CALCULUS 2

1. Sequences and Series

(Chapter 11)

Nguyễn Anh Tú
natu@hcmiu.edu.vn
Contents
Section 1

Sequences
Sequences

A sequence is an infinite list of real numbers:

a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , . . . , an , . . .

The sequence a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . is also denoted by {an } or {an }∞

n=1 .

Definition 1.1
A sequence of numbers is a function whose domain is the set
of positive integers.
For a sequence a : N → R, it is customary to denote an
instead of a(n) for the value of the function at the number n.
The number an is called the nth term of the sequence.
Sequences
A sequence can be pictured either by:

• Plotting its terms on a number line or

• Plotting its graph.

The sequence { n1 }.
Sequences
Descriptions of sequences
A sequence can be specified in three ways:
(i) List the first few terms followed by ... if the pattern is
obvious, e.g. 1, 1/4, 1/9, . . .
(ii) Provide a formula for the general term an , e.g.
an = (−1)n sin n.
(iii) Provide a formula for calculating the term an from
previous terms a1 , a2 , ..., an−1 , together with values of
enough initial terms. E.g. the Fibonacci sequence
a1 = a2 = 1, an = an−1 + an−2 , n > 2.
 ∞
Example: The sequence n1 n=1 can be described as
• 1, 12 , 13 , 41 , . . .
• an = n1 , n = 1, 2, . . . .
• a1 = 1, an+1 = a a+1 n
.
n
• a1 = 1, a2 = 2 , an+1 = 2aan an−1
1
.
n−1 −an
 Section 2

Limits of Sequences
Limits of Sequences
Definition 1.3
• A sequence {an } converges to the number L, and we
write
lim an = L
n→∞
or
an → L as n → ∞
if for every ϵ > 0 there is a corresponding integer N such
that if n > N then |an − L| < ϵ. We call L the limit of
the sequence.
• If limn→∞ an exists, we say the sequence converges (or is
convergent). Otherwise, it diverges (or is divergent).
Remark: The limit of a sequence, if exists, is unique. It is
determined by the behavior of the sequence at infinity, hence it
does not change if we modify or drop finitely many terms of
the sequence.
Limits of Sequences
Limits of Sequences

1  (−1)n
Limits of n
and n
.
Examples

Example 2.1
1
lim =0 if α > 0.
n→∞ n α

Example 2.2 Evaluate

1
lim n tan−1 .
n→∞ n
Example 2.3 Determine whether the sequence an = (−1)n
is convergent or divergent.
Example 2.4 For what values of r is the sequence {r n }
convergent?
(Answer: −1 < r ≤ 1)
Properties of Limit
Theorem 2.3
Suppose that {an } and {bn } are convergent sequences (to
finite limits) and c is a constant. Then,

lim (an + bn ) = lim an + lim bn

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
lim (an − bn ) = lim an − lim bn
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
lim (can ) = c lim an
n→∞ n→∞
lim (an · bn ) = lim an × lim bn
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
an limn→∞ an
lim = if lim bn ̸= 0
n→∞ bn lim b n→∞
α
 n→∞ nα
lim an = lim an if α > 0 and an > 0.
n→∞ n→∞
Properties of Limit
Theorem 2.1
If limx→∞ f (x) = L and f (n) = an when n is an integer, then
limn→∞ an = L.
Properties of Limit

Theorem 2.2
If limn→∞ an = L and the function f is continuous at L, then

lim f (an ) = f (L).

n→∞

In particular, if an → L then |an | → |L|.

Example: Find

3n2 − 12n + 7
lim cos( ).
n→∞ 5n2 + n − 9
Example: Find
lim n1/n .
n→∞
Properties of Limit

Squeeze Theorem for Sequences

Suppose
an ≤ bn ≤ cn for n ≥ N
and
lim an = lim cn = L.
n→∞ n→∞

Then
lim bn = L.
n→∞

Corollary 2.1
(a) If |an | ≤ bn and bn → 0, then an → 0.
(b) an → 0 if and only if |an | → 0.
Bounded Sequences
Definition 2.3
• A sequence {an } is bounded above if there is a number M
such that
an ≤ M for all n.
In this case, the number M is an upper bound for the
sequence.
• {an } is bounded below if there is a number m such that

an ≥ m for all n.

In this case, the number m is a lower bound for the sequence.

