GEOMETRIC 

DESIGN OF TRANSPORT INFRASTUCTURE 315 – GTD711S

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURES 315 –
GDT 711S

NATURAL PHENOMENA AT THE SEA AND OCEAN

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRANSPORT INFRASTUCTURE 315 – GTD711S

SEA NATURAL PHENOMENA
• Natural phenomena are events that happen as a results of the forces of nature
• Natural phenomena that occur in the sea, tend to have effects on the coastal areas
and hence, they affect the planning, design and operations of the port
• These phenomena cause sea disturbances and the important once to the
harbour/port engineer are;
– The Winds
– The Tides
– The Tsunamis
• These disturbances are a result of the dynamic interaction of the earth spheres
• All of these cause waves on the surface of the water body

Geometric Design of Transportation Infrastructures 315 – GDT 711S 2

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRANSPORT INFRASTUCTURE 315 – GTD711S

BRIEF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE EARTH
• The earth (or the globe) consists of three zones or spheres
• These zones are in a state of dynamic equilibrium;
1. Lithosphere
• The land part of the earth or the solid outer part of the earth
2. Hydrosphere
• The part of the earth covered by the body of liquid water
3. Atmosphere
• The envelope of gases, which covers both, the lithosphere and the hydrosphere

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRANSPORT INFRASTUCTURE 315 – GTD711S

LITHOSPHERE

G.
ATMOSPHERE

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRANSPORT INFRASTUCTURE 315 – GTD711S

WIND
• This is a meteorological phenomenon, which occurs within the troposphere
zone (lowest zone of the atmosphere)
• It causes the movement of air in a specific direction and blowing in a
horizontal direction, parallel to the surface of the earth
• In harbour and port engineering, the effects of wind blowing is important in
two aspects;
The force it exerts when it blows against an object in its path
The disturbance it creates when it blows over the surface of the ocean
• This disturbance is normally proportional to its speed and appears in the form of waves
• The formation of sea waves takes place in the open sea as a result of the 
action of the wind

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRANSPORT INFRASTUCTURE 315 – GTD711S

WIND
• Sea waves are of two types;
–Oscillatory waves
These are stationary waves (cause stationary water particles)

–Translational waves
These possess forward movement (cause water particles to move in the
direction of the waves)
They start as oscillatory waves and change as they approach the shoreline
They are the main concern of the port and harbour engineer

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRANSPORT INFRASTUCTURE 315 – GTD711S

THE THREE TYPES OF HARBOURS

Geometric Design of Transportation Infrastructures 315 – GDT 711S 7

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRANSPORT INFRASTUCTURE 315 – GTD711S

ANATAMY OF A WAVE

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRANSPORT INFRASTUCTURE 315 – GTD711S

TIDES
• This is the rise and fall of sea levels, which also result in currents
• Tidal heights and currents have a significant effect on navigation
• They are a coastal phenomenon (as they are easier to observe where the land and water
meet, but they exist everywhere)
• Tides are caused by combined effects of three processes;
– Gravitational pull of the moon
– Gravitational attraction of the sun
– Centrifugal force of the rotating earth
• The earth and the moon spin as pair around a common point (called a Barycentre)
– The earth orbits the sun once every year
– The moon orbits the earth approximately every 29 1/2 days (the Lunar month)

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRANSPORT INFRASTUCTURE 315 – GTD711S

ANATAMY OF A WAVE

MOON

EARTH

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRANSPORT INFRASTUCTURE 315 – GTD711S

ANATAMY OF A WAVE

MOON

EARTH

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRANSPORT INFRASTUCTURE 315 – GTD711S

SPRING TIDES AND NEAP TIDES
• Tidal ranges vary by day, by month as well as by year
• There are two periods during the month when the positions of the three 
bodies (the earth, the moon and the sun) are of interest
• At a time when their positions form a straight line
–This occurs during the new moon and the full moon
–During this time the gravitational effects of the sun and the moon become 
additive
–The resulting tides rise higher and fall lower than at other times
–These tides are called SPRING TIDES

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRANSPORT INFRASTUCTURE 315 – GTD711S

EARTH – MOON – SUN POSITIONS FOR SPRING TIDES

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRANSPORT INFRASTUCTURE 315 – GTD711S

EARTH – MOON – SUN POSITIONS FOR SPRING TIDES

• At a time when their positions form a right angle (90o)
– This occurs when the moon is in the first and third quarters
– This is half way between the new moon and the full moon
– The sun and the moon pull at right (90o) angle to each other
– Their effects are partially cancelled out by one another
– The resulting tides rise and fall less than at other times
– These are called NEAP TIDES which have smaller tidal ranges

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRANSPORT INFRASTUCTURE 315 – GTD711S

EARTH – MOON – SUN POSITIONS FOR NEAP TIDES

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRANSPORT INFRASTUCTURE 315 – GTD711S

EFFECTS OF TIDAL CHANGES ‐ HARBOUR FALLING DRY DURING LOW TIDE

ITEMS PACKED ON A PALLET

HARBOUR OF GOREY, JERSEY

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRANSPORT INFRASTUCTURE 315 – GTD711S

TIDAL PATTERNS OR CHARACTERISTICS
• Tides can occur within a day in three ways
–Diurnal Tides
These occur as a single high and a single low tide each day (i.e. one tidal cycle per day)
They tend to occur in certain areas when the moon is at its furthest from the equator
–Semi‐diurnal Tides
Two high and two low waters occur daily of relatively similar ranges
They are more likely to occur when the moon is over the equator
–Mixed Tides
Also occur as two high and two low tides per day
But the successive high tide and low tide levels that vary significantly from each other
They tend to occur as the moon moves furthest north or south of the equator

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRANSPORT INFRASTUCTURE 315 – GTD711S

TIDAL PATTERNS OR CHARACTERISTICS

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRANSPORT INFRASTUCTURE 315 – GTD711S

TIDAL PATTERNS OR CHARACTERISTICS

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRANSPORT INFRASTUCTURE 315 – GTD711S

TIDES

Geometric Design of Transportation Infrastructures 315 – GDT 711S 20

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRANSPORT INFRASTUCTURE 315 – GTD711S

DIURNAL TIDES
• A diurnal tidal cycle is characterized by a single high tide every 24 hours and 50
minutes Diurnal tides typically occur in partially enclosed basins, such as the Gulf of
Mexico

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRANSPORT INFRASTUCTURE 315 – GTD711S

BEHAVIOUR OF DIURNAL TIDES
• A diurnal tidal cycle is characterized by a single high tide every 24 hours and 50
minutes Diurnal tides typically occur in partially enclosed basins, such as the Gulf of
Mexico

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRANSPORT INFRASTUCTURE 315 – GTD711S

SEMI DIURNAL TIDES
• A semidiurnal tidal cycle is characterized by two high tides daily of about
equal heights occurring about 12 hours and 25 minutes apart
• The east coast of the United States usually experiences semidiurnal tides

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRANSPORT INFRASTUCTURE 315 – GTD711S

BEHAVIOUR OF SEMI DIURNAL TIDES
• A semidiurnal tidal cycle is characterized by two high tides daily of about
equal heights occurring about 12 hours and 25 minutes apart
• The east coast of the United States usually experiences semidiurnal tides

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRANSPORT INFRASTUCTURE 315 – GTD711S

MIXED TIDES
• In a mixed tidal cycle, the tides also occur twice daily, but the two high tides
and two low tides are unequal in height
• Mixed tides occur on the west coast of the continental United States and in
Alaska and Hawai‘i

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRANSPORT INFRASTUCTURE 315 – GTD711S

BEHAVIOUR OF MIXED TIDES
• In a mixed tidal cycle, the tides also occur twice daily, but the two high tides
and two low tides are unequal in height
• Mixed tides occur on the west coast of the continental United States and in
Alaska and Hawai‘i

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRANSPORT INFRASTUCTURE 315 – GTD711S

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