MAP SKILLS

 Grid reference
 Straight and curve distance
 Scales
 Grid Reference
 Direction – compass and angular bearings
 Services
 Settlement
o Patterns/forms
o How settlements relate to communication (roads, railway etc.) and relief
 Drainage
o Describe drainage of all the map or a part of it.
o How drainage affects/influences settlement, agriculture
 Landuse
o What is the land used for? Communication, agriculture, tourism, reserve etc.
o Remember, you can be asked how drainage influence landuse?

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT
You may get an unlabelled diagram to identify various coastal features.

Wave refraction is bending in the direction of the wave from its original direction, as they
approach a shelving beach. As waves approach the bay they lose energy because of the reduced
depth of the sea. The energy is therefore diverted towards the headland where cliffs are
surrounded by shallower water. This deflection of energy around and towards the headland is
called wave refraction.

WAVES PROCESSES
Waves erode the coast in four ways.
Hydraulic action
 Repeated crashing of waves against the coast
 The rock structure weakens, and the rocks break down

Solution (corrosion)
 Rocks may contain water-soluble minerals such as calcium carbonate
 When these minerals dissolve upon contact with sea water, pores are left in the rocks
 Over time, the rocks weaken and disintegrate

Abrasion (corrasion)
 Rock fragments carried by the water are thrown against the coast, breaking up the coastal
rocks

Attrition
 Rock particles carried by the water collide with each other, becoming smaller, smoother
and rounder particles
Longshore drift is the movement of materials along the coastline by the action of breaking
waves (swash and backwash), which generally approach the shoreline at an angle in a zigzag
manner.

Coastal features of erosion/Landforms caused by marine erosion

Notches, caves, cliffs
Cliffs are steep, often near-vertical slopes that rise abruptly from the sea. They are formed when
waves acting on lines of weakness in the rock erode the rock through hydraulic action and
abrasion. As this erosion continues a notch is cut into the base of the cliff. The notch gets larger
and a cave develops and an act on a line of weakness on the rock overhanging cliff. As
weathering and erosion continue the overhanging section becomes weak and topples, forming a
steep cliff.

Wave-cut platform is a gently sloping rock surface found at the foot of a coastal cliff. The
notch is usually located between the high and low tide levels and is subjected to maximum
erosion. Materials in suspension erode the base and the cliff recedes. The effect of the wave on
the cliff is decreased, however, abrasion continues at the point where the wave energy is highest.
A platform replaces the retreating cliff. Wave action continues its scouring and cutting action on
the platform, creating a flat-topped feature called a wave-cut platform. The platform is exposed
at low tide and covered at high tide.
OR

A headland is a high narrow piece of land that juts out into the sea. They are formed where
there are alternating beds of hard and soft rocks; the resistant rocks are eroded more slowly and
protrude into the sea to form headlands. The less resistant rocks form bays between the
headlands. They can also develop when destructive waves erode along lines of weakness in
rocks to form bays. Note that sometimes the headlands are not very pronounced as they are
eroded or modified by human activities.
Bays are broad and curved coastal inlet with headlands on either side. Where there alternating
beds of hard and soft rocks, the softer rocks erode forming bays.

Caves, arches, stacks, and stumps

 Waves attack lines of weakness in rocks along the base of the headland cliff to form
notches
 Over time, the notches enlarge to become caves
 Continued erosion of caves on two sides of the same headland cuts through the headland,
creating an arch
 The arch widens and the roof eventually collapses
 This leaves an isolated pillar known as a stack
 The stack is gradually eroded down into a stump
Wave transportation and deposition
 Occurs mainly through longshore drift along the coast
 When waves approach the shore at an angle, the swash rushes up the shore diagonally,
carrying sediment up the shore
 The backwash brings sediment back into the sea
 As a result, sediment is moved in a zig-zag manner along the shore
Landforms caused by wave deposition
Beaches
 Constructive waves deposit materials on the coast.
 A beach forms when waves deposit sand and gravel along the shoreline. Over time they
are worn smooth from being rolled around by waves.
 Coarser materials are deposited farther inland while finer materials are found nearer the
sea.
 These finer materials form the beach. The waves must have low energy (constructive) for
a beach to form. Materials are also moved along the coastline in the formation of a beach.
https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zyfd2p3/revision/2

