Complex Variables

4
Complex Variables
4.1 Complex Variable

Any number of the form z = x + iy is a complex number where x, y are real numbers.
f(z) be any function defined on set of complex numbers or on a subset of complex numbers is a
complex valued function and it can be written as
f(z) = u + iv
where u & v are the functions of x & y.
4.2 Limit of a function f(z)
 is said to be limit of the function. f(z) at a point zo if there exist a number  > 0 such that |f(z) – |
<
whenever |z – zo| < 
for some  > 0.
 is said to be limt of f(z) as Zapproaches to zo if
Lt f (z) = 
z  zo
4.3 Continuity of a function

A function f(z) is said to be continuous at a point zo if these exist a number  > 0 such that |f(z) – f(zo)|
<
whenever |z – zo| < 
for some  > 0.
f(z) is said to be contineuous at z = zo if
Lt f (z) = f(zo)
z  zo
If a function f(z) is continuous at each & every point of a region, R then f(z) is said to be continuous
over the entire region, R.
4.4 Derivative of a function
f (z)  f (zo )
A function f(z) is said to be differetiable at a point zo if the lim exists. Value of it is
z  zo (z  z o )
denoted by f´(zo).
If a function f(z) is differentiable at a point zo and also in some neighbourhood of zo, then f(z) is said
to be continuously differentiable at zo.
4.5 Analytic function
A function f(z) is said to be analytic at a point zo if it is continuously differentiable at zo. Analytic
function is (1) single valued (2) bounded (3) differentiable function.
If a function f(z) is analytic at each & every point of a region, R then such a function is known as a
regular function or an entire function.
4.5.1 (C-R) Cauchy-Reimann Equations
If f(z) = u + iv be a complex valued function where u, v are functions of x & y and having first partial
derivatives, then f(z) is said to satisfy cauchy-reimann equation if ux = vy & uy = – vx i.e.
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Complex Variables Engineering Mathematics 2
u v u v
= & = 
x y y x
If the function satisfies cauchy-reimann equations for all x & y, then we say that the function is
analytic. If f(z) satisfies the cauchy-reimann equations only at one point, then the function is
differentiable at that point but not analytic.
4.5.2 (C-R) Cauchy-Reimann Equations in polar form
(r, )
r
a 
z = re i
x = r cos, y = r sin
f(z) = u + iv
f(rei) = u + iv ........ (1)
Partially differentiate (1) w.r.t. ‘r’
u v
f´(rei) · ei = i ........ (2)
r r
Partially differentiate (1) w.r.t. ‘’
u v
f´(rei) · ir ei = i ........ (3)
 
u v v u
Comparing (2) & (3), r = , r =
r  r 
Example-4.1
Verify the analytic nature of the function f(z) = x2 + y2.
Solution :
f(z) = (x2 + y2) + i(0)
Also f(z) = u + iv, u = x2 + y2, v = 0
u u v v
= 2x , = 2y , = 0, y = 0
x y x
At a point (0, 0), the function are satisfying cauchy-reimann equation. So we can say that the
function f(z) is differentiable at ‘origin’ but not analytic at origin.
Example-4.2
1
Verify the analytic nature of f(z) = .
z
Solution :
1 1 (x  iy)
f(z) = = 
z x  iy (x  iy)
x  iy
f(z) = = u + iv
x 2  y2
x y
From here, u = 2 2 ;v=
x y x  y2
2
u (x 2  y 2 )  x(2x)  x 2  y 2 u 2xy
= 2 2 2 = 2
,
2 2 y =
x (x  y ) (x  y ) (x  y 2 )2
2
v 2xy v  (x 2  y 2 )  x 2  y2
= , =   = 2
x (x 2  y2 )2 y  (x 2  y 2 ) 2  (x  y 2 )2
u v u v
= , =– At every point (x & y) except (0, 0).
x  y y x
So, the function is analytic at every point except at origin (0, 0) because it is undefined at origin so not
continuous at (0, 0).
Example-4.3
Verify the analytic nature of f(z) = sinz.
Solution :
f(z) = sin(x + iy)
f(z) = sin (x) cos(iy) + sin (iy) cos(x)
f(z) = sin x cos hy + i sin hy cos x = u + iv
 u = sin x cos hy, v = sin hy cos x
u v v u
= cos x cos hy = ; = – sin x sin hy , = sin x sin hy,,
x y x y
u v u v
 = , =– .
x y y x
So, it is analytic everywhere.
4.5.3 Some Important Theorems :
1. If the real part of an analytic function
f(z) = u + iv is constant, then the function f(z) is also a constant.
2. If the imaginary part of an analytic function f(z) = u + iv is constant, then the function f(z) is also
a constant.
3. If |f(z)| = |u + iv| =u 2  v 2 = constant, obviously the function f(z) is also constant.
4. If (x, y) is a continuous function of x & y, whose second partial derivatives exist and if it
satisfies the equation,
 2  2
 = 0 {Laplaces Equation}
x 2 y 2
then the function is said to be Harmonic function.
5. If f(z) = u + iv is an analytic function, then both the real and imaginary parts u ands v are
harmonic functions and one is said to be the harmonic conjugate of the other.
v v u u
dv = x dx  y dy , du = dx  dy
x y
By using C-R equations,
u u v v
dv =  x dx  y dy , du = x dx  y dy
and by integration, u can obtained from v, and v can be obtained from u of an analytic function f(z) =
u + iv.
6. If f(z) = u +iv is an analsytic function, then the system of curves,

u(x, y) = C1, v(x, y) = C2 form orthogonal trajectories of one another.
4.6 To find the corresponding analytic function f(z) = u + iv (Milne Thomson Method)
i) If the real part (u) is given,
we have f(z) = u + iv
Partially differentiate w.r. to ‘x’
f´(z) = ux + ivx
= ux – iuy [By C-R equations]
 f(z) =  (u x )(z,0) dz  i  (u y )(z,0) dz + c
ii) If the imaginary part (v) is given,
we have f(x) = u + iv
Partially differentiate w.r. to ‘x’
f´(z) = ux + ivx
f´(z) = vy + ivx [By C-R equation]
 f(z) =  (v y )(z,0)dz  i  (vx )(z,0)dz + c
iii) If (u +v) is given,
we have f(z) = u + iv ........(1)
Multiplying by i,
if(z) = iu – v ........(2)
Adding (1) & (2),(1 + i) f(z) = (u – v) + i(u + v)
(1 + i) f(z) =  [(u  v) y ](z,0) dz  i  [(u  v) x ](z,0) dz + c
iv) If (u – v) is given, then
similarly, (1 + i) f(z) =  [(u  v) x ](z,0) dz  i  [(u  v) y ](z,0) dz + c
Example-4.4
1
Find the corresponding analytic function f(z) = u + iv if the real part (u) is given as log(x2 + y2) and
2
also find its harmonic conjugate.
Solution :
We know,
f(z) =  (u x )(z,0) dz  i  (u y )(z,0) dz
1 2x x 1 2y y
ux = 2 2 = 2 2 , uy = 2 2 =
2 x y x y 2 x y x  y2
2
z 1
ux(z, 0) = 2 =
z 0 z
1
f(z) =  dz  i  0 dz = log (z) + c
z
Harmonic Conjugate :-
Put z = re i
y
where r = x 2  y 2 ,  = tan 1  
x
f(z) = log (rei)
= log (r) + log (ei)
1
f(z) = log(x2 + y2) + i
2
 v = 
1  y 
v = tan  
x
Example-4.5
If the imaginary part v = 3x2y – y3. Find the corresponding analytic function f(z) = u + iv.
Solution:
As we know,
f(z) =  (v y )(z,0) dz  i  (v x )(z,0) dz + c
vx = 6xy, vy = 3x2 – 3y2
vx(z, 0) = 0, vy(z, 0) = 3z2
f(z) =  (3z 2 ) dz  i  0dz  C + c
f(z) = z3 + c
f(z) = (x + iy)3
= x3 + i3 y3 + 3x iy (x + iy)
= x3 – iy3 + i 3x2y – 3x2y
f(z) = (x3 – 3xy2) + i(3x2y – y3)
 u = x3 – 3xy2
Example-4.6
Find the corresponding analytic function f(z) = u + iv if u – v = ex [cos y – sin y].
Solution:
we know,
(1 + i) f(z) =  [u  v) x ](z,0) dz  i  [u  v) y ](z,0) dz + c
(1 + i) f(z) =  e z cos 0 dz  i  e z (  cos 0) dz + c

(1 + i) f(z) = ez + i ez
(1 + i) f(z) = (1 + i) ez + c
 f(z) = ez + c1
Example-4.7
x
Find the corresponding analytic function f(z) = u + iv. If u + v = and f(1) = 1.
x  y2
2
Solution:
As we know,
(1 + i) f(z) =  [(u  v) y ](z,0) dz  i  [(u  v) x ](z,0) dz
2xy x 2  y2
(u + v)y = (u + v) =
(x 2  y 2 )2 x
(x 2  y 2 )2
z2
 (1 + i) f(z) =  0dz  i  z 4 dz
 1 
(1 + i) f(z) = i    2  dz
 z 
1
(1 + i) f(z) = i    c ........ (1)
z
Given f(z) = 1 at z = 1
From (1) (1 + i) = i + c
 c = 1
i 1 1
 f(z) = 
(1  i) z 1  i
Note :- If f(z) is a regular function, then
 2 2 
 2    log | f (z) | = 0
 x y 2 
Note :- If f(z) is an entire function, then
 2 2 
 2   |f(z)|2 = 4 |f´ (z)|2
 x y 2 
4.7 Complex Integration
If f(z) = u + iv be a comlex valued function defined over the curve C, then z0, z1, z2 ...... zn be the
points on the curve C.
and let ui [zi – 1, zi] be a point for i = 1, 2, 3 ...... n.
f(z) = u + iv
zi
zi–1
z2
ui
z1
z0
n
S n =  f (u i ) zi
i 1
where, z i = zi – zi – 1  0
As n ,
S = Lt Sn =  f (z)dz which is known as the complex integral of the function f(z) over the curve C.
n  c
If C is a closed curve, then this integral is denoted as  f (z) dz and is called contour integral.
c
If f(z) = u + iv
& z = x + iy, then
since dz = dx + idy,
we have,  f (z)dz =  (u  iv) (dx  i dy)
c c
  f (z)dz =  (udx  vdy)  i  (vdx  udy)

c c c
Some Results :-
1.  [f (z)  g(z)]dz =  f (z)dz   g(z) dz

c c c
2.  k f (z) dz = k  f (z) dz
c c
b a
3.  f (z)dz =   f (z) dz
a b
Example-4.8
(1 i)
2
 (x  iy)dz along the curve C
0
i) C : y = x
ii) C : y = x2
Solution :-
 z = x + iy
 dz = dx + i dy
0 to (1 + i)
y
 (0, 0) to (1, 1)
x
Put, y = x
 dy = dx
i) Along y = x  dy = dx
(1 i) 1
2 2
 (x  ix)(dx  i dx) =  (x  ix) (dx  i dx)
0 0
1
2
= (1  i)  (x dx  ix dx)
0
1
 x 3 ix 2 
= (1  i)   
3 2 0
1 i 
= (1  i)   
3 2
2
ii) Along y = x  dy = 2xdx
(1 i) 1
2 2 2
 (x  ix)(dx  i dx) =  (x  ix )[dx  i 2x dx]
0 0
1
2 3
= (1  i)  (x dx  i 2x dx)
0
1
 x 3 2x 4i 
= (1  i)   
3 4 0
 1 i  
= (1  i)     (0  i0) 
 3 2  
1 i 
= (1  i)   
3 2
Example-4.9
n
 (z  a) dz for n  –1 where C is a circle with centre a and radius r i.e. C : |z – a| = r. Discuss the
C
case when n = –1.

