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    CAPITULO 1 - M11

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    25 views20 pages

    Capitulo 1 - M11

    Uploaded by

    Jorge Francisco Rosas

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
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    Chapter HISTORY. voc A _ History, Uses, and Physical Characteristics of Steel Pipe ‘Steel pipe haa ben used for water Lines in the United Staten since the early 18608 (Blige 1022) The pipe was Sret manafacturod hy reling stoel sheets or plates into shape and riveting the soams, This method of fabrication eontinuod with improve- ‘ments into the 1800s Pipe wall ticknossee could be roaily varied to th diferent ressure heads of a pipeline praflle ‘Because ofthe relatively low tensile strength of tho oury steals andthe lw off- cloney of esd-iveted seams and rivetod or drive stoveppe joints, enginoer initially {ot a se dosiga stress at 10,000 pe (68.95 MP). As riveted pipe frcaion methods [improved and higher strength sacle were developt, design stestosprogresred with 440 safe facie of tensile strength, increasing from 10,000 (88.96) 10 12,500 (Ge.18), > 18,760 (948), and Snally to 16,000 pal (108.42). Design stresses were sdjosted as noessary to aecount for tho ffcincy ofthe riveted seam. Tho pipe Was rood in éemeters ranging from 4. (100 mm) through 14a. (600 mm) and in {heknese fom 18 gauge 1 16 i. (98mm). Fubrication methods consistod of single, doable» triple, and quadruplosiveted seams, varying in effeiency from 45 percent 19 90 parent, depending on the design. TockeBar pipe, introzacod in 1905, had nosrly cupplanted riveted pipo by 1990. Fabrication involved planing 20-1 (9-1-m) long plate to a width approsizately equal ‘o half the intended circumference, upeeting the longitudinal edges, and rlling the plates into 80-2 (@.-m) lng halfirce troughs. H-shaped bers of special onfigara- on were appieé tothe mating edges of ro 30-2.) trougha end camped into ‘position to fan fll pipe section. According tothe gener provedure ofthe tees, 2 55,000-ps (879.2 MPa) tensle- strength stol was sod. With a 4001 safety factor, che rvulted in a 19,7508 (048 MPa) dasiga stress. Lock-Bar pipe had notable sévantages ovr ivetod pipe: it had ony one or two srnight sears and no round seams Th sralght scams Wore co sored 100-porent ecient as compare t the 45-percent to 7O-percentefiency for ‘iveted seam, Manufactured in sizes from 20 in, (00 mm) through 14. (650 mm), fom plate ranging inthicknass tom Sin. (4.8mm) to Vim (12.7 mm), Lock Bor ‘plared an increasingly greater role in tho mare! until he edvent of eutomati lee {ble welding inthe mid 1920s ‘By the early 19808, both the riveting and Lock-Bar methods gradually were replaced by welding. Pipe produced using automatic eletrefusion welding advantageous because fewer pisces ware used, fower operations wore performed, and Deane of faster production, smaller seam protrusion, and 100percan: welded seam ‘ficiency. Tho fabricators of fasion-welded pipe fllowed similar initial production equonecs as for Leck-Bar Through the 1830s and int the 1840s, 20- (1m) plates ‘were used. By the 19505, some firms had obtained 40-2 (122m) rolls, and a fo" ‘med 40-4 (12.2) lengths in presen. "nthe 1930s anew approach was ued to design sreass Prior to that ie, it had ‘bean common practice to work with a safety facie of to based on the tensile strangih. As welded pipe became predominant, using 50 percont of tho material yl ‘eas became widely aczaped. “elically formed a welded pipe was developed in the carly 1950s and was used ‘extensively in diameters from 4'in. (100mm) through 38 in. (975 mm. Welding was performed using the electric fasion method. After World War, German machinos ‘were imported, and sabscquently, domestic ones were developed that ovuld spirally ‘Bem and weld throug diameters of 44 in (3,600 mr) USES ‘Stool water pipe meeting the requirement of epproprint AWWA standards hasbeen ound sadstactory for many appletins, sme of which low: Aquedacts ‘Treatment plant piping (igure 14) Sapp lines Selesupparting spans ‘Traneaision maine ocee maine Distribution mains CGirelating water lines Penetocks ‘Underwator crossings ntales and outflls “Te taatcn ope ns lar wes pe vg socal deslges ings arama pbs gure I-1 Steel pipe in raon plant galery ESTORY, USES AKD PHYSICA CHARACTERITICS 9 General data on some of the notable see pipelines have buen published (Catea 1971, Hinds 1050, Deta on numerous ethers have appeared in the vournal AWWA, tnd other pores, a wol asin many textbooks and engineering handhooks, CHEMISTRY, CASTING, AND HEAT TREATMENT. General ‘The properties af steals are governed by their chomical composition, by the pro- teates aed ts tranafurm the bace metal ino tho shape and hy thoi heat treatment. ‘The effects