• If it is bounded above and below, then {an } is a bounded
sequence.
Remark {an } is bounded if and only if there is a constant K
such that |an | ≤ K for every n.
Bounded Sequences

• The sequence an = 2n is not bounded above, but it is

bounded below (by 0).
• The sequence an = 9 − n is not bounded below, but it is
bounded above (by 9).
• The sequence an = (−1)n n is neither bounded above nor
below.
√ √
• The sequence an = n + 1 − n is bounded.

Theorem
• If {an } converges then it is bounded.
• Conversely, an unbounded sequence is divergent.
Monotonic Sequences

Definition 2.2
A sequence {an } is called:
• increasing, if an < an+1 for all n, that is,

a1 < a2 < a3 < · · · ;

• decreasing, if an > an+1 for all n, that is,

a1 > a2 > a3 > · · · ;

• monotonic, if it is either increasing or decreasing.

Monotonic Sequence Theorem
Theorem 2.5
• If {an } is increasing and an ≤ M for all n, then {an }
converges and limn→∞ an ≤ M.
• If {an } is decreasing and an ≥ m for all n, then {an }
converges and limn→∞ an ≥ m.
Monotonic Sequence Theorem

Example
• The sequence an = n is increasing.
• The sequence an = 2−n is decreasing.
(−1)n
• The sequence an = n − n+2
is increasing.
• The sequence an = sin n is not monotonic.
Monotonic Sequence Theorem
√
Example: Let a1 = 1 and an = 6 + an−1 for n > 1 . Prove
that {an } converges and find its limit.
Solution:
• We prove {an }√is increasing and an < 3 by induction.
We have 3 > 7 > 1, i.e. 3 > a2 > a1 . Suppose
3 > an+1 > an , then
√ p √
3 = 6 + 3 > 6 + an+1 > 6 + an ,

i.e. 3 > an+2 > an+1 .

• Since {an } is increasing and bounded, it converges.
Suppose limn→∞ an = L, then
√ √
L = lim an+1 = lim 6 + an = 6 + L.
n→∞ n→∞
√
Solving L = 6 + L gives L = 3.
Infinite Limits

Definition 2.1
• The sequence {an } diverges to infinity if for every
positive number M there is an integer N such that for all
n larger than N, an > M. If this condition holds we write

lim an = ∞ or an → ∞.
n→∞

• Similarly if for every negative number m there is an

integer N such that for all n > N we have an < m, then
we say {an } diverges to negative infinity and write

lim an = −∞ or an → −∞.
n→∞
Section 3

Series
Series
Definition 3.1
• Given a sequence of numbers {an }, an expression of the
form ∞
X
a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an + · · · or aj
j=1

is called a series.
The numbers a1 , a2 , ... are called the terms of the series.
The number an is the nth term or the general term of
the series.
• The nth partial sum of the series is
n
X
sn = ai = a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an .
i=1
Series
Definition 3.2
If the sequence {sn } converges to a finite limit s we say the
series ∞
P
a
n=1 n is convergent and write:
∞
X
an = s or a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an + · · · = s.
n=1

The number s is called the sum of the series.

If the sequence of partial sums of the series does not converge,
we say that the series diverges.

Thus, the sum of a series is the limit of the sequence of partial

sums: ∞ n
X X
an = lim ai .
n→∞
n=1 i=1
Series

Example 3.1 Show that the series

∞
X 1
n=1
n(n + 1)

is convergent, and find its sum.

Example 3.2 Show that the series

1 1 1 1
1 + √ + √ + √ + ··· + √ + ···
2 3 4 n

is divergent.
Series
Note
• Any letter may be used for the index. Thus,
∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
an = aj = aα .
n=1 j=1 α=1

• Infinite series may begin with any index. For example,

∞ ∞
X 1 X 1
, .
n=2
n ln n n=9
(n − 8)2

• The convergent property of a series depends only on the

behavior of the series at infinity. It does not change if we
can add/delete/modify a finite number of terms of the
series.
Series

Theorem 3.1
• If the series ∞
P
n=1 an is convergent, then an → 0.
• If limn→∞ an does not exist or if limn→∞ an ̸= 0, then the
P
series an diverges.

Example 3.3 Determine whether the series

∞ ∞ ∞
X (−1)n 2n − 3 X X 1
, cos n, and
n=1
5n + 1 n=1 n=1
n

are convergent or divergent.