Solution :

a r
 |z – a| = r
 z–a = re i
dz = r iei d
where  = 0 to 2 
2

i n
(z  a)n dz =  (re ) r iei d
 0
C
2
n 1 i (n 1)
= ir e d
0
i (n 1) 2
n 1  e 
= ir  
 i(n  1) 0
r n 1 i(n 1)2 
= e  1
n 1
ei(n 1)2   cos(n  1)2  i sin(n  1)2

 
  1  0;  1
r n 1

C
(z  a)n dz =
n 1
[1  1] = 0
when n = – 1,
dz 2 ireid 2

C
za
= 
0 re
i = i  d = 2i
0
Example-4.10
Evaluate  log z dz , where C is the unit circle |z| = 1.
c
Solution :-
Here C:|z| = 1
 z = e i
 dz = ieid
where  varies from 0 to 2.
1
(0, 0)
Here r = 1
2
i i
 log zdz
C
=  log(e )ie d
 0
2
i
=  i·ie d
 0
2
i
=  (1) e d
 0
  ·ei 2   ei  2  
= (1)     2  
  i 0  i  0 
 
 2   
= 1    0   (1  1) 
 i  
2
=  = 2i
i
4.8 Cauchy’s Integral Theorem
If f(z) is an analytic function at all points inside and on a simple closed curve c, the  f (z)dz = 0.
c
4.8.1 Extension of Cauchy’s Theorem to multiple connected region.
Multiply
connected region
C1
C2
1.
Simple closed
curve
2. If f(z) is analytic inside and on a multiple connected region formed by two simple closed curves
C1 & C2 then.
 f (z) dz =  f (z)dz
C1 C2
C
C1 C2
C3
3. If f(z) is analytic in the multiple connected region lying between the simple closed curve C and
the disjoint closed curve C1, C2 ......... Cn with in C then,
 f (z) dz =  f (z)dz   f (z)dz  .............   f (z)dz
C C1 C2 Cn
4.9 Cauchy’s Integral Formula

If f(z) is analytic inside and on a closed curve, C and if z0 be a point with in C then
f (z)
 dz = 2i f(z0).
C z  z0
z0
f (z) 2i (n)

Also,  n 1
dz = f (z 0 )
C (z  z 0 ) n
where, f(n) (z0) = nth derivative of f(z) at point z = z0
Example-4.11
Using Cauchy’s integral theorem, the value of the integral (integration being taken in counter clockwise
z3  6
direction) 
c
3z  i
dz is
2 
(a)  4i (b)  6i
81 8
4
(c)  6i (d) 1
81
GATE(CE,06)
Answer : (a)
Solution :
We have to evaluate
z3  6 z3  6
 (3z  i)
dz =   i
dz
C C 3 z  
 3
1 z3  6 f (z)
=
3C 
i
dz =   z  a 
C
n 1
z  
 3
On comparing we get
z3  6 i
f (z) = ,a= ,n=0
3 3
We know that Cauchy Integral formula for the derivative of an analytic function is
n f (z)dz
f n (a)  
2i C (z  a) n 1
we have
i
n = 0, a =
3
i
f  0 1 (z 3  6)dz
 f (a) =  3  =
o  
2i 3 C  i
z  
 3
i 1 (z3  6)dz 1 (z3  6)dz

 f  =  = 
 3 6i C  i 2i C  3z  i 
z  
 3
3
z3  6  i  1  i  6
f (z) = f
   =  
3  3  3  27 
1  i 
=   6
3  27 
i
= 2
81
Thus
1 z3  6
 dz = i  2
2i C  3z  i  81
z3  6
  dz = 2i  i  2  = 2  4i
C
 3z  i   81  81
Example-4.12
Consider likely applicability of Cauchy’s Integral Theorem to evaluate the following integral counter
clockwise around the unit circle c.
I =  sec z dz
c
z being a complex variable. The value of I will be

(a) I = 0 : singularities set = 
 2n  1 
(b) I = 0 : singularities set    n  0, 1, 2.......
 2 
(c) I = /2 : singularities set   n \ n  0, 1, 2.......
(d) None of above
GATE(CE,05)
Answer : (a)
Solution :
I =  sec z dz
C
/2
(0, 1)
1 Unit circle
(1, 0)
Cauchy’s Integral Theorem

If a function f (z) is analytic and its derivative f '(z) continuous at all points inside and on a simple
closed curve c,
then  f (z)dz
C
= 0
Since there is no pole of f(z) = sec z, it is analytic at all points inside the unit circle.
sin z
f '(z) = sec z tan z = is distinuous at
cos 2 z
 
z = and 
2 2
It is continuous every where inside the circle. Hence by Cauchy Integral theorem
I =  sec z dz = 0
C
 I = 0, singularities set = set of poles = 
Example-4.13
z2  1
Find integral  dz where C is the circle.
C z3
i) C:|z|=4 ii) C : | z | = 2
Solution:
f(z) = z2 + 1 is an analytic function on C.
i. | z | = 4, is a circle with centre at origin & radius = 4
The point z = 3 lies inside the circle |z| = 4
4
0 z=3
 By Cauchy’s integral functions,

 z2  1 

C
z3 
 dz = 2 i (z2 + 1)z = 3
= 2 i (10) = 20 i
ii. The point z = 3 lies outside the circle |z| = 2
z2  1
 The function is analytic within & on C.
z 3
0 2 3
 By Cauch’s integral theorem,

f (z)
we have  dz = 0
z3
Example-4.14
sin 2 z
Find  dz where C : | z | = 1.
C 
z  
 3
Solution:
C : | z | = 1, is a circle with centre at origin & radius = 1.

The point z =  = – 1.05 lies outside the circle |z| = 1.
3
sin 2 z
 The function is analytic within & on C.

z
3
–1.05–1 0 1
 By Cauchy integral theorem,

sin 3z
 dz = 0
C 
 z  
 3
Example-4.15
sin 3z
Find  dz C : | z | = 1
C 
 z  
 6
Solution:
f(z) = sin 3z is analytic on C.
C : | z | = 1, is a circle with centre at origin & radius = 1.

The point z =  lies within the circle |z| = 1.
6
–1 –/6 0 +1
 By Cauch’s integral theorem,

sin 3z
we have  dz = 2 i [sin3z]z = – /6
C 
z  
 6
  3  
= 2i sin     = – 2 i
  6 
Example-4.16
(3z  1)
Find  dz
C z 3
z 
1
i) C:|z|= ii) C : | z | = 2.
2
Solution:
3z  1 3z  1
 dz =  1 2
dz
3
Cz z C z (z  1)
3z  1
=  dz
C z(z  1)(z  1)
 1 2 1 
=     dz
C z z  1 z  1
1 1
i) C:|z|= is a circle with centre at origin & radius = .
2 2
1 1
 The point z = 0 lies inside the circle |z| = and the points z = 1, –1 lies outside the circle |z| = .
2 2
2 1
 & are analytic within C.
z 1 z 1
By Cauchy intergral theorem & by Caychy integral formula,
3z  1 1 2 1
 dz =  dz   dz   dz = 2i [–1 + 0 + 0]
c z c z 1 c z 1
3
C z z
= – 2i
ii) C : | z | = 2, The points z = 0, 1 – 1 lies within the circle |z| = 2
 By Cauchy integral formula,
3z  1 1 2 1
we have,  dz =  dz   dz   dz = 2i [– 1 + 2 – 1] = 0
C z3  z c z c z 1 c z 1
Example-4.17
z 1
 2
dz (i) C : |z – 1 + i| = 2 (ii) C : |z + 1 – i| = 2
C z  2z  5
Solution:
2  4  20
z2 + 2z + 5 = 0 z =
2
z = –1 ± 2i ; = (–1, 2) (–1, –2)
i) C : |z – 1 + i| = 2
(–1, 2)
y (1, –1)
(–1, 1)
(3, –1)
(–1, –1) (1, –1)
(–1, 2)
(–1, –3) (1, –3)
 1x + iy – 1 + i 1 = 2 |x – 1 + i(y + 1)| = 2
 (x – 1)2 + (y + 1)2 = 22
 C is a circle with centre at (1, –1) & radius = 2.
The points (–1, 2), (–1, –2) lies outside the circle C : |z – 1 + i| = 2
 By Cauchy integral theorem,
z 1
 2
dz = 0
C z  2z  5
= 0
ii) C : |z + 1 – i| = 2
(–1, 3)
(–1, 2)
(–3, 1) (–1, 1) (+1, 1)

(–1, 0)
(–1, –1)
 |x + iy + 1 – i| = 2 |x + 1 + i (y – 1)| = 2
 (x + 1)2 + (y – 1)2 = 22
 C is a circle with origin at (–1, 1) & radius d= 2. The point (–1, 2) lies inside and (–1,–2) lies
outside circle C : |z + 1 – i| = 2
 By Cauchy intergral formula,
 z 1   z 1 
   
z 1  z – (–1 – 2i)  dz   z – (–1  2i)  dz
 2 dz =  
C z  2z  5 c z – (–1  2i) c z – (–1 – 2i)
 z 1 
= 2i   + 2i (0)
 z  ( 1  2i)  z ( 1 2i)
 1  2i  1 
= 2i  0
 1  2i  1  2i 
2i
= 2i   0 = i
4i
Example-4.18
dz
i) Find  2 z ,C:|z|=1
cz e
e 2z
ii) Find  4
dz , C : | z | = 2
c (z  1)
sin 2 z
iii) Find  2
dz , C : | z | = 1
c  
z  
 4
3z 2  7z  5
iv) If f (a) =  dz
c (z  a)
and C : | z | = 4, then f(5) = ?
Solution:
e z
i)  2 dz , C : | z | = 1
c z
f(z) = e–z is analytic within C : |z| = 1.

The point z = 0 lies within the circle |z| = 1.
z = –1 z=0 z=1
e z 2i 2i
 2
dz =
1
f (0) =
1
e  z  z 0
c z
2i
= [e0 ] = – 2i
1
e 2z
ii)  4
dz , C : | z | = 2
C (z  1)
f(z) = e2z is analytic within the circle |z| = 2.