of there parameters onthe properties of sea are discussed in th fl- lowing sections. Chemical Composition CConsteastonal stels axe a misture of ion and carbon with varying amounts of ether sloments—primarily manganese, phosphors, elf, nd eilicn. Theso and other le- tnente are unavoidably proven or intentionally added in various combinations to schieve specific characteristics and properties of the finished steel products. The tifecta of the connmoaly used chencal elements onthe properties of hot rolled and hoattratod carbon an alley stels ar presented In Teble 1-1. The elects f carbon, ‘anganos, slfr silicon, and aluminum will be diseased. (Carbon is tho principal hardening clement in stool because each additional incr- sent ineeates the hardness and tensile strength ofthe sto. Carbon has a moderate tendency to sogregats, and increased smounte of carbon eause a decrease in dura ‘Ry touphnose and weldabior ‘anganogoinereases tho hardness and etrength of stools hut to a leser degree than carbon. Manganose combines with sulfur to frm manganct sulfides, therefore oerasing the harmful effete of slur Table 1-4 Effects of alloying elements Teanem a Terao Used dots or melon eet * Tnceses trong and noghness Beven ieogen 0 Sal moont (0.005%) neeasrhardenabity "+ ferns strength and hardooe fncquedie! end tempered eel Phonphorard| 4 Used oly nani led tec ‘Tnceses eng an hardness 1 Moat estive stow ern eae {teen dati and tongs caten 8) 1 Considered en impurity bat smetimes aad 1 Principal hardening clamentin tel ‘tmeehers eres estance { Tacrestes strength and hardoces saint 1 Deemaees cont tughnany end weldabity "+ Unnd tn desi or "I alte steel 1 nocerate tenangy te eprenste 1 Beever durability and toghneee ham (Ce) Suir) incessssregth * Onneidered andsirabe exept er machina 1 Iacresssatsperi ces eit 4 Decrees dct ughness nod welabiity Coppers) 4 Adverse als ste qansy ‘Penry contributor toatmorpheriecomoxion __* Song zndeney to sores ronanee ‘nadiem (V) and Catania 1) Manganese) Sal siden incon eng th {Contin arm ete of or Sulfur is gnerally considered an undesirable clement except when machinsility Is san important consideration, Sulfur arerssy affect surface quality has strong ten Aleney ts segregate, and deereagos ductility, oughnes, and waldabil. Slison and aluminum are the principal deasdizere wed in She manufichure of car ‘bon and alloy sols, Aluminum i also usd to contol and refine grain size. casting ‘The traditional stecl- making proses is porformod by pouring tcoming) molten sical {ato eres of melds to form castings known a8 ingots. The ingots are removed fam ‘the molds, reheated, then rlled into products with equare or rostangular cross ste- ‘ons This hating opertion clngates che ingots and produces semifnishod prd- ‘ct known as blooms slab, bills Al ingots exhibit sme dogre of manuniformlsy tf chemical compeeition known as sogrgnton. This is an inherent characteristic ofthe ‘ealing and slidifcation ofthe molten sta inthe mold. "The initial liqud stool contacting the relatively cold walls and bottom ofthe meld solidifies very rapidly having the same chemical composition asthe liq steel entes- Ing tho mold, However, as tho rato of solidification decrasos away from the meld fides exptals of relatively pure iron solidify fst. The fist crystals to form contain Jess carbon, manganese, phosphorus, sulfur and other elements than the lquid steal fom which they were formed. Th rraining lig is enriched by those elements that sre continually being rejecad by the advancing erytals. Consequently, helt quid to solidify whic is located around tho axis in tha tp half ofthe ingot contains high levels of rjoced elements and has a lower melting aint than tho poured liquid sto ‘This segregation of tho chemical elemental requently expressed asa eel departure {om the average chemiealeomporition. In general, he contont of an oloment that hae tendency to eogregat is greater than average atthe ceator af tho fop haf an ingot ‘nd less than average atthe bottom half fan ingot. ‘Certain clemant tend to augrogete more than ther. Sulfur segregate othe grst- ‘st eaten. The illowing elements also sogregato, bu to a lessor dagres and in descend- ing erder are phosphoras carbon, sien, and manganese. The dogros ef sgregation is influenced by the composition ofthe gui sto, the guid temperature, ad the ingot ‘sin The most scvarely segregated area f the ingot are removed by roping, Which is ‘the procs ofeating end discarding raliient material during raling ‘Continuous casting is tho direct casing of stool rom tho ladle ints slabs This toel- raking process bypasses th operations botween maton steol and the sumiiaished product thet are inherent in making stel products from ingots. Daring continuous fasting, molten stool is poured ata roglar rata into the top of en oscillating water- ‘soled