Geometric Series
Geometric series are series of the form
∞
X
a + ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + · · · + ar n + · · · = ar n , a ̸= 0,
n=0

in which a and r are fixed numbers. Each term is obtained by

multiplying the preceding one with the common ratio r .
Theorem
(a) If |r | < 1, then ∞ n a
P
n=0 ar is convergent, with sum 1−r
.
(b) If |r | ≥ 1, and a ̸= 0, then ∞ n
P
n=0 ar is divergent.

In words: The sum of a convergent geometric series is

first term
1 − common ratio
Geometric Series
Example 3.5 A ball is dropped from a meters above a flat
surface. Each time the ball hits the surface after falling from
the height h, it rebounds to the height rh, where 0 < r < 1.
Find the total distance the ball travels up and down.

Answer: a 1+r
1−r
.
Properties of Series

Theorem 3.2
P P
If
P an and bn are convergent
Pseries, then so are
P the series
can (where c is a constant), (an + bn ), and (an − bn ),
and
P P
(i) can = c an ;
P P P
(ii) (an + bn ) = an + bn ;
P P P
(iii) (an − bn ) = an − bn .
 Section 4

Tests of Convergence
Nonnegative Series

Definition
A nonnegative series is a series whose terms are all
nonnegative.

Theorem 4.1
A nonnegative series converges if and only if its partial sums
are bounded from above.

Example 4.1 Test the series

∞
X 1
n=1
2n + 5n

for convergence or divergence.

Integral Test

Theorem 5.1
Suppose f is a continuous, positive, non-increasing function on
[N, ∞) and an = f (n). Then the Rseries ∞
P
a
n=1 n converges if
∞
and only if the improper integral 1 f (x)dx converges.

In other words,
R∞ P∞
(i) N f (x)dx converges ⇐⇒ n=N an converges ,
R∞ P∞
(ii) N f (x)dx diverges ⇐⇒ n=N an diverges .
Example 4.2 Determine if the following series converges
∞
X 1
.
n=2
n ln n
p -Series and Harmonic Series
The series ∞
X 1 1 1 1
p
= p + p + p + ···
n=1
n 1 2 3
is a p -series, where p is a positive constant.
For p = 1, the series
∞
X 1 1 1 1
= + + + ···
n=1
n 1 2 3

is called the harmonic series.

Theorem 4.3
The series ∞ 1
P
n=1 np
converges if p > 1 and diverges if p ≤ 1.

That is ∞
X 1
< ∞ ⇐⇒ p > 1.
n=1
np
Comparison Test
The Comparison Test
P P
Let an and bn be series with nonnegative terms such
that an ≤ bn for all n ≥ N.
P P
(a) If bn is convergent, then an is also convergent.
P P
(b) If an is divergent, then bn is also divergent.

In words,
(i) Convergence of larger series implies convergence of
smaller series,
(ii) Divergence of smaller series implies divergence of larger
series.
Example 5.1 Determine if the following series converges
∞ ∞
X ln n X 1 + sin n
and 2
.
n=1
n n=1
n
Limit Comparison Test

Theorem 5.2
P P
Suppose that an and bn are series with nonnegative
terms. If
an
lim =K
n→∞ bn

where K is a finite number and K > 0, then either both

series converge or both diverge.

Example 5.2 Test the given series for convergence or

divergence
∞ √
X 2n2 − 5 n + 1
.
n=1
7n4 − 3n3 + 9n − 1
Alternating Series
Definition 6.1
An alternating series is a series whose terms are alternately
positive and negative.

Here are two examples:

∞
1 1 1 (−1)n X (−1)n
1− + − + ··· + + ··· =
2 3 4 n n=1
n
∞
1 1 (−1)n+1 X (−1)n+1
−1 + − 2 + · · · + + · · · =
2 2 2n n=0
2n

From these examples, we see that the nth term of an

alternating series is of the form
an = (−1)n+1 bn or an = (−1)n bn
where bn is a positive number. In fact, bn = |an |.
Alternating Series Test

Theorem 6.1

∞
X
(−1)n+1 cn = c1 − c2 + c3 − c4 + · · · + (−1)n+1 cn + · · ·
n=1

satisfies
(i) 0 < cn+1 ≤ cn for all n and
(ii) limn→∞ cn = 0,
then the series is convergent.
Furthermore, the sum s of the series satisfies |s − sn | < cn+1 .
Alternating Series
Example 6.1 The alternating harmonic series
∞
1 1 1 (−1)n+1 X (−1)n+1
1 − + − + ··· + + ··· =
2 3 4 n n=1
n

satisfies
1
i) 0 < cn+1 < cn because n+1
< n1 ;
ii) cn = n1 → 0.
Thus, it converges by the Alternating Series Test.
Example 6.2 Similarly, the alternating p−series
∞
X (−1)n+1
n=1
np

converges for any p > 0.