The point z = – 1 lies withing the circle |z| = 2.
2i d3  (z  1) 4 e 2z 
=  4 
3 dz3  (z  1) 
2i d 3
= e 2z 
3 dz 3  
z = –2 z = –1 0

e 2z 2i 2i 2z 3
 4
dz =
3
f (1) =
3
e ·2  
z 1
C (z  1)
2i 8i
=  8 e 2 = 2
6 3e
sin 2 z
iii)  2
dz , C : | z | = 1
c  
z  
 4
f(z) = sin2z is analytic within the circle |z| = 1

The point z = lies within the circle |z| = 1.
4
–1 –/4 0 1
sin 2 z 2i    2i

{2sin z cos z}z  / 4
 dz = f    =
C 
2 1  4 1
z  
 4
 1 1 
= 2i  2   
 2 2
= – 2i
3z 2  7z  5
iv) f(a) =  dz C:|z|=4
c (z  a)
f(z) = 3z2 + 7z + 5 is analytic within the circle |z| = 4.
0 4 z=5
3z 2  7z  5
we have, f(5) =  dz
c (z  5)
The point z = 5 lies outside the circle |z| =4.
3z 2  7z  5
 f(5) =  dz = 0
c (z  5)
4.10 Taylor’s Series
If f(z) is analytic inside and on a circular region with center at a and of radius ‘r’ for all z within C.
(z  a) (z  a)2
f(z) = f (a)  f (a)  f (a)  .... ........ (1)
1 2
a r
|z–a|<r
(z  a)n (n)

=  f (a)
n 0 n
Corollary : Putting z = a + h in (1), we get
h h2
f(a + h) = f (a)  f (a)  f (a)  .........
1 2
Some of Important Taylor’s Expansion:-
z z2 
ez  1    ................ 
1 2 
z 3 z5
sin z  z    ...........
3 5 
z 3
z 5 

sin h z  z    ........ | z|  
3 5 
z2 z4 
cos z  1    .......... 
2 4

z2 z4
cos h z  1    ........
2 4 
z 2 z3 z 4 
log e (1  z)  z    ................
22 33 44  |z| 1
z z z
log e (1  z)  z    ............. 
2 3 4 
n(n  1) 2
(1 + z)–n = 1  nz  z ..........} | z | < 1
2
n(n  1) 2
(1 – z)–n = 1  nz  z  ...........} | z | < 1
2
Example-4.19
The Taylor expansion of sin x about x = /6 is given by
2 3
1 3  1  3 
(a)  x –  – x –  –  x –   ...
2 2  6  4 6 12  6
x3 x5 x7
(b) x     ....
3! 5! 7!
3 5 3
     
 x –  x –  x – 
 6  6  6
(c)  x –  –     ....
 6 3! 5! 7!
1
(d)
2
GATE(CE,00)
Answer : (a)
Solution :
According to Taylor series, the Taylor expansion of a function f(x) about a point x = a is expressed
as
 x  a 2  x  a 3 f '''(a)  x  a n
f (x) = f (a) + (x – a) f '(a) + f ''(a) + + .... f n (a)
2 3 n

f (x) = sin x , a =
6
 1
f (a) = sin   =
6
  2
 3
f '(x) = cos x, f '  =
6 2
    sin   
f ''(x) = – sin x f ''  =  
6 6
1
= 
2
Substituting these values, we get
2 3
1 3 x   1   3  
sin x = +    x   – x   + .........
2 2  6  4  6

12  6
Example-4.20
The Taylor’s series expansion of sin x is
x2 x4 x2 x4
(a) 1 –  (b) 1 + 
2! 4! 4! 4!
x3 x5 x3 x5
(c) x +  (d) x – 
3! 5! 3! 5!
GATE(CE,98)
Answer : (d)
Solution :
Taylor series expansion of sin x is

x3 x5
x 
3 5
Example-4.21
A discontinuous real function can be expressed as
(a) Taylor’s series and Fourier’s series
(b) Taylor’s series and not by Fourier’s series
(c) neither Taylor’s series nor Fourier’s series
(d) not by Taylor’s series, but by Fourier’s series
GATE(CE,98)
Answer : (d)
Solution :
Taylor series  If f (x + h) be a function of h which can be expanded in powers of h and, if the
expansion be differentiable any numberof times with respect to h, then
h2 hn
f (x + h) = f (x) + h f '(x)  f ''(x)  ... f n (x)
2 n
A discontinuous function is not differentiable, hence it can not be expressed by Taylor’s series.
Fourier Series  A discontinuous real function can be expressed by Fourier series. At a point of
discontinuity Fourier series gives the value of f (x) as the arithmetic mean of left and right limits.
Example-4.22
In the Taylor series expansion of ex about x = 2, the coefficient of (x – 2)4 is
(a) 1/4! (b) 24/4!
2
(c) e /4! (d) e4/4!
GATE(ME,2008)
Answer : (c)
Solution :
f (x) = ex
The Taylor expansion of a function f (x) about a point x = a, is expressed as
f (x) = f (a) + (x – a) f '(a) 

 x  a 2
f ''(a)
2
(x  a)3 (x  a) 4 iv
 f '''(a)  f (a)  ....
3 4
Now f (x) = ex , a = 2
f '(x) = ex = f ''(x) = f '''(x) = f iv (x)
 f '(a) = f ''(a) = f '''(a) = f iv (a) = e2
(x  2) 2 2 (x  2)3 2 (x  2) 4 2
 ex = e2 + (x –2) e2 + .e  e + e
2 6 24
e2 e2
In the expansion, the coefficient of (x–2)4 is =
24 4
Example-4.23
sin x
The Taylor series expansion of atx   is given by
x
2 2
(a) 1 
 x    ... (b) 1 
 x    ...
3! 3!
2 2
(c) 1 
 x    ... (d) 1 
 x    ...
3! 3!
GATE(EC,2009)
Answer : (d)
Solution :
x3 x5
sin x = x –  – .....
3 5
 x   3   x   5 – ....
sin (x – ) = (x – ) –
3 5
sin(x  )   sin(  x)  (sin x)   sin x
 x   3   x   5  ....
sin x = – (x – ) +
3 5
2
sin x  x     ....
(x  ) = – 1 +
3
Example-4.24
In the Taylor series expansion of exp(x) about trhe point x = , the coefficient of (x –)2 is
(a) exp() (b) 0.5 exp()
(c) exp()+1 (d) exp () –1
GATE(EC,2008)
Answer : (b)
Solution :
f (x) = exp (x) = ex, a = 
f (x) = f (a) + (x –a) f ' (a) +
 x  a 2 f ''(a)   x  a 3 f '''(a)  ....

2 3
f (x) = f ' (x) = f ''(x) = f '''(x) = ex
f (a) = f ' (a) = f ''(a) = f '''(a) = e
ex = e + (x – ) e +
 x   2   x   3
e  e   ....
2 3
e
The coefficient of (x – )2 is = 0.5 exp ()
2
Example-4.25
Which of the following functions would have only odd powers of x in its Taylor series expansion
about the point x = 0?
(a) sin (x3) (b) sin (x2)

(c) cos (x3) (d) cos (x2)
GATE(EC,2008)
Answer : (a)
Solution :
f (x) = sin (x3) , a = 0
(x  a) 2 f ''(a) (x  a)3
f (x) = f (a) + (x – a) f ' (a) +  f ''(a)  ....
2 3
f (x) = sin x3
 f (0) = sin 0 = 0
2 3
f ' (x) = 3x cos x ,  f ' (0) = 0
2 2 3 3
f '' (x) = 3x [–3x sin x ] + cos x (6x)
 f '' (0) = 0 + 0 = 0
3 3 2 2
f ''' (x) = 6 cos x – 36 x – (3x )
 f ''' (0) = 6
Similarly we will procceed to get higher order derivatives and we will get the expansion as
x3 x9
sin (x3) = .6 + c.  ....
3 9
Example-4.26
Obtain the Taylor series expansion of
z2  1
f(z) = over the region | z | < 2.
z 2  5z  6
Solution:
z2  1
we have f(z) =
z 2  5z  6
5z  5
f(z) = 1  (z  2)(z  3)
5(z  1)
= 1  (z  2)(z  3)
5 10
= 1 
z  2 z 3
5 10
= 1 
 z   z
2 1   3 1  
 2  3
1 1
5  z 10  z 
= 1  1    1  
2  2 3  3
5  z z2  10  z z 2 
= 1  1    ........  1    .......
2 2 4  3 3 9 
Example-4.27
1
Obtain the Taylor series expansion of f(z) =
z2
i) |z–2|<2 ii) | z + 1 | < 1
Solution:
i) Let z–2 = u|u|<2
2
1 1 1  u
 f(z) = = = 1
(u  2)2  u
2
4  2 
4 1  
 2
2
1  2u 2.3  u  
f(z) = 1     ......
4  2 2 2 
2 3
1 (z  2) (z  2) (z  2) 
f(z) =  1  2  3  4  ......
4  2 4 8 
ii. | z + 1 | < 1
Let, z+1 = u|u|<1
1
f(z) = = (1 – u)–2
(u  1)2
f(z) = 1 + 2(z + 1) + 3 (z + 1)2 + 4(z + 1)3 + ........
Example-4.28

Obtain the Taylor series expansion of sin z about z = .
4
Solution:
Let f(z) = sin z
 f´(z) = cos z
f´´(z) = – sin z
f´´´(z) = – cos z
2 3
     
z   z     
z 
   4   4  4  
sin z = f    f    f     f     .....
4 1 4 2 4 3 4
2 3
1   1    1     1 
sin z =  z    z      z  4     ......
2  4  2  4   2 2    6 2
2 3
1 1   1   1  
sin z =  z    z     z    ......
2 2 4  2 2 4  6 2 4
2 3
1    1  1  
sin z = 1   z     z     z    ......
2   4 2 4 6 4 
4.11 Laurent’s Series
If we are required to expand f(z) about a point where f(z) is not analytic, then it is expanded by
Laurent’s series and not by Taylor’s series.
Statement :-
If f(z) is analytic inside and on a ring shaped region R bounded by two concentric circles C1 & C2
with the centre at ‘a’ and of radii ‘r1’, ‘r2’ with (r1 > r2). Then for all z with in R
C1
C2 r
a 2 (r1 > r2)
r1
R ; r2 < | z – a | < r1
outer
ann (a ; r2 , r1) radius
inner
annulus common radius
centre
 
