their post-war military occupation of Germany.

The Warsaw pact

- On 14 May 1955, 8 communist states agreed in Poland to unify their armed forces under a central command.
- This was a direct response to the rearmament of West Germany, and its incorporation into NATO.
- USSR was also able to place the organisation of its satellite states military forces on a more organised footing.
- Strengthened its forces across eastern Europe, and also provided a further mechanism to keep the eastern bloc
countries in line.

In what ways was Stalin to blame?

Communist ideology was expansionist & universal = USSR could not co-exist with capitalism and therefore intended to
impose its own system of government throughout the world
How can Stalin’s role in the Cold War be defended?
Some argue that Soviet security concerns at the end of the war were the biggest influence on its policy towards eastern
Europe and its former wartime allies. These concerns stemmed from historical fears about invasion from the west after
Russian Civil War and Stalin’s belief that France and Britain allowed Nazi to expand eastwards during the late 1930s. These
fears increased as a result of allied policy during the war for following reasons: