All control systems include:

cells called receptors, which detect stimuli

the coordination centre, such as the brain, spinal cord or pancreas, which receives
and processes information from receptors around the body
effectors bring about responses, which restore optimum levels, such as core body
temperature and blood glucose levels
effectors include muscles and glands, and so responses can include muscle
contractions or hormone release
Nerve cells
Nerve cells are called neurones. They are adapted to carry electrical impulses from
one place to another. A bundle of neurones is called a nerve.

There are three main types of neurone:

sensory
motor
relay
They have some features in common:

A long fibre (axon) which is insulated by a fatty (myelin) sheath. They are long so
they can carry messages up and down the body.
Tiny branches (dendrons) which branch further as dendrites at each end. These
receive incoming impulses from other neurones.

The human nervous system consists of:

the central nervous system (CNS) – the brain and spinal cord
the peripheral nervous system – nerve cells that carry information to or from the
CNS
Human body showing the nervous system with the brain and spinal cord labelled. The
brain and spinal cord comprise the central nervous system.

Where two neurones meet there is a small gap called a synapse.

Here the electrical signal must be converted into a chemical one, which is
converted back to an electrical one on the other side of the synapse where the next
neurone starts.

1-an electrical impulse travels along the first axon

2-this triggers the nerve-ending of a neurone to release chemical messengers called
neurotransmitters
3-these chemicals diffuse across the synapse (the gap) and bind with receptor
molecules on the membrane of the second neurone
4-the receptor molecules on the second neurone bind only to the specific
neurotransmitters released from the first neurone
5-this stimulates the second neurone to transmit the electrical impulse.

Receptor cells detect a change in the environment (a stimulus) and start electrical
signals along neurons.
These move towards the central nervous system (CNS).
The CNS is the brain and spinal cord. It coordinates the responses.
Messages are then sent back along different neurones to muscles which contract or
relax, and glands which secrete hormones.
Muscles and glands are called effectors.

Receptors are groups of specialised cells.

They detect a change in the environment and stimulate electrical impulses in
response. Sense organs contain groups of receptors that respond to specific
stimuli.

Sense organ Stimulus

Skin Touch, temperature
Tongue Chemicals (in food and drink, for example)
Nose Chemicals (in the air, for example)
Eye Light
Ear Sound
Effectors include muscles and glands. They produce a specific response to a
detected stimulus. For example:

a muscle contracting to move an arm

muscle squeezing saliva from the salivary gland
a gland releasing a hormone into the blood.

The brain controls complex behaviour. It is made of billions of interconnected

neurones and has different regions that carry out different functions.

There are four main areas in the brain:

The cerebrum (the outer layer is called the cerebral cortex), which is split into
two hemispheres and is highly folded.
It controls intelligence, personality, conscious thought and high-level functions,
such as language and verbal memory.

The cerebellum, which controls balance, co-ordination of movement and muscular

activity.
The medulla, which controls unconscious activities such as heart rate and breathing
rate,
The hypothalamus, which is the regulating centre for temperature and water balance
within the body.

Neurons are nerve cells that carry electrical nerve impulses around the body. This
allows the body to respond to stimuli.

The brain and spinal cord are part of the central nervous system (CNS).
Any damage to the brain or spinal cord can seriously affect the body's ability to
coordinate signals in response to stimuli.

Scientists are carrying out research into the use of stem cells to replace damaged
cells in the nervous system.
Stem cells can divide to produce new cells, which can differentiate into new cell
types.
They could be used to replace cells or tissues that have been damaged or destroyed
in cases of spinal cord or brain injury.

The stem cells used could be:

embryonic stem cells

adult stem cells
Transplanting stem cells
Embryonic stem cells have to be taken form an embryo, which is usually destroyed in
the process.

Therapeutic cloning
Therapeutic cloning could produce stem cells with the same genetic make-up as the
patient.
The technique involves the transfer of the nucleus from a body cell of the patient,
to a human donor egg cell whose nucleus has been removed.
Stem cells produced in this way could be transferred to the patient.
Although human stem cells have been produced in this way, and used in research,
there is no evidence that they have been used to treat anyone yet.

Benefits and risks of stem cell treatments

There are clinical, ethical and social issues with use of stem cells.

Clinical issues
There is no guarantee how successful these therapies will be,
for example, the use of stem cells in replacing nerve cells lost in Parkinson's
disease patients still requires much more research.
It is difficult to find suitable stem cell donors.
Mutations have been observed in stem cells which might cause them to behave like
cancer cells.
Stem cells can sometimes be contaminated with viruses which would be transferred to
a patient

A reflex action is a way for the body to automatically and rapidly respond to a
stimulus to minimise any further damage to the body.
It follows this general sequence and does not involve the brain:

stimulus → receptor → sensory neurone → relay neurone → motor neurone → effector →

response

The nerve pathway followed by a reflex action is called a reflex arc. For example,
a simple reflex arc happens if we accidentally touch something hot.

A hand hovers over a burning flame. The reflex action is to move the hand away
Receptor in the skin detects a stimulus (the change in temperature).
Sensory neurone sends impulses to relay neurone.
Motor neurone sends impulses to effector.
Effector produces a response (muscle contracts to move hand away).

The eye is a sense organ that responds to light.

A cross section of the human eye, labelled.

Structure Function
Cornea Clear area of the sclera, it refracts light - bends it as it enters the
eye.
Iris Muscles which alter the size of the pupil, controlling the amount of light
entering the eye.
Lens Focuses light onto the retina.
Retina Contains the light receptor cells.
Optic nerve Carries impulses between the retina and the brain.
Sclera White, tough outer layer.
Choroid Pigmented middle layer with many blood vessels. It absorbs light to
avoid reflection and nourishes the retina.
Blind spot Where the optic nerve leaves the retina so lacks receptor cells.
Pupil Small hole at the centre of the iris through which light enters the eye.

There are three modern techniques used to scan brains:

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

CT (computed tomography)
PET (positron emission tomography)

MRI scanners use strong magnetic fields and radio waves to show details of brain
structure and function.
Patients are asked to perform various tasks and, by looking at the scan, scientists
can see which parts of the brain are active when the task is carried out.
The patient lies on a bed which moves into the machine. Some people can feel
claustrophobic inside an MRI scanner.

CT scanners are similar to MRIs. The patient lies on a bed which passes through a
ring of equipment (not into the machine like in MRI).
The ring takes a series of x-rays from different angles. These are processed by a
computer to allow the doctors to see inside brains and other parts of the body.

PET scanners detect gamma rays that radiate from a chemical compound called a
tracer. PET scans are used to detect high levels of metabolic reactions inside a
person.
Before going into the scanner the patient consumes the tracer. This travels to any
area of the body which has unusually high levels of metabolic reactions.
This is often a tumour and so PET scans are used to detect cancers.