f(z) =  a n (z  a) n   a  n (z  a)  n
n 0 n
1  
principlepart
1 f (z)
where, an =  dz
2i  (z  a)n 1
where, r being a closed curve in the ring shaped region, R.
Example-4.29
z2  1
Obtain the Laurent’s series expansion f (z)  over the ring shaped region.
z 2  5z  6
i) 2<|z|<3 ii) | z | > 3
ann (0 ; 2, 3) ann (0 ; 3, )
Solution:
5 10
f(z) = 1  
z2 z3
1 |z|
i) 2<|z|<3 < 2 and < 1 2 < |z| and |z| < 3
|z| 3
3
z
0 2
5 10
f(z) = 1  
 2  z
z 1   3 1  
 z  3
1 1
5  2 10  z 
f(z) = 1  1    1  
z  z 3  3
2 3
5  2 1.2  2  1.2.3  2  
f(z) = 1  1         .....
z  z 2  z  3 z 
10  z z 2 z3 
 1     .....
3  3 9 27 
2
5 2 4 8  10  z z z3 
 f(z) = 1  1   2
 3
 .....  1     .....
z z z z  3  3 9 27 
3
ii) | z | > 3  1
|z|
5 10
f(z) = 1  
z2 z3
5 10
= 1 
 2  3
z 1   z 1  
 z  z
5 2 4 8  10  3 9 27 
= 1  1   2  3  ......   1   2  3  ...... 
z z z z  3 z z z 
Example-4.30
1
Obtain the Laurent’s series expansion of f(z) = 2 over the ring shaped region
z  3z  2
i) 1 < | z | < 2 ii) | z | > 2
Solution:
we have,
1
f(z) = 2
z  3z  2
1
f(z) =
(z  1)(z  2)
1 1
f(z) = 
z  2 z 1
1 1
=  
z 1 z  2
1 |z|
i) 1<|z|<2  1 and 1
|z| 2
 1 < |z| and |z| < 2
1 1
f(z) =  
 1  z
z 1   2 1  
 z  2
2
1 1 1 1  1 z z z3 
f(z) =   1   2  3  .....    1     ..... 
z z z z  2 2 4 8 
2
1 1 1 1  1 z z z3 
f(z) =   1   2  3  .....    1     ..... 
z z z z  2 2 4 8 
2
ii) | z | > 2  <1
|z|
1 1
f(z) =  
 1  2
z 1   z 1  
 z  z
1 1
1 1 1 2
f(z) =   1     1  
z z z z
1 1 1 1  1 2 4 8 
f(z) =  1   2  3  ......  1   2  3  ......
z z z z  z z z z 
4.12 Singular Point
A point z = z0 is said to be a singular point or singularity of a function f(z) if it fails to be analytic at z0.
4.12.1 Types of Singularties
1. Isolated singular point :- A singular point z = z0 is said to be an isolated singular point if that
exist a  > 0 such that the circle | z – z0 | =  contains no singularties other than z0. If that exist
a deleted neighbourhood of ‘z0’ containing no singularties then z = z0 is an isolated singular point.
2. Pole :- A singular point z = z0 is said to be a pole of f(z) if
i) z = z0 is an isolated singular point.
ii) lim f (z) does not exist.
z  z0
3. Pole of order ‘n’ :- If we can find a positive integer ‘n’ such that lim (z – z0)n f(z) = A  0 then
z  z0
z = z0 is a pole of order ‘n’.

Example-4.31
1
f(z) = has a pole of order 3. This function contains z = 2 as pole of order 3.
(z  2)3
Example-4.32
3z  1 2
f(z) = has a pole at z  of order 2 and z = –1 is a pole of order 1 or simple pole.
(5z  2) 2 (z  1) 5
4. Removable Singularity :- A singular point z = z0 is a removable singularity of f(z) if lim f (z) exists.
z  z0
Example-4.33
sin z
Prove that f(z) = has a removable singularity..
z
Solution : lim sin z = 1 when ‘z’ is in radians.

z 0 z

=
when ‘z’ is in degrees.
180
Therefore z = 0 is a removable singularity of f(z).
5. Essential Singularity :- A singular point z = z0 is said to be an essential singularity if it is neither
a pole nor a removable singularity.
Example-4.34
1
For f(z) = e z  2 prove that z = 2 is an essential singularity..
Solution :
1
lim e z  2 does not exist.
z2
 1 1 
We can not find a positive integer ‘n’ such that lim(z  2)n 1   2
 .....
z2 1(z  2) 2(z  2)
  
e1 / z2
is a non-zero finite value. So, z = 2 is not a pole. Therefore, z = 2 is an essential singularity.

Note:- If f(z) is a single valued function and has a singular point then it is either a pole or an
essential singular point.
6. Isolated Essential Singularity :- The limit of the zeros of the function is an isolated essential
singularity.
7. Non-Isolated Essential Singularity :- The limit of the poles is a non-isolated essential singularity.
Example-4.35
 1 
Find the kind of singularity of f(z) = sin   at z = 1
1 z 
Solution:
 1   1  =0
Zeros of f(z) = sin   is given by sin  
1 z  1 z 
1
 = n, n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ...........
1 z
1 1
 1–z =  z = 1 are zeros of f(z).
n n
The limit of zero’s is given by
 1 
Lt [z] = Lt 1   = 1
n  n   n 
therefore, z = 1 is an isolated essential singularity.
Note:- 1. Non-Isolated singularity imply essential singularity.
2. Poles and removable singularity can never be Non-Isolated singularity.
3. Limit point of poles is Non-Isolated essential singularity.
Example-4.36
1
Find the kind of singularity of cosec   at z = 0.
z
Solution:
1
we have f(z) = cosec  
z
1
f(z) =
1
sin  
z
The poles of this function are obtained as,
1 1
sin   = 0  z = , n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ...........
z
  n
The limit of the poles is,
lim z = lim 1 = 0
n  n  n
Therefore, z = 0 is a non-isolated essential singularity.

  
n n n
Note : If f(z) =  a n (z  a)   a  n (z  a) then  a  n (z  a) is the principle part of f(z) about the
n 0 n 1 n 1
singular point z = a.
4.12.2 Identification of singularities
i) If the principle part of f(z) contains finite number of terms about the singularity z = a, then z = a
is a pole of order ‘m’.
ii) If the principle part of f(z) contains infinite number of terms about the singularity z = a, then
z = a is an isolated essential singularity of f(z).
iii) If there is no terms in the principle part of f(z) about the singularity z = a, then z = a, is a
removable singulairty of f(z).
Example-4.37
e2z
Find the Laurent’s series expansion of f(z) = about z = –1.
(z  1)3
Solution:
e2z
we have f(z) =
(z  1)3
Put z+1 = u
e 2(u 1) e 2 2u
 f(z) = = e 
u3 u3  
e 2  2u (2u)2 (2u)3 (2u)4 

= 3 
1     .......
u  1 2 3 4 
e 2 2e 2 2e 2 4e 2 2 2
f(z) =     e (z  1)  ...
(z  1)3 (z  1) 2 (z  1) 3 3
Here, principle part of f(z) contains three terms in its Laurent’s series expansion about z = –1.
Therefore, z = – 1 is a pole of order 3.
Region of convergence : The region of convergence of this Laurent’s series expansion is
0<|u|<
0<|z+1|<
Example-4.38
 1 
Obtain the Laurent series expansion of f(z) = (z + 3) sin   about z = 2.
z2
Solution:
 1 
we have, f(z) = (z  3)sin  
z2
Let z–2 = u
 z+3 = u+5
1
So, f(z) = (u  5)sin  
u
 1 1  1 3 1  1 5 1  1  7 
= (u  5)            .....
 u 3  u  5 u  7u  
3 5 7
 1 1 1  1 1  1 1  
f(z) = (z  3)            .....
 (z  2) 3  z  2  5 z  2 7z2 
f(z) has infinite number of terms in the principle part. Therefore, z = 2 is an isolated essential singularity.
Example-4.39
z  sin z
Obtain the Laurent’s series expansion of f(z) = about z = 0 and type of singularity about
z3
z = 0.
Solution:
z  sin z
we have f(z) =
z3
1   1 3 1 5 1 7 
f(z) =  z   z  z  z  z  .......  
z3   3 5 7 
1  1 3 1 5 1 7 
f(z) = 3 
 z  z  z ......
z  3 5 7 
1 1 2 1 4 1 6
f(z) =  z  z  z  ........
3 5 7 9
There is no terms in the principle part. So z = 0 is removable singularity of above series.
4.13 Residues theorem
If the Laurent’s series expansion of f(z) about the singularity z = a is defined as

f(z) =  a n (z  a) n
n 
Then the residue of f(z) about the singularity z = a is denoted by
Res (f, a) = a–1 in its expansion.
Explanation:-
f(z) = a0 + a1(z – a) + a2(z – a)2 + ..... + ......
a 1 a 2
+  +.....
(z  a) (z  a) 2
1 f (z)
where, a n = 2i  n 1
dz
 (z  a)
then, residue of f(z) 

1
Res (f, a) = a–1 =  f (z) dz
2i 
  f (z) dz = 2i (a–1) = 2i {Res (f, a)}.

4.13.1 Cauchy’s Residue Theorem

If f(z) is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve, C except at finite number of isolated singularities

within C, then f (z)dz = 2i (sum of residues)
C
Proof :- Let C1, C2, C3, ......... Cn be the non-intersecting circles with centres at a1, a2, .... an
respectively, and radii so small that they lie entirely within the closed curve C. Then f(z) is analytic in
the multiple connected region lying between the curves C & C1, C2,....... Cn. Applying Cauchy’s
theorem,
C
C1 a1 Cn
an
C2
a2
then  f (z) dz = 2i

c
 f (z) dz =  f (z) dz   f (z) dz  ....   f (z) dz

c c1 c2 cn
= 2i {Res(f, a1)} + 2i {Res(f, a2)}+ ...... + 2i{Res(f, an)}

n
  f (z) dz = 2i  Res(f ,a k )
c k 1
= 2i [sum of residuces at the singularities of f(z) with in C].
4.13.2 Calculation of residues
1. If z = a is a simple pole of f(z), then
Res(f, a) = lim (z – a) f(z)
z a
2. If z = a is a pole of order n of f(z), then
1 d n 1
Res(f, a) = lim [(z – a)n f(z)]
(n  1) za dz n 1
F(z)
3. If f(z) = and has a simple pole at z = a, then
G(z)
F(a)
Res(f, a) =
G (a)
4. If f(z) has a singularity at infinity,
'1'
Res(f, ) = negative of coefficient of in its Laurent’s series expansion about z = .
z
= –a–1 = lim [–z · f(z)]

z 
1
or The residue of f(z) at infinity =  f (z)dz
2πi C
Example-4.40
z2
Find the residue of the function f(z) = at its singularity..
(z  2) (z  1)2
Solution :
z2
we have, f(z) =
(z  2) (z  1)2
Poles are determined by putting denominator (z – 2) (z + 1)2 = 0
 z = 2, –1, –1
 z = 2 is simple pole
z2 4
So, Res(f, 2) = lim(z  2) f(z) = (z  2) 2
=
z2 (z  2) (z  1) 9
z = –1 is pole of order 2.
1  d  2 z2  
So, Res(f, –1) = lim   (z  1) 
1 z 1  dz  (z  2) (z  1)2  
 d  z 2  
= lim   
z 1 dz z  2
   
 (z  2)2z  z 2 
lim
= z 1  2 
 (z  2) 
(3)(2)  (1) 5
= = .
(3) 2 9
Example-4.41
Find the residue of f(z) = cot z at its singularity.
Solution :
cos z F(z)
f(z) = cot z = =
sin z G(z)
Poles are given by
sin z = 0  z = n are simple poles of f(z).
cos n
 Res (f, n) = =1
cos n
Example-4.42
z
Find the residue of f(z) = at infinity..
(z  1)(z  2)
Solution :
 
 z 2 
Res (f, ) = lim[  z·f (z)] lim
= z   
z   z 2  1  1  1  2  
  z   z  
1
= =–1
11
Example-4.43
1
Find the residue of f(z) = at z = ai.
(z  a 2 ) n 1
2
Solution :
Poles of f(z) are given by z2 + a2 = 0 z2 = –a2  z = ± ai
 z = ai are poles of order (n + 1)
1 dn  1 
Res(f, ai) = lim n (z  ai) n 1 · 2 2 n 1 
n z ai dz  (z  a ) 
1 dn  n 1 1 
= lim (z  ai) · n 1 
n z ai dz n 
n 1
(z  ai) (z  ai) 
1 dn  1 
= lim n  n 1 
n z  ai dz  (z  ai) 
1 dn
= 
lim n (z  ai)  n 1
n z ai dz

1  (n  1) (n  2) (n  3)...... 
= lim  
n z ai .....(n  1  n  1)(z  ai)  n 1 n 
 For f(x) = (x + a)m 

 m 1 
 f (x)  m(x  a) 
 f (x)  m(m  1) (x  a)m 2 
 (n) mn 
 f (x)  m(m  1) (m  2)......[m  (n  1)](x  a) 
1
= lim (–1)n (n + 1) (n + 2) ..... (2n) (z + ai)–2n – 1|z = ai
n z ai
Put the limit
1 (n  1)(n  2)........(2n)
= (1) n
n (2ai)2n 1
(1)n 2n (1)n 2n
= =
n (2a)2n 1 (i)2n 1 n (2a)2n 1 (i 2 )n i
2n
Res (f, ai) =
n (2a)2n 1 i
Example-4.44
3z 2  1
Find  2 dz
C z z
where ‘c’ is the contour which consists ‘0’ & ‘1’.

Solution :
3z 2  1
 2 dz = 2i [sum of residues]
C z z
3z 2  1
Here f(z) = 2
z z
Poles are given by
z2 – z = 0
 z = 0, 1
C
0 1
3z 2  1  3z 2  1   3z 2  1  
  2 dz = 2 i       
C z z  z  1  z 0  z  z 1 
1 
  f (z) d(z) = 2i  1  4 = 2i (4 – 1) = 6i
C  
Example-4.45
z2
Find  dz , C : | z | = 2
C 1  z4
Solution :
z2 z2 z2
 dz =  dz =  dz
1  z4 2 2
c (1  z ) (1  z ) c (1  z) (1  z) (i  z) ( i  z)
 f(z) has poles at z = 1, –1, i, –i(simple pole)

2i
C
i
zi = 2
–1 0 1
–i
–2i
  f (z) dz = 2i [sum of residues]

c
= 2i [Res(f, 1) + Res(f, – i) + Res (f, i) + Res(f, –1)]
 1 1 1 1
= 2i      
 4 4i 4i 4 
1
 f (z) dz = 2i   = i
c 2
Example-4.46
(z 2  1)
Evaluate  3 2
dz , C : | z | = 1.5
c z  3z  2z
Solution :
z2  1 z2  1
Here f(z) = =
z[z 2  3z  2] z(z  2) (z  1)
Poles of f(z) are given by
z(z – 2) (z – 1) = 0
 z = 0, 1, 2
0 1 1.5 2
The point z = 2, lies outside the circle |z| = 1.5

1 1
 Res(f, 0) = =
( 2) (1) 2
2
Res(f, 1) = =–2
1(1)
  f (z) dz = 2i [sum of residuces]

C
= 2i [Res (f, 0) + Res (f, 1)]
1 
= 2i   2 
2 
 3
= 2i    
 2
= – 3i
Example-4.47
dz
 2 C:|z|=1
c z  6iz
Solution :
–1 0 1
–i
–6i
1
f(z) =
z(z  6i)
poles are given by z (z + 6i) = 0 z = 0, –6i
  f (z) d(z) = 2i [Res(f, 0)]
c
1 
= 2i   =
 6i  3
Example-4.48
One of the roots of the equation x3 = j, where j is the positive square root of –1, is
3 1
(a) j (b) j
2 2
3 1 3 1
(c) j (d)  j
2 2 2 2
GATE(IN,09)
Answer : (b)
Solution :
x3 = j, Where j = 1
 x = (j)1/3
 
we can write j = cos  j sin
2 2
1/ 3
  
 x =  cos  j sin 
 2 2
For generalization
1/ 3
     
x = cos  2m    j sin  2m   
  2  2 
1/ 3
  4m  1   4m  1  
 x = cos  j sin 
 2 2 
Now according to De-Movier’s Theorem
  4m  1   j sin  4m  1  
x = cos 
 6 6 
Now, x3 = j has three roots for m = 0, 1, 2

For m = 0,
  3 j
x = cos  j sin = 
6 6 2 2
5 5  3 j
For m = 1, x = cos  j sin = 
6 6 2 2
 9   9 
For m = 2, x = cos    j sin  
 6   6 
= 0 + j (–1) = –j
3 j
Hence  is a root of the given equation.
2 2
Example-4.49
If z = x + jy, where x and y are real, the value of |ejz| is
(a) 1 (b) e x 2 y 2
y
(c) e (d) e – y
GATE(IN,09)
Answer : (d)
Solution :
Z = x + jy
|e jz| = e|jz| = e |j(x+jy)| = e |(jx–y)|
= e|jx| . e–y
jx
Now e = cosx + j sin x
|e jx| = e |jx| = cos 2 x  sin 2 x  1
 |e jz| = 1.e–y = e–y
Example-4.50
Let j = 1 . Then one value of jj is
(a) j (b) –1

(c) (d) e –/2
2
GATE(CS,07)
Answer : (d)
Solution :
j = 1 = i
Let A = ii
Taking log both sides, we get
logA = i log i = i log [0 + 1.i]
We know that
b
log(a  ib)  log a 2  b 2  i tan 1  
a
  1 
 i log [0 + 1. i] = i  log

 
02  12  i tan 1   
 0 
  2  
= i 0  i   = i = 
 2 2 2

logeA =  , Now taking antilog, we get
2


A = e 2
Example-4.51
Which one of the following is NOT true for complex number Z1 and Z2?
Z1 Z1 Z2
(a) Z  2 (b) Z1  Z2  Z1  Z2
2 Z2
2 2 2 2
(c) Z1  Z2  Z1  Z2 (d) Z1  Z2  Z1  Z2  2 Z1  Z2
GATE(CE,05)
Answer : (c)
Solution :
z1 z1 z 2 z z2
(a) = = 1 2 ; True
z2 z2 z2 | z2 |
(b) |z1 + z2|  |z1| + |z2| ; True

(c) |z1 – z2|  |z1| – |z2|
|z1 – z2|  |z1| – |z2| is False
(d) |z1 + z2|2 + |z1–z2|2 = |z1|2 + |z2|2
+ 2|z1| |z2| + |z1|2 + |z2|2 – 2|z1| |z2|
= 2 [ |z1|2 + |z2|2] True
Note:– Some imp. results on modulus
(1) |z1 + z2|  |z1| + |z2|
(2) |z1 – z2|  |z1| + |z2|
(3) |z1 + z2|  |z1| – |z2|
(4) |z1 – z2|  |z1| – |z2|
Example-4.52
The summation of series
5 8 11
S2    ...... is
2 2 2 23
(a) 4.50 (b) 6.0

(c) 6.75 (d) 10.0
GATE(CE,04)
Answer : (d)
Solution :
5 8 11
S = 2    ........
2 2 2 23
This is an infinite Arithmetic -Geometric sequence
S = a + (a + d) r + (a + 2d) r2 + (a + 3d) r3 + ... 
1
a = 2, d = 3, r =
2
1
Since |r| = < 1, The sum to infinity of an arithmetico - geometric series is
2
a dr
S = 1 r 
(1  r) 2
1
3 
2 2
=   2
 1  1
1   1  
 2  2
= 4 + 6 = 10
Example-4.53
The infinite series 1  1  1  .........

2 3
(a) converges (b) diverges
(c) oscillates (d) unstable
GATE(CE,98)
Answer : (a)
Solution :
1 1
S = 1   .....
2 3
The sum of this series will never tend to zero as n tends to infinity.
Hence the given series converges.
Example-4.54
For the function of a complex variable W = nz (where, W = u + jv and Z = x + jy), the u = constant
lines get mapped in Z-plane as
(a) set of radial straight lines (b) set of concentric circles
(c) set of confocal hyperbolas (d) set of confocal ellipses
GATE(EC,2006)
Answer : (b)
Solution :
1 y
w = ln z = loge (x + iy) = log (x2 + y2) + i tan–1  
2 x
1 y
u + iv = w = log (x2 + y2) + i tan–1  
2 x
Comparing both sides, we get
1
 u = loge (x2 + y2)
2
 log(x2 + y2) = 2u
 x2 + y2 = e2u
 x 2  y 2  Constant
which represents a set of concentric circles

Objective Questions
Q.1 Let z3 = z , where z is a complex number not equal to zero. Then z is a solution of
(a) z2 = 1 (b) z3 = 1
4
(c) z = 1 (d) z9 = 1
GATE(IN,05)
Q.2 For real values of x, cos(x) can be written in one of the forms of a convergent series given below :
x x 2 x3
(a) cos(x)  1    .......
1! 2! 3!
x2 x4 x5
(b) cos(x)  1    .......
2! 4! 5!
x3 x5 x7
(c) cos(x)  x    .......
3! 5! 7!
x2 x2 x3
(d) cos(x)  x    ......
1! 2! 3!
GATE(CE,97)
Q.3 A sphere of unit radius is centered at the origin. The unit normal at a point (x, y, z) on the surface of
the sphere is the vector.
 1 1 1 
(a) x, y, z) (b)  , , 
 3 3 3
 x y z   x y z 
(c)  , ,  (d)  , , 
 3 3 3  2 2 2
GATE(IN,09)
sin z
Q.4 The value of  z
dz , where the contour of integration is a simple closed curve around the origin,
is
(a) 0 (b) 2j
(c)  (d) 1/(2j)
GATE(IN,09)
Q.5 Consider the circle |z – 5 – 5i | = 2 in the complex plane (x,y) with z = x + iy. The minimum distance
from the origin to the circle is
(a) 5 2 – 2 (b) 54
(c) 34 (d) 5 2
GATE(IN,05)
cos(2 z)
Q.6 The value of the integral  (2z  1)(z  3) dz
c
(where c is a closed curve given by |z| = 1) is
i
(a) – i (b)
5
2 i
(c) (d)  i
5
GATE(CE,08)
Q.7 The integral  f (z)dz evaluated around the unit circle on the complex plane for f (z)  cosz z is
(a) 2 i (b) 4 i

(c) – 2 i (d) 0
GATE(ME,2008)
Q.8 If (x, y) and (x, y) are functions with continuous second derivatives, then
(x, y) + i(x, y)
can be expressed as an analytic function of
x + iy (i  1) , when
   
(a) x   x ; y  y
   
(b) y   x ; x  y
 2   2   2   2
(c)    1
x 2 y 2 x 2 y 2
   
(d) x  y  x  y  0
GATE(ME,2007)
Q.9 If the semi-circular contour D of radius 2 is as shown in the figure, then the value of the integral
1
 (s 2
ds is
D
 1)
j
j2
D
0
0 2 
–j2
(a) j (b) –j

(c) –  (d) 
GATE(EC,2007)
1
Q.10 The value of the contour integral  2
dz in positive sense is
|z  j|  2
z 4
j 
(a) (b) 
2 2
j 
(c)  (d)
2 2
GATE(EC,2006)
Answer & Explanation
Q.1 Ans. (a)

Let z = x + iy
when z3 = z
 (x + iy)3 = x – iy
 x3 + i3 y3 + 3ixy (x + iy) = (x – iy)
 x3 – iy3 + 3ix2y – 3xy2 = x – iy
 x3 – 3xy2 – x = iy3 – 3ix2y – iy
 x[x2 – 3y2 – 1] = iy3 – 3ix2y – iy
 x[x2 – 3y2 – 1] = iy [y2 – 3x2 – 1] ........ (1)
Now z2 = 1
(x + iy)2 = 1
x2 – y2 + 2ixy = 1
x2 – y2 – 1= – 2ixy ........ (2)
use equation (2) in equation (1), we get
 x[– 2ixy – 2y2] = iy [y2 – 3x2 – 1]
 – 2ix2y – 2xy2 = iy3 – 3x2y – iy
 – 2xy2 = iy3 – ix2y – iy
 – 2xy2 = iy [y2 – x2 – 1] ........ (3)
put the value of y2 in equation (3) from equation (2)
 – 2xy2 = iy [x2 + 1 + 2ixy – x2 – 1]
 – 2xy2 = – 2xy2
So, we can say that when z 3  z then z is a solution of z2 = 1.
Hence, option (a) is correct.
Q.2 Ans. (b)
Convergent series i.e. taylor series given as :
(x  a)1 (x  a) 2
f (x) = f (a)  f (a)  f (a)
1 2
(x  a)3
 f (a)  ......
3
f (x) = cos x, f(x)|x = 0 = cos 0 = 1
f ´(x) = –sin x, f ´(x)|x = 0 = – sin 0 = 0
f (x) = – cos x, f (x) x 0 = – cos 0 = –1
f (x) = sin x, f (x) x 0 = sin 0 = 0

f(4)(x) = cos x, f(4)(x)|x = 0 = cos 0 = 1
(x  a)1 (x  a)2
f(x) = 1  0 1
1 2
(x  a)3 (x  a)4
 0   1  .....  ......
3 4
putting a = 0, we get
x2 x4
f (x) = 1  x 1  1  ....
2 4
x 2 x 4 x 6 x8
f(x) = 1      .....
2 4 6 8
Hence, option (b) is correct.
Q.3 Ans. (b)
(0, 0, 0) (x, y, z)
r=1
0
f
 Unit normal =
| f |
where, f is a scalar point function of (x, y, z).
 f = (x, y, z) – (0, 0, 0)
 f = (x, y, z)
f ˆ f ˆ f ˆ
 Gradient of f = (f ) = i j k
x y x
f = ˆi  ˆj  kˆ
 | f | = 111 = 3
ˆi  ˆj  kˆ
So, unit normal =
3
 1 1 1 
unit normal =  , , 
 3 3 3
Q.4 Ans. (a)
z=0
sin z
 dz , where C is simple closed curve around the origin.
c
z
According to Cauchy’s residue theorem,
sin z
 dz = 2i [sin z]
c
z z=0
= 2i [sin 0] = 0
So, option (a) is correct.
Q.5 Ans (a)
We know that |z– zo| = a represents a circle having centre at zo and radius a
 |z – 5 – 5 i| = 2 is a circle with centre at (5, 5i) and radius 2.
The minimum distance from origin to the circle to the circle OA = OC – AC

= (5) 2  (5)2  2

= 5 2 2 
C
2
(5,5i)
A
O (0, 0)
Q.6 Ans. (c)
C : |z| = 1
1 3
z
1
z = , 3 are the poles.
2
1
z = lies inside |z| = 1 and z = 3 lies outside.
2
cos(2z)
I =  (2z  1)(z  3) dz
c
where, C is a closed curve given by |z| = 1.

By applying, Cauchy residue theorem,
cos(2z)  cos(2z)  1 
 (2z  1) (z  3) dz
c
= 2i   z  
 (2z  1) (z  3)  2  z 1
2
 cos(2z)(2z  1) 
= 2i  
 2(2z  1) (z  3)  z  1
2
 
 cos()   –1 2  2i
= zi   = zi   =
 2 1  3   25  5
  z 

 
 cos()   1  2  2i
= 2i   = 2i   =
1
 2  3   2  5  5
  z 

Q.7 Ans (a)

cos z
 z dz where c is the unit circle on complex plane.
c
By Cauchy Residue theorem,

C
z=0
cos z
 z dz = 2i [cos z]z = 0
c
= 2i [cos 0]
= 2i
Q.8 Ans (b)
(x, y) + i (x, y) can be expressed as an analytic function of (x + iy) when it satisfy the C-R equation
i.e. x = y, y = – x
   
 = , = 
x y y x
Hence alternative (b) is correct.
Q.9 Ans (a)
j
2
j
D
o 2 6
2
–j
1
  s
D
2
1 
ds = 2j (sum of Residues)
s2 – 1 = 0 s = ± 1
Hence singular points are at s = + 1 and s = – 1only s = + 1 lies inside the given contour Residues at
1 1
+ 1 = lim(s  1)· 2 =
s1
(s  1) 2
1 1
  
D s2  1
ds = 2j  = j
  2
Alternative (a) is correct
Q.10 Ans (d)
1 1
2=
z 4  z  2 j z  2 j
Im(z)
+3j
Re(z)
–j
Poles (0, 2) lies inside the circle |z – j| = 2

By Cauchy’s Integral formula
2j
I =
(2 j  2 j)
2j 
= 4j =
2
Alternative (d) is correct

GATE Practice Questions
1. The complex function tanh (s) is analytic over a region of the imaginary axis of the complex s–plane if
the following is TRUE everywhere in the region for all inters n
n  2n  1 
(a) Re(s) = 0 (b) Im (s)  n c) Im(s)  (d) Im (s) 
3 2
GATE(IN/2013/1M)
1. Ans. (d)
2. If x = 1 , then the value of xx is

(a) e -/2 (b) e /2
(c) x (d) 1
GATE(IN/2012/1M)
2. Ans. (a)
Given x = 1 = i
y = xx = ii
Taking log on both sides, we have,
 log y = i log i
According to property of log,
2 2 1 y
log(x + jy) = log x  y  i tan
x
 2 2 1 1 
 log y = i  log 0  1  i tan 
 0
 
 log y = i  log1  i 
 2

 log y = –
2
 y = e –/2
Thus xx = e –/2
3. Given f (z)  1  2 .
z 1 z  3
If C is a counterclockwise path in the z-plane such that z  1  1 ,the value of
1
2j e
f (z) dz is
(a) –2 (b) –1
(c) 1 (d) 2
GATE(IN/2012/1M)
3. Ans. (c)
1 2 (z  3)  2z  2
f(z) = – 
z 1 z  3 (z  1)(z  3)
( z  1)
=
(z  1)(z  3)
Given path |z+1| = 1
From fig. it is clear that one pole (i.e.z = –1) of f(z) lies in within the circle and another (i.e. z = – 3)
outside the circle.
Now residue at z = –1
Re(z = –1) = lim(z
z 1
 1)f (z)
z  1 2
= zlim  1
1 z3 2
By C-R theorm,  f (z)dz = 2j(1)
1
2j 
 f (z)dz = 1
4. The contour integral C

e1/ z dz with C as the counter-clockwise unit circle in the z-plane is equal to
(a) 0 (b) 2
(c) 2 1 (d) 
GATE(IN/2011/1M)
4. Ans (a)
Given,
 e
1/ z
dz ; |z| = 1
C
Let, z = rei = ei i.e. r = 1

dz = iei d
2
e  i
  e
0
i·ei d Let e–i = t
1
t  1  idt
= ie  
1 t t
 – ie–id = dt
1
2 et i dt
= i  2
dt  d =
1 t t
1
et
= 1 1 t 2 dt = 0
5. The contour C in the adjoining figure is described by x2 + y2 = 16.
z2  8
The value of c 0.5z – 1.5 j dz is
y
z plane
(Note : j = –1 )
x
0
(a) – 2 j (b) 2 j
(c) 4 j (d) –4 j
GATE(IN/2010/1M)
5. Ans. (d)
y
4j
–4 0 4 x
–4j
C : x2 + y2 = 16
 |z| = 4
z2  8 z2  8 2(z 2  8)
 dz =  dz =  dz
c 0.5z  1.5j c 0.5(z  3j) c (z  3j)
Since,
Z = 3j lies inside the circle so, using Cauchy’s integral theorem, we get
2(z 2  8)
 dz = 2i [f(z)]| = 2i[2(3j)2 + 8)] = 2i[2(–9 + 8)] = –4i
c (z  3j)
z = 3j
sin z
6. The value of  z
dz , where the contour of integration is a simple closed curve around the origin, is
(a) 0 (b) 2j

(c)  (d) 1/(2j)
GATE(IN/2009/1M)
6. Ans. (a)
z=0
sin z
 dz , where C is simple closed curve around the origin.
c
z
According to Cauchy’s residue theorem,
sin z
 dz = 2i [sin z]
c
z z=0
= 2i [sin 0] = 0
So, option (a) is correct.
7. One of the roots of the equation x3 = j, where j is the positive square root of –1, is
3 1
(a) j (b) j
2 2
3 1 3 1
(c) j (d)  j
2 2 2 2
GATE(IN/2009/2M)
7. Ans. (b)
x3 = j ; where j = 1
 x = (j)1/3
 
we can write j = cos  j sin
2 2
1/ 3
  
 x =  cos  j sin 
 2 2
For generalization
1/ 3
     
x = cos  2m    j sin  2m   
  2   2 
1/ 3
  4m  1   4m  1  
 x = cos  j sin 
 2 2 
Now according to De-Movier’s Theorem
  4m  1   j sin  4m  1  
x = cos 
 6 6 
Now, x3 = j has three roots for m = 0, 1, 2
For m = 0,
  3 j
x = cos  j sin = 
6 6 2 2
5 5  3 j
For m = 1, x = cos  j sin = 
6 6 2 2
 9   9 
For m = 2, x = cos    j sin  
 6  6 
= 0 + j (–1) = –j
3 j
Hence  is a root of the given equation.
2 2
8. If z = x + jy, where x and y are real, the value of |ejz| is

(a) 1 (b) e x 2  y2
y
(c) e (d) e –
GATE(IN/2009/1M)
8. Ans. (d)
z = x + jy
|e jz| = e|jz| = e |j(x+jy)| = e |(jx–y)|
= e|jx| . e–y
jx
Now e = cosx + j sin x
|e jx| = e |jx| = cos 2 x  sin 2 x  1
 |e jz| = 1.e–y = e–y
sin x
6. The Taylor series expansion of at x   is given by
x
2 2
(a) 1
 x    ... (b) 1 
 x    ...
3! 3!
2 2
(c) 1 
 x    ... (d) 1 
 x    ...
3! 3!
GATE(EC/2009/2M)
6. Ans.(d)
x3 x5
sin x = x –  – .....
3 5
 x   3   x   5 – ....
sin (x – ) = (x – ) –
3 5
 sin(x – ) = – sin ( – x)
= – (sin x) = – sin x
 x   3   x   5  ....
 sin x = – (x – ) +
3 5
2
sin x  x     ....
(x  ) = – 1 +
3
1  f (z)
7. If f (z) = c0 + c1 z-1 then 
unit
z
dz is given by
circle
(a) 2c 1 (b) 2 (1+c0)