Absolute Convergence

Definition 7.1
P
A series an converges Pabsolutely (is absolutely
convergent) if the series |an |, converges.

Theorem 7.1
If a series is absolutely convergent, then it is convergent.

Example 7.1 Determine whether the series

∞ √ √ √ √
X sin nπ3 3 3 3 3
2
= + 2
+0− 2
− + 0 + ···
n=1
n 2 2·2 2·4 2 · 52

is convergent or divergent.
Conditional Convergence

Definition 7.2
P
A series an converges conditionally (isPconditionally
convergent) if it converges but the series |an |, diverges.

Example 7.2 The alternating p-series

∞
X (−1)n+1 1 1 1
=1− + p − p + ··· , p>0
n=1
np 2p 3 4

converges
• absolutely if p > 1,
• conditionally if 0 < p ≤ 1.
Ratio Test

Theorem 7.2 - The Ratio Test

P
Let an be a series and suppose
 that 
limn→∞  aan+1  = ρ.
 
n

Then
(a) the series absolutely converges if ρ < 1,
(b) the series diverges if ρ > 1,
(c) the series may converge or it may diverge if ρ = 1.

In case (c) the test provides no information.

Ratio Test

P∞ 1
Example 7.3 Prove that n=0 n! converges.
Solution We compute the limit ρ. Let an = 1/n!. Then

an+1 1/(n + 1)! 1

= =
an 1/n! n+1
 
 = lim 1 = 0 < 1.
 an+1 
ρ = lim 
n→∞ an  n→∞ n + 1

Thus the series converges by the Ratio Test.

Root Test

Theorem 7.3-The Root Test

P
Let an be a series and suppose that
p
lim n |an | = ρ.
n→∞

Then
(i) the series absolutely converges if ρ < 1,
(ii) the series diverges if ρ > 1,
(iii) the test is not conclusive if ρ = 1.
2n+3 n
Example 7.4 Determine whether ∞
P

n=1 3n+2 converges.
Note If ρ = 1 in the Ratio Test, don’t try the Root Test
because ρ will again be 1.
Guidelines for Testing a Series for Convergence

1. Do the terms converge to 0? If not, the series diverges.

2. Is the series one of the special types: geometric, p-series,
telescoping, or alternating?
3. Can the series be compare to one of the special types?
4. Can the Integral Test, the Ratio Test, or the Root Test be
applied?
In some instances, more than one test is applicable.
 Section 5

Power Series
Power Series

Definition 8.1
A power series about x = 0 is a series of the form
∞
X
cn x n = c0 + c1 x + c2 x 2 + c3 x 3 + · · · + cn x n + · · ·
n=0

where x is a variable and the cn ’s are constants called the

coefficients of the series.
Power Series

Definition 8.1 (cont’d)

More generally, a series of the form
∞
X
cn (x − a)n = c0 + c1 (x − a) + · · · + cn (x − a)n + · · ·
n=0

is called a power series in (x − a) or a power series

centered at a or a power series about a.
Power Series

For each fixed x, a power series becomes a series of constants

that we can test for convergence or divergence.
A power series may converge for some values of x and diverge
for other values of x. The sum of the series is a function

f (x) = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + · · · + cn (x − a)n + · · ·

whose domain is the set of all x for which the series converges.
The domain contains a since the power series converges for
x = a.
Power Series

Example 8.1 The power series

∞
X
xn = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · + xn + · · ·
n=0

converges when −1 < x < 1 and diverges when |x| ≥ 1.

Thus,
∞
X 1
xn = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · + xn + · · · = , −1 < x < 1.
n=0
1−x
Power Series

Example 8.2 For what values of x do the following power

series converge?
P∞ n−1 x n x2 x3
(a) n=1 (−1) n
=x− 2
+ 3
− ···;
P∞ n+1 x 2n−1 x3 x5
(b) n=1 (−1) 2n−1
=x− 3
+ 5
− ···;
P∞ xn x2 x3
(c) n=0 n! =1+x + 2!
+ 3!
+ ···;
P∞
(d) n=0 n!x n = 1 + x + 2!x 2 + 3!x 3 + · · · .