mold with a erose-sctional size coreoponding to tho desired elab. As the mol- ten matel bogins ta solafy along the mold walle, ie forme a hell Chat permite the sravial withdrawal ofthe strand product from the bottom of tho meld into a water- spray chamber where solidification i completed. The oldie strand iseut ro length ‘nd then reheated and rllod into finished projets, ain the eonventioal ingot peo- fess, Continaoas casting produses a smaller size and higher emaing rate forthe ‘rand, resulting in less segregation and greater uniirmty in composition and prop- (es fr steal produce than fr ingot prodiats Killed and Semikilled Steels "Tho primary resction involved in most stel-making process is the combinstion of;ar- bn and caygen to frm eatbon menue gas. The solubility of his and other gases dis sved inthe steal decreases as tho molten metal coos to the sldifeation temperature range. Excoss gases are oxplle from the metal and, unless controlled, continue to ‘valve during sulidifeation The oxygen available fbr the reaction ean be eliminated Sod the gatcous evolution inkbite by deradisng the molten sted using additons of flicon or aluminum or both Steels that are strongly dooxidizod do not evolve any ‘gases and aro called llled steels because thay equity in Ube mod. Increasing gas ‘evolution results in veiled, capped or rimmed steels Tn gnoral lle stele aro less segrgated and contain negligible prwsity when com- ‘pared to some stl. Consequonty,kllo-tel products usualy exhibit «higher ‘agree of uniformity in crapostion snd properties than semile steel product, Heat Treatment for Steels ‘Steals rxpond to variety of het srostmonts that produce desirable charactariticn "Those heat treatmeats canbe diviod into slow croing treatments and rapid coeling ‘restments. Slow cooling treatments, such as annealing, normalizing, and stress ‘elleving decrease hardness and promt uniformity of structure Rapid exling test ‘oats, ach as quenching and tempering, increase strength, hardness, and toughness, ost troatmonts of base metal are goncrll mail options or ASTM requirements. “Annealing. Annculing consists of heting the etc a given tamiperature fl- lowed by slow cooling. The temperature, the rate of heating and cooling, and the fmunt of time the metal s held at temperature depends on the compziton, shape, {and sizeof tho stool product being touted and tho desired properties. Usually see fro annealed to romove stesoe,induco softness, increase ducilty and toughness, produce a given microstructure, increase uniformity of mrostructurs, prove ‘achinabilty, orto fcliate cola forming "Normalising. Normalizing consists of heating the szel to been 1,850°F and. {L,700°F (695°C and 927-0) flowed by slow cooling in air This hast treatment ia cma- monly used to refine the grain size, improve uniformity of microstructure, and lnprove dacilty and fsccore ughnces ‘Stress relieving. Sires relieving of carbon stools consists of heating the soa to beeween1,000°F to 1,200°F (538°C to 649°C) and holding fr the spropsice amount ‘of time fo equalize the temperature throughout the piece followed hy slow colin. The Stracoelieving temperature fr quenched and tempered steals mrt be mainskined ‘alow the tempering temperature for the product. Stress relieving is eed to relieve internal stroseos induced by welding, normalizing cold working, cutting, quenching, ‘and machining Te snot intended to alver the microstructure o the mechatical peop. rio sigfeantly. ‘Quenching and tempering. Guonching and tampering consiste of heating and Ihlding the steel atthe appropriate eustniaing texapersture (about 1,850°F [690°C)) fr a sgaiicant amount of time proce a desired change in mireetrotare, then ‘quenching hy immersion n a suitable madium (water fr hedge stel9). After quench- {ng the steals tmpared by reheating to an approprinte temperature, uevally between 00°F and 1,200°F (427°C and 649°C), holding fora speciid time at that tempera tore, and cooling under suitable conditions to obtain the desired properties. Quenching tnd tempering Increases the strength snd improves the toughness ofthe ste Controlled rolling. Controlled rlling is a thermamochanical treatment per- formed at the rolling ill 1 tallors the time-temperature deformation prooss by e00- trolling the rolling parameters. The parameters of primary importance are (1) the temperature at tho start of entellod rolling in the finished strand: (2) the percentage reduction from tho start f eantalled rolling to the Sal plate thickness; and (3) the plate-nishing temperature Hotell plates are doformed as quickly as possible at tomperatures above bout 1.900°F (1,088°C) to take advantage af the workability ofthe steel at high temperatures In contrat, controlled roling incorporates a bold delay ime t9 allow the partially rolled lab to reach the derired temperature