(c) 2 jc1 (d) 2 j(1+c0)
GATE(EC/2009/1M)
7. Ans.(d)
Given, f (z) = c0 + c1 z-1
1  f (z) 1  co  c1z 1

unit
z
dz =  z
dz =  F(z)dz
unit unit
circle circle circle
1  co  c1z 1 z  c o z  c1
where, F(z) = =
z z2
Unit circle is represented by , |z| = 1
According C-R Theorem,  F(z)dz = 2j(sum of Residues poles lying within unit circle)
unit
circle
Residues of repeated poles at z = 0 can be obtained as,

d 2
R 0 = lim z F(z)
z 0 dz
d 2  z  co z  c1 
= lim z
z 0 dz  z2 

= 1 + co
  F(z)dz
unit
= 2j(1 + co)
circle
8. The residues of a complex function

1  2z
X(z) = at its poles are
z(z  1)(z  2)
1 1 1 1
(a) ,  and 1 (b) , –1
2 2 2 2
1 3 1 3
(c) , 1and  (d) ,  1 and
2 2 2 2
GATE(EC/2010/2M)
8. Ans.(c)
1  2z
Given, X(z) =
z  z  1 z  2 
The poles of X(z) are z = 0, 1 and 2
Residue (at z = a) = lim
z a
 z  a  ·X  z 
1  2z  1  2z  1
 Residue (at z = 0) = lim  z  0  lim
(z  1)(z  2)
=
z 0 z(z  1)(z  2) z0
2
1  2z  1  2z 
Residue (at z = 1) = lim  z  1  = lim =1
z 1 z(z  1)(z  2) z 1 z(z  2)
1  2z  1  2z  3
Residue (at z = 2) = lim  z  2  = lim =–
z2 z(z  1)(z  2) z  2 z(z  1)
2
3z  4
9. The value of the integral  2
dz where
C (z  4z  5)
C is the circle |z| = 1 is given by
(a) 0 (b) 1/10
(c) 4/5 (d) 1
GATE(EC/2011/1M)
9. Ans.(a)
( 3z  4) (3z  4)
 (z 2
 4z  5)
dz =  [z  (2  i)] [z  (2  i)] dz
C
C
Poles are at z = – 2 ± i,
Im
(–2+i)
1
–2 –1 0 1 Re
(–2–i)
Since, there is no pole inside the circle

 Residue = 0
(3z  4)
 (z2
 4z  5)
dz = 2i (sum of residues)
= 2i (0) = 0
10. Given
1 2 . If C is a counterclockwise path in the z-plane such that z  1  1 ,the value of 1 f (z) dz is
2j c
f (z)  
z 1 z  3
(a) –2 (b) –1
(c) 1 (d) 2
GATE(EC/2012/1M)
10. Ans.(c)
1 2 (z  3)  2z  2
f(z) = – 
z 1 z  3 (z  1)(z  3)
( z  1)
=
(z  1)(z  3)
Given path |z+1| = 1 is a circle.
1
–2
x
–3 –1
–1
Pole of the given function at z = –1 of f(z) lies in within the circle and another pole at z = – 3 outside the
circle.
Now residue at z = – 1
Re(z = –1) = zlim
 –1
(z  1)f (z)
z  1 2
= zlim  1
1 z3 2
By C-R Theorem,
 f (z)dz = 2j(sum of Residues) = 2j(1)
1
2j 
 f (z)dz = 1
11. If x = 1 , then the value of xx is

(a) e -/2 (b) e /2
(c) x (d) 1
GATE(EC/2012/1M)
11. Ans.(a)
Given x = 1 = i
y = xx = i i
 log y = i log i
y
log(x + iy) = log x 2  y 2  i tan 1
x
 2 2 1 1 
 log y = i  log 0  1  i tan 
 0
 
 log y = i  log1  i 
 2

 log y = –
2
 y = e –/2
2. A point z has been plotted in the complex plane, as shown in figure below.
Im Unit circle
Re
1
The plot of the complex number y  is
z
(a) (b)
Im Unit circle Im Unit circle
y Re Re
y
(c) (d)
Im Unit circle Im Unit circle
y
Re Re
y
GATE(EE/2011/1M)
2. Ans.(d)
Let z = a + bi
Since, z is shown inside the unit circle in I quadrant, a and b are both positive and 0  a 2  b 2  1 .
1 1
Now, =
z a  bi
a  bi a  bi
 = 2
(a  bi) (a  bi) a  b2
a b
=  2 i
a  b a  b2
2 2
Since, a, b > 0
a b
2 2
0 ; 2 0
a b a  b2
1
So, is in IV quadrant.
z
2 2
1  a   b  1
=  2 2 
 2 2  =
z a b  a b  a  b2
2
Since, 0  a 2  b 2  1
1
1
a  b2
2
1
So, is outside the unit circle in IV quadrant.
z
3. Given
1 2
f (z)   . If C is a counterclockwise path in the z-plane such that |z + 1| = 1, the value of
z 1 z  3
1
2j 
 f (z) dz is
e
(a) –2 (b) –1
(c) 1 (d) 2
GATE(EE/2012/1M)
3. Ans.(c)
1 2 (z  3)  2z  2
f(z) = – 
z 1 z  3 (z  1)(z  3)
( z  1)
=
(z  1)(z  3)
Given path |z+1| = 1
|z+1| = 1 Im
0
–3 –1 Re
From fig. it is clear that one pole (i.e.z = –1) of f(z) lies in within the circle and another (i.e. z = – 3) outside
the circle.
Now residue at z = – 1
Re(z = –1) = lim(z
z 1
 1)f (z)
z  1 2
= zlim  1
1 z3 2
By C-R theorem,  f (z)dz = 2j(1)
1
2j 
 f (z)dz = 1
x
4. If x = 1 , then the value of x is
(a) e – /2 (b) e /2
(c) x (d) 1
GATE(EE/2012/1M)
4. Ans.(a)
Given x = 1 = i
y = xx = i i
 log y = i log i
y
log(x + jy) = log x 2  y 2  i tan 1
x
 2 2 1 1 
 log y = i  log 0  1  i tan 
 0
 
 log y = i  log1  i 
 2

 log y = –
2
 y = e –/2
z2  4
5.  z 2  4 dz evaluated anticlockwise around the circle |z – i| = 2, where i = 1 , is
(a) – 4 (b) 0
(c) 2 + (d) 2 + 2i
GATE(EE/2013/2M)
5. Ans.(a)
z2  4
has two poles of z = 2i, – 2i
z2  4
|z – i| = 2
 x  i (y  1) = 2
Im
3i
× 2i
i
Re
–i
× –2i
Thus out of two poles only one pole i.e. z = 2i lies within the given closed area.
z2  4
Thus  z 2  4 dz = 2 i × (Residue at z = 2i)
Now Residue at z = 2i,
z2  4
Re (z = 2 i) = zlim (z  2i) .
 2i z2  4
z 2
 4
= zlim (z  2i)
 2i (z  2i) (z  2i)
z 2  4 4  4 2
= zlim  
 2i z  2i 2i  2i i
z2  4  2 
Thus  z 2  4 dz = 2i  i   4
6. Square roots of –i, where i = 1 , are

(a) i, – i
     3   3 
(b) cos     isin    ,cos    i sin  
 4   4   4  4 
  3   3   
(c) cos    isin   , cos    isin  
4  4   4  4
 3   3   3   3 
(d) cos    isin    , cos     isin  
 4  4   4   4 
GATE(EE/2013/1M)
6. Ans.(b)
Let, i = x
Therefore, – i = x2
Taking log on both sides,
log (– i) = 2 log x
2 2 1  1 
 log 0  1  i tan   = 2 log x
 0 
 log1  i tan 1    = 2 log x

 3
 2 log x = – i or 2 log x = i
2 2
 3
 log x = – i or log x = i
4 4
 3
i i
 x = e4 or x = e 4
    3 3
 x = cos     i sin    or x = cos  i sin
 4  4 4 4

1. The series  n
1
n!
coverges to
(a) 2 In 2 (b) 2
(c) 2 (d) e
GATE(EC-IV/2014/1M)
Ans (d)
 z 2  z  4j 
3. C is a closed path in the z-plane given by |z| = 3. The value of the intergral 
 C  z  2j  dz is
(a) – 4(1 + j2) (b) 4(3 – j2)
(c) – 4(3 + j2) (d) 4(1 – j2)
GATE(EC-I/2014/1M)
3. Ans.(c)
26. The Taylor series expansion of 3 sin x + 2 cos x is
2 x3
(a) 2  3x  x   .....
2
2 x3
(b) 2  3x  x   .....
2
2 x3
(c) 2  3x  x   .....
2
2 x3
(d) 2  3x  x   .....
2
GATE(EC-I/2014/2M)
26. Ans.(a)
27. The real part of an analytic function f(z) where z = x + jy is given by e–ycos(x). The imaginary part of f(z)
is
(a) eycos(x) (b) e–ysin(x)
y
(c) –e sin(x) (d) –e–ysin(x)
GATE(EC-II/2014/2M)
27. Ans.(b)
5. Let S be the set of points in the complex plane corresponding to the unit circle. (That is, S = {z : |z| = 1}).
Consider the function f(z) = z z* where z* denotes the complex conjugate of z. The f(z) maps of a signal
x(t). Then, x(0+) is
(a) 0 (b) 3
(c) 5 (d) 21
GATE(EE-I/2014/1M)
5. Ans. (c)
4. All the values of the multi-valued complex function 1i, where i = 1 , are
(a) purely imaginary
(b) real and non-negative
(c) on the unit circle
(d) equal in real and imaginary parts
GATE(EE-II/2014/1M)
4. Ans. (b)
z2
26. Integration of the complex function f(z) = , in the counterclockwise direction, around |z–1| = 1, is
z2  1
(a) –i (b) 0
(c) i (d) 2i
GATE(EE-III/2014/2M)
26. Ans ()
1
12. The value of  z 2
d Z, where the contour is the unit circle traversed clockwise, is
(a) – 2i (b) 0

(c) 2i (d) 4i
GATE(IN/2015/1M)
Ans. (b)
14. Let z = x + iy be a complex variable. Consider that contour integration is performed along the unit circle
in anticlockwise direction. Which one of the following statements is NOT TRUE?
z 1
(a) The residue of 2
z 1
at z = 1 is
2
(b) 
c
z 2 dz  0
1 1
(c) 

2i c z
dz  1
(d) z (complex conjugate of z) is an analytical function

GATE(EC-I/2015/1M)
Ans. (d)
38. If C denotes the counterclockwise unit circle, the value of the contour integral
1
2j  Re{z} dz
C
is ...........
GATE(EC-II/2015/2M)
Ans. 0.5
13. If C is a circle of radius r with center zo, in the complex z-plane and if n is a non-zero integer, then
dz
 ( z  z )
C o
n 1
equals
(a) 2nj (b) 0

nj
(c) (d) 2n
2
GATE(EC-III/2015/1M)
Ans. (b)
 n
1
15. The value of 
n0
n   is ..........
2
Ans. 2
6. Consider the function f(z) = z + z* where z is a complex variable and z* denotes its complex conjugate.
Which one of the following is TRUE?
(a) f (z) is both continuous and analytic
(b) f (z) is continuous but not analytic
(c) f (z) is not continuous but is analytic
(d) f (z) is neither continuous nor analytic
GATE(EE-II/2016/1M)
Ans. (b)
5. The value of the integral
2z  5
  1 2
dz
c
 z   ( z  4 z  5)
 2
over the contour |z| = 1, taken in the anti-clockwise direction, would be
24i 48i
(a) (b)
13 13
24 12
(c) (d)
13 13
GATE(EE-I/2016/1M)
Ans. (b)

27. Let S   n n where || < 1. The value of  in the range 0 <  < 1, such that S = 2 is ..........
n 0
GATE(EE-I/2016/2M)
Ans. 0.28:0.31
sin( z )
2. For f ( z )  , the residue of the pole at z = 0 is .............
z2
Ans. 1.0:1.0
1 ez
29. The values of the integral 

2j c z  2
dz along a closed contour c in anti-clockwise direction for
(i) the point zo = 2 inside the contour c, and

(ii) the point zo = 2 outside the contour c,
respectively, are
(a) (i) 2.72, (ii) 0
(b) (i) 7.39, (ii) 0
(c) (i) 0, (ii) 2.72
(d) (i) 0, (ii) 7.39
GATE(EC-II/2016/1M)
Ans. (b)
x
4. How many distinct values of x satisfy the equation sin (x) = , where x is in radians?
2
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4 or more
GATE(EC-II/2016/1M)
Ans. (c)
2. Consider the complex valued function f (z) = 2z3 + b|z|3 where z is a complex variable.
The value of b for which the function f (z) is analytic is ..............
GATE(EC-II/2016/1M)
Ans. 0.0:0.0
28. In the following integral, the contour C encloses the points 2j and –2j.
1 sin z
 

2 C ( z  2j )3
dz
The value of the integral is ..........

GATE(EC-I/2016/2M)
Ans. –136:–132
5. In the neighborhood of z = 1, the function f (z) has a power series expansion of the form
f (z) = 1 + (1 – z) + (1 – z)2 + ...........
Then f (z) is
1 1
(a) (b) z  2
z
z 1 1
(c) z  1 (d) 2 z  1
GATE(IN/2016/1M)
Ans. (a)
1 z2  1
dz where z is a complex number and C is a unit circle with center at
2j c z 2  1
30. The value of the integral
1+ 0j in the complex plane is .........