ANS. (a) −1 < x ≤ 1 (b) −1 ≤ x ≤ 1

(c) −∞ < x < ∞ (d) {0}
Power Series

Theorem 8.1
For a given power seriesP
∞
n=0 cn (x − a)n
one of the following three possibilities holds:
(i) The series converges only when x = a.
(ii) The series converges for all x.
(iii) There is a positive number R such that the series
absolutely converges if |x − a| < R and diverges if
|x − a| > R.
In Case (i), set R = 0, and in Case (ii), set R = ∞. We call R
the radius of convergence of the power series.
Power Series
Definition 1
The set of x for which the power series ∞ n
P
n=0 cn (x − a)
converges is called interval of convergence of the power
series.
It is an interval of length R centered at a. The interval can be
open, closed, or half-open.

Theorem
Let
L = lim |cn+1 |/|cn |
n→∞
or
L = lim |cn |1/n ,
n→∞

then
1
R= .
L
Power Series
How to Find the Interval of Convergence

1. Find the radius of convergence R, using the Root Test or

the Ratio Test.
2. If R = ∞, the interval of convergence is (−∞, ∞). If
R < ∞, test for convergence at each endpoint a ± R,
using the Comparison Test, the Integral Test, or the
Alternating Series Test.
Example 8.3 Determine the center, radius, and interval of
convergence of
∞
X (2x + 5)n
2 + 1)3n
.
n=0
(n

Answer: Interval of convergence is [−4, −1].

 Section 6

Power Series Representation

Power Series Representation
If f (x) = ∞ n
P
n=0 cn (x − a) for all x in the interval
(a − R, a + R), we say that the power series is a
representation of f (x) on that interval and f is expanded
into the power series.
Theorem 9.1
cn (x − a)n has radius of convergence
P
If the power series
R > 0, then the function f defined by
∞
X
f (x) = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + · · · = cn (x − a)n
n=0

is differentiable (and therefore continuous) on the interval

(a − R, a + R)
Power Series Representation

Theorem 9.1 (cont’d)

and
f ′ (x) = c1 + 2c2 (x − a) + 3c3 (x − a)2 + · · ·
X∞
= ncn (x − a)n−1 ,
n=1
Z
c1
f (x)dx = C + c0 (x − a) + (x − a)2 + · · ·
2
∞
X cn
=C+ (x − a)n+1 .
n=0
n + 1

These series have the same radius of convergence R.

Power Series Representation

Note
1. It follows from the first part of Theorem 9.1 that

Every power series is infinitely termwise

differentiable inside its interval of convergence.

2. Although Theorem 9.1 says that the radius of

convergence remains the same when a power series is
differentiated or integrated, this does not mean that the
interval of convergence remains the same.
Power Series Representation
Example 9.1 Differentiating each side of the equation
∞
1 X
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · + xn + · · · = xn
1−x n=0

we get
1
= 1 + 2x + 3x 2 + 4x 3 + · · · + (n + 1)x n + · · ·
(1 − x)2
X∞ X∞
n−1
= nx = (n + 1)x n , −1 < x < 1.
n=1 n=0

According to Theorem 9.1, the radius of convergence of the

differentiated series is the same as the radius of convergence
of the original series, namely, R = 1.
Power Series Representation
Example 9.2 Find a power series representation for
ln(1 − x) and its radius of convergence.
Solution: We have
1
Z Z
1 + x + x 2 + · · · dx


− ln(1 − x) = dx =
1−x
∞
x2 x3 X xn
=C +x + + + ··· = C + . |x| < 1
2 3 n=1
n

Setting x = 0 gives C = 0, hence

∞
x2 x3 X xn
ln(1 − x) = −x − − − ··· = − , |x| < 1.
2 3 n=1
n

The radius of convergence is the same as that of the original

series: R = 1.
Power Series Representation
Example 9.3 Identify the function
∞
X
n x 2n+1 x3 x5
f (x) = (−1) =x− + − · · · , −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
n=0
2n + 1 3 5

Solution We differentiate the original series term by term

and get
∞ 2n ∞
n (2n + 1)x
X X
′
f (x) = (−1) = (−1)n x 2n ,
n=0
2n + 1 n=0
1 1
= 2
= , −1 < x < 1,
1 − (−x ) 1 + x2
1
Z Z
f (x) = f ′ (x)dx = 2
dx = tan−1 x + C .
1+x
The series for f is zero when x = 0, so C = 0. Hence
3 5
f (x) = x − x3 + x5 − · · · = tan−1 x, −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
 Section 7