before the sare of final rolling. Controlled rolling involves formation at tomperstures rang between 1S00°F and 1800°F (BI6°C and 982°C). Because rolling deformation at thete low temperatures increates the mill loads rignifeants, controlled rolling is cwually restricted to lees than Din. (Ghmm) thick plates, Contelled rolling Increases the strength, relace the grain so, improves the toughness, and may liminate the need for normalising ‘Controlled finishing-temperatureroling. Controlled fnishing-temperature rllingis a lees severe practice than controlled rolling ai aimed primarily a improv Ing natch toughnes of plats up o 2Vain. (Btn) thick. Tho finishing temperatures a this practice (about 1,600°F (871°C) are higher than required for controlled ralling “lowerer, becauso heaor plates ar nvlved dan i controlled rling, mil delays are still required to reach the desired finishing temperatures By controling the fnshing ‘temperature, ne grain size and improved notch toughnoss canbe obtained. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. ‘toa is widely used because ofthe ilowing properties: great strength; ability yield tr deflect under a lod while resisting ability to bend withoat breaking, and rete tance to shock The design nginoor should understand these properties, how they are ‘measured, what thoy wild, and how relish they ae. DUCTILITY AND YIELD STRENGTH. Sold metorals ean be divided into two cases: ductile and brite, Engineering prac ‘ice treats these two clasts differently beceuse they behave diffrently under ad. A actilo material exhibits « marked plastic deformation or fow ata fairly definite ‘ross lve (eld paint or ye strength) and shows a considerable tata elongation, Sieotch or plastic deformstion before final breakage With able materi the plas te defarmatin is not well defined, and the ulate elongation before breakage is smal. Secs listed in Table 41, are typical ofthe ductile materials use for saa svat pipe TL ie ducliity that allows comparatively thin-walled sts! pipe, even though Ascreased in vertical diameter two to fve parent by earth preerure, to perorm sate: factory whon buried in doop trenches or under high fil, provided the tue reqaned strength hasbeen incorporated inthe design, Becats of dati, tel pipe with the- ‘oretially high, localiza stresses at lange, saddles, suppers and join-bamess hag ‘connections has performed satiedctorily fr many years, ‘Designers who determine stres ing formas beead on Hoske's law find thatthe ‘sion or compression loads. uel of eee is measured as an elongation, or stretch, under tension Iain @ testing machine Elongation is ameasurement of change in leg under tho lad and is expressed as percentage ofthe original gauge length of the test specimen, STRESS AND STRAIN. In enginoering, stress i a value obtained by dividing load hy an area. Strain ie a length change por nit oflength. The relation between stress and stain 8 shown on ‘stress-strain dagram, sof base impertanoe ta the designer. ‘A seross-train diagram for any given matoral isa graph showing the strain that curs whe the material is under a given lad or tres For examples bar of elie Dullod in tating machine wish suitable instrumentation for mearuring the loed and Indiesting the dimensional changes. While tho bar is under load, it strviches. The ‘change in length under load per unit of length is called strain or unit stra: is usu ally expressod as porcontage elongation ox in szeas analy, mireinches (rin) per inc, whore min = 0000,001 in. (25.C nm) The values of stain are plotted along the hovizantal ais of the stress-strain dingram. For porpars of plotting, the load eco ‘verted into units of sires (pounds por square inc) by dividing the lad in pounds by {he orginal eros-sectonal area ofthe bar in square loses, The alata strut ar ploted along the Vertical ais of the dlageamn The rele is 4 ooventional eres? fersin diagram. "Because he strse plotted on the convensionalstrves—struin diagram i obtain by ‘Aivding the lo by the original eros sectional area ofthe as the stress appears to ‘each a peak and then diminish as tho load increases, However ifthe etree i alow” lated by dividing the lad bythe actual eroas-sectional area ofthe bar a ie dereases in cross section under Increasing load found tt the tras etess never decreases. Figare 19s strese-strain diagram on which both tre sires and true stain have oem plotiod. Because conventional stree-strsin diagrams are weed commercially, only conventional diagrams are uted fr the remainder of this discseion. ‘Figur 12 shows various parts ofa pure tension strene-strain curve for tel such ss that usd in water utility pipe. The change in shape of tho tat pose daring the tse is indicated by the bars drawn under the corv. As the ber stretches, the cvs ection

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