GATE(IN/2016/2M)
Ans. 1:1
2
26. Let f (x)  e x  x for real x. From among the following, choose the Taylor series approximation of f(x)
around x = 0, which included all powers of x less than or equal to 3.
(A) 1 + x + x2 + x2
3 2 3
(B) 1  x  x  x
2
3 2 7 3
(C) 1  x  x  x
2 6
(D) 1 + x + 3x2 + 7x3
GATE(EC-I/2017/2M)
26. Ans. : C
4. The residues of the a function
1
f (z)  are
(z  4)(z  1)3
1 1 1 1
(A) and (B) and
27 125 125 125
1 1 1 1
(C) and (D) and
27 5 125 5
GATE(EC-II/2017/1M)
4. Ans. : B
27. An integral I over a counterclockwise circle C is given by
z2  1 z
I
 e dz.
C z2  1
If C is defined as |z| = 3, then the value of I is

(A) –i sin(1) (B) –2i sin(1)
(C) –3i sin(1) (D) –4i sin(1)
GATE(EC-II/2017/2M)
27. Ans. : D
2. For a complex number z,
z2  1
lim is
z i z 3  2z  i(z 2  2)
(A) –2i (B) –i
(C) i (D) 2i
GATE(EE-I/2017/1M)
2. Ans. : D
 x  iy 2  dz, where z = x + iy. The line c is shown in the figure below

2
28. Consider the line integral I 
c
(1, i)
i
x
(0, 0) 1
The value of I is
1 2
(A) i (B) i
2 3
3 4
(C) i (D) i
4 5
GATE(EE-I/2017/2M)
28. Ans. : B
27. The value of the contour integral in the complex-plane
x 3  2z  3
 z  2 dz
along the contour |z| = 3, taken counterclockwise is:
(A) –18i (B) 0
(C) 14i (D) 48i
GATE(EE-II/2017/2M)
27. Ans. : C
3. Let z = x + jy where j  1 . Then cos 

(A) cos z (B) cos z
(C) sin z (D) sin z
GATE(IN/2017/1M)
3. Ans. (B)
2. Let f1(z) = z2 and f 2 ( z )  z be two complex variable functions. Here z is the complex conjugate of z.
Choose the correct answer.
(a) Both f1(z) and f2(z) are analytic
(b) Only f1(z) is analytic
(c) Only f2(z) is analytic
(d) Both f1(z) and f2(z) are not analytic
GATE(IN/2018/1M)
2. Ans.(b)
z 1
13. The value of the integral  C z2  4
dz in counter clockwise direction around a circle C of radius 1 with
center at the point z = –2 is
πi
(a) (b) 2i
2
πi
(c)  (d) –2i
2
GATE(EE/2018/1M)
13. Ans.(a)
z2
35. If C is a circle |z| = 4 and f (z) 
(z2 3z  2)2
, then  f (z)dz is
C
(a) 1 (b) 0
(c) –1 (d) –2
GATE(EE/2018/2M)
35. Ans.(b)
 t2 
x  
2
24. Taylor series expansion of f (x)   e  
dt around x = 0 has the form
0
f(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 +.....
The coefficient a2 (correct to two decimal places) is equal to _______.

GATE(EC/2018/1M)
24. Ans.(–0.01 to 0.01)
51. The contour C given below is on the complex plane z = x + jy, where j  1
C y
–1 1 x
1 dz
The value of the integral πj  z 2 1 is _______.
C
GATE(EC/2018/2M)
29. A complex function f(z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y) and its complex conjugate f*(z) = u(x, y) – i v(x, y) are both analytic in
the entire complex plane, where
z = x + i y and i  1 . The function f is then given by
(a) f(z) = x + i y (b) f(z) = x2 –y2 + i 2xy
(c) f(z) = constant (d) f(z) = x2 + y2
GATE(IN/2019/2M)
29. Ans.(c)
16. The value of the contour integral
2
1  1


2j 
 z   dz
z
evaluated over the unit circle |z| = 1.is _______.
GATE(EC/2019/1M)
16. Ans.(-0.0001 to 0.0001)
Let
2
1  1
X(z) = 

2j 
 z   dz
z
As per Cauchy’s integral formula,
f (z)
 z  z o
dz = 2jf(zo)
Reducing given function X(z) in the form of above formula for evaluation of X(z) at |z| = 1, we have,
2
 1
 z 
1  z
X(z) =
2j 
 z 1
  z  1 dz
1 f (z)
2j  z  1
 X(z) = dz
2
 1
where f(z) =  z    z  1
 z
Using Cauchy’s integral formula, we have,
1
X(z) =  2jf (1)
2j
2
 1
 X  z)  |z|1 = f (1)   1   1  1  0
 1
1. Which one of the following functions is analytic over the entire complex plane?
(a) ln(z) (b) e 1/z
1
(c) (d) cos(z)
1 z
GATE(EC/2019/1M)
1. Ans.(d)
A complex function f(z) is analytic in entire
z-plane if ti is
(i) Single valued at every point
(ii) Bounded
(iii) Differentiable
(a) f(z) = n z
f(z) is not analytic at z = 0
(b) f(z) = e 1/z
f(z) = e1/z =  at z = 0
So, f(z) is not analytic at z = 0
1
(c) f(z) =
1 z
f(z) =  at z = 1
So f(z) is not analytic at z = 1
(d) f(z) = cosz
2 z 4 z 6 z8
f(z) = 1  z    ....
4! 6! 8!
Here f(z) is single valued, bounded and differentiable so f(z) is analytic in entire z-plane
27. The closed loop line integral

z3  z 2  8
 z  2 dz
|z| 5
evaluated counter-clockwise, is
(a) +8j (b) –8j
(c) –4j (d) +4j
GATE(EE/2019/2M)
27. Ans.(a)
4. Which one of the following functions is analytic in the region |z|  1?
z2  1 z2  1
(a) (b)
z z2
z2  1 z2  1
(c) (d) z  j0.5
z  0.5
GATE(EE/2019/1M)
4. Ans.(b)
Complex Variables ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS [67]
5.
The value of the following complex integral, with C representing the unit circle centered at origin in the
counterclockwise sense, is:
z2 + 1
∫C z 2 − 2z dz
(a) 8πi (b) –8πi
(c) –πi (d) πi
GATE(EE/2020/1M)
5. Ans(c)
1
15. Let f ( z ) = , a > 0. The value of the integral ∫ f ( z ) dz dx over a circle C with centre (–a, 0) and radius
z+a
R > 0 evaluated in the anti-clockwise direction is _____.
(a) 0 (b) 2πi
(c) –2πi (d) 4πi
GATE(IN/2020/1M)
15. Ans.(b)

Complex Variables

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4

4.1 Complex Variable

4.3 Continuity of a function

6. If f(z) = u +iv is an analsytic function, then the system of curves,

(1 + i) f(z) =  e z cos 0 dz  i  e z (  cos 0) dz + c

  f (z)dz =  (udx  vdy)  i  (vdx  udy)

1.  [f (z)  g(z)]dz =  f (z)dz   g(z) dz

case when n = –1.

ei(n 1)2   cos(n  1)2  i sin(n  1)2

4.9 Cauchy’s Integral Formula

f (z) 2i (n)

i 1 (z3  6)dz 1 (z3  6)dz

z being a complex variable. The value of I will be

Cauchy’s Integral Theorem

 By Cauchy’s integral functions,

 By Cauch’s integral theorem,

 By Cauchy integral theorem,

 By Cauch’s integral theorem,

(–1, –3) (1, –3)

(–3, 1) (–1, 1) (+1, 1)

f(z) = e–z is analytic within C : |z| = 1.

f(z) = e2z is analytic within the circle |z| = 2.

 By Cauchy intergral formula,

 By Cauchy integral formula,

sin 2 z 2i    2i

Taylor series expansion of sin x is

f (x) = f (a) + (x – a) f '(a) 

 f '(a) = f ''(a) = f '''(a) = f iv (a) = e2

sin(x  )   sin(  x)  (sin x)   sin x

 x  a 2 f ''(a)   x  a 3 f '''(a)  ....

(a) sin (x3) (b) sin (x2)

z = z0 is a pole of order ‘n’.

Solution : lim sin z = 1 when ‘z’ is in radians.

is a non-zero finite value. So, z = 2 is not a pole. Therefore, z = 2 is an essential singularity.

Therefore, z = 0 is a non-isolated essential singularity.

e 2  2u (2u)2 (2u)3 (2u)4 

then, residue of f(z) 

4.13.1 Cauchy’s Residue Theorem

then  f (z) dz = 2i

 f (z) dz =  f (z) dz   f (z) dz  ....   f (z) dz

= 2i {Res(f, a1)} + 2i {Res(f, a2)}+ ...... + 2i{Res(f, an)}

= –a–1 = lim [–z · f(z)]

 For f(x) = (x + a)m 

where ‘c’ is the contour which consists ‘0’ & ‘1’.

 f(z) has poles at z = 1, –1, i, –i(simple pole)

  f (z) dz = 2i [sum of residues]

The point z = 2, lies outside the circle |z| = 1.5

  f (z) dz = 2i [sum of residuces]

Now, x3 = j has three roots for m = 0, 1, 2

(b) |z1 + z2|  |z1| + |z2| ; True

(a) 4.50 (b) 6.0

The infinite series 1  1  1  .........

(a) 2 i (b) 4 i

(a) j (b) –j

Answer & Explanation

Q.1 Ans. (a)

f (x) = sin x, f (x) x 0 = sin 0 = 0

The minimum distance from origin to the circle to the circle OA = OC – AC

Q.6 Ans. (c)

where, C is a closed curve given by |z| = 1.

Q.7 Ans (a)

By Cauchy Residue theorem,