Taylor and Maclaurin Series

Taylor and Maclaurin Series
In this section we investigate general problems:
1. Which functions have power series representations?
2. How can we find such representations?
Moreover, we will show how to control the errors when
approximating a function by the partial sums of its power
series.
Theorem 10.1
If f has a power series representation
∞
X
f (x) = cn (x − a)n
n=0

then its coefficients are given by the formula

f (n) (a)
cn = .
n!
Taylor and Maclaurin Series
Definition
Let f be an indefinitely differentible function. The series
∞
X f (n) (a) f ′ (a) f ′′ (a)
(x − a)n = f (a) + (x − a) + (x − a)2 + · · ·
n=0
n! 1! 2!

is called the Taylor series of the function f at a (or about

a or centered at a).
Note: By the previous theorem, if f has a power series
expansion at a, then the series must be the Taylor series of f
at a.
However, even if the Taylor series of f exists, it may not be
the power series of f . It can
• diverges for all x ̸= a, or
• converges to a function different from f .
Taylor and Maclaurin Series

Definition
The Taylor series of f at a = 0
∞
X f (n) (0) f ′ (0) f ′′ (0) 2
f (x) = x n = f (0) + x+ x + ···
n=0
n! 1! 2!

is called the Maclaurin series of f .

Example 10.1 Find the Maclaurin series of the function
f (x) = e x and its radius of convergence.
Taylor and Maclaurin Series
We now try to find conditions that guarantee that f equals its
Taylor series, i.e.
∞
X f (n) (a)
f (x) = (x − a)n .
n=0
n!

Definition 10.1
The Taylor polynomial of order n of f at a is

f ′′ (a)
Tn (x) = f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a) + (x − a)2 +
2!
f (n) (a)
+ ··· + (x − a)n .
n!
Thus, Tn is the n-th partial sum of the Taylor series of f at a.
Taylor and Maclaurin Series

f (x) = e x and and its Taylor polynomials T1 (x), T2 (x), and

T3 (x).
Taylor and Maclaurin Series

Example 10.2 Find the Taylor polynomials generated by

f (x) = cos x at x = 0.

Solution The cosine and its derivatives are

f (x) = cos x, f ′ (x) = − sin x
f ′′ (x) = − cos x, f ′′ (x) = sin x
.. ..
. .
f (2n) (x) = (−1)n cos x, f (2n+1) (x) = (−1)n+1 sin x.

When x = 0, the cosines are 1 and the sines are 0, so

f (2n) (0) = (−1)n , f (2n+1) (0) = 0.

Taylor and Maclaurin Series
Hence the Taylor polynomials of orders 2n and 2n + 1 are
identical:
x2 x4 x6 x 2n
T2n (x) = T2n+1 (x) = 1 − + − + · · · + (−1)n .
2! 4! 6! (2n)!
Taylor and Maclaurin Series

Clearly, f is the sum of its Taylor series at a if

f (x) = lim Tn (x), |x − a| < R. (1)

n→∞

If we let
Rn (x) = f (x) − Tn (x)
then Rn (x) is called the remainder of the Taylor series and
(1) is equivalent to

lim Rn (x) = 0 for |x − a| < R.

n→∞
Taylor and Maclaurin Series

Theorem 10.3
Let f (x) be an infinitely differentiable function on the open
interval I = (a − R, a + R) with R > 0. Assume there exists a
constant K ≥ 0 such that for all n,
 (n) 
f (x) ≤ K for all x ∈ I .

Then f (x) is represented by its Taylor series in I :

∞
X f (n) (a)
f (x) = (x − a)n for all x ∈ I .
k=0
n!
Taylor and Maclaurin Series

Example 10.3 Show that the following identities are valid

for all x:
∞
X x 2n+1 x3 x5 x7
sin x = (−1)n =x− + − + ···
k=0
(2n + 1)! 3! 5! 7!
∞
X x 2n
n x2 x4 x6
cos x = (−1) =1− + − + ···
k=0
(2n)! 2! 4! 6!

Solution: In both cases, |f (n) (x)| ≤ 1 for all x and n. Thus we

may apply Theorem 10.3 with K = 1 and any R to conclude
that the Maclaurin series converges to f (x) for |x| < R.

Since R is arbitrary, the Maclaurin expansion holds for all x.

Taylor and Maclaurin Series
ExampleP10.4 Find the Taylor series of e x at x = a.
Answer: ∞ ea n
k=0 n! (x − a) , −∞ < x < ∞.
In particular, when a = 0 we have

x x2 x3 xn
ex = 1 + + + + ··· + + · · · , −∞ < x < ∞ .
1! 2! 3! n!
Letting x = 1 gives
1 1 1 1
e =1+ + + + ··· + + ··· .
1! 2! 3! n!
Example 10.5 Find the Taylor series for ln x in powers of
x − 2. Where does the series converge to ln x?
Answer:
∞
X (−1)n−1
ln x = ln 2 + (x − 2)n , 0 < x ≤ 4.
n=1
n2n
Binomial Series
The Binomial Theorem states that for any natural number
k,    
k k k k−1 k k−2 2
(a + b) = a + a b+ a b + ···
1 2
 
k
+ ab k−1 + b k .
k −1
Setting a = 1 and b = x, we obtain an expansion of
f (x) = (1 + x)k :
   
k k k 2
(1 + x) = 1 + x+ x + ···
1 2
 
k
+ x k−1 + x k .
k −1
Binomial Series
Consider the function f (x) = (1 + x)k without assuming that
k ∈ N. To find the Maclaurin series for f , we first compute

f (n) (x) = k(k − 1) · · · (k − n + 1)(1 + x)k−n

f (n) (0) = k(k − 1) · · · (k − n + 1).

• If k is a nonnegative integer, then the series stops after

k + 1 terms because the coefficients from n = k + 1 on
are zero.
• If k ̸∈ N, then

f (n) (0)
 
k(k − 1) · · · (k − n + 1) k
= = .
n! n! n

is non-zero for all n.

Binomial Series

For k ∈ R and n ∈ N we define the binomial coefficients by

   
k k(k − 1) · · · (k − n + 1) k
= , = 1.
n n! 0

The Maclaurin series of f (x) = (1 + x)k is

∞  
X k k(k − 1) 2 k(k − 1)(k − 2) 3
x n = 1 + kx + x + x +
n 2! 3!
n=0
k(k − 1)(k − 2) · · · (k − n + 1) n
+ ··· + x + ···
n!

This series is called the binomial series.

Binomial Series

Theorem
If k ∈ R and |x| < 1, then

∞  
k
X k
(1 + x) = xn
n=0
n
∞
X k(k − 1) · · · (k − n + 1) n
= x
n=0
n!

The Ratio Test shows that this series has radius of

convergence R = 1. Furthermore, the binomial series
converges to (1 + x)k for |x| < 1.
Binomial Series

Example 10.6 Find the Maclaurin series for

1
√ .
1+x
Answer: For −1 < x ≤ 1,
∞
1 X 1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · (2n − 1) n
√ = (−1)n n n!
x .
1+x n=0
2
Important Maclaurin Series
Exercises

Section Exercises
11.1 (p. 724) 4, 12, 17, 29, 37, 38, 40, 41, 47, 52, 64, 80
11.2 (p. 735) 19, 33, 35, 36, 41, 44, 48, 52, 60, 73, 83, 84
11.3 (p. 744) 8, 16, 29, 30, 34
11.4 (p. 750) 7, 8, 10, 13, 25, 28, 31
11.5 (p. 755) 7, 8, 10, 20
11.6 (p. 761) 1, 4, 6, 7, 10, 14, 15, 16, 23, 26, 30, 36
11.7 (p. 764) 8, 14, 16, 18, 27, 33
11.8 (p. 769) 4, 8, 14, 17, 20, 26, 30, 39
11.9 (p. 775) 4, 8, 13, 18, 20
11.10 (p. 789) 2, 4, 6, 9, 10, 13, 15, 18, 19, 26, 44, 46
HW 1

Section Exercises
11.1 (p. 724) 47, 52, 64, 80
11.2 (p. 735) 60, 73, 83
11.3 (p. 744) 16, 30
11.4 (p. 750) 25, 28, 31
11.5 (p. 755) 8, 10, 20
11.6 (p. 761) 26, 30, 36
11.8 (p. 769) 17, 20, 26
11.9 (p. 775) 8, 13, 18,
11.10 (p. 789) 6, 9, 19