Spits
 Long, narrow low-lying strips of sand and shingle projecting from the shore towards the
sea.
 Longshore drift moves material along a coastline.
 Where the coastline changes direction or the power of the waves is reduced material
being transported by the sea is deposited.
 The sediment which is deposited usually builds up over the years to form a long area of
material (usually sand or shingle).
 Such an area is called a spit.
Tombolos
Formed when a spit or a bar extends to join an offshore island. A spit is a feature that is formed
through deposition of material at coastlines. The process of longshore drift occurs and this
moves material along the coastline. The only example in the Caribbean is Scott Head in
Dominica. Remember that you MUST explain the formation of a spit first in order to get
the full marks.
Bars
 A bay bar is very similar to a spit.
 It is a ridge of sand or single that joins two headlands either side of a bay.
 It is formed due to longshore drift transporting sediment along the coastline.
 Behind the bar, a lagoon is created, where water has been trapped and the lagoon may
gradually be infilled as a salt marsh develops due to it being a low energy zone, which
encourages deposition.
How to describe coastal scenery
 Trend or direction, e.g. N-S
 Shape, e.g. straight, gently undulating or deeply indented
 Variations in height, e.g. highland or lowland
 Is it broken by river mouths?
 Erosional features, e.g. stacks
 Transportation as evidenced by longshore drift accumulating sediment on one side of
groyne
 Deposition features such as spits, bars and deltas
 Offshore features such as cays and coral reefs
 Vegetation such as mangrove
 Human features such as seawalls, wave breakers and groynes

Identifying Coastal Features

 Use four figure grid reference e.g. Cliff – 6789 or bay - 6888

To read more on coastal features

https://www.internetgeography.net/topics/landforms-of-coastal-deposition/

WEATHERING
The Rock Cycle outlines changes that rocks may undergo. Igneous rock can change into
sedimentary rock or into metamorphic rock. Sedimentary rock can change into metamorphic
rock or into igneous rock. Metamorphic rock can change into igneous or sedimentary rock.

Igneous rock forms when magma or lava cools. Igneous rock can form underground, where the
magma cools slowly, above ground, where lava cools quickly.

On Earth's surface, wind and water can erode rock. The rock pieces, called sediments, are
deposited in layers. The layer can be buried under other layers of sediments. After a long time
the sediments can be cemented together to form sedimentary rock. In this way, igneous or
metamorphic rocks can become sedimentary rock.

All rocks can be changed by heat and pressure. Heat and pressure causes the rocks to change.
Once rocks change they are called metamorphic.

The rock cycle is continuous as rocks are always forming, changing and being destroyed.
Types of weathering
 Physical - Breakdown of rocks into smaller fragments brought about by physical
(mechanical) forces rather than chemical action.
 Chemical - Decay of rocks caused by changes to the mineral composition of the rocks
through chemical reactions with water and air.
 Biological - Breakdown of rocks caused by living organisms, may involve physical or
chemical weathering.

Types of Physical Weathering

Freeze-thaw weathering (Frost Action, Frost Wedging)
 The freeze-thaw weathering process is also known as frost shattering.
 Water - eg from rainfall or melting snow and ice - becomes trapped in a crack or joint in
the rock.
 If the air temperature drops below freezing, the water will freeze and expand by 9-10 per
cent putting pressure on the rock.
 The ice will melt when the temperature rises above freezing allowing more water deeper
into the rock.
 If this process happens repeatedly, the rock will weaken and eventually shatter into
angular fragments.
 The fragments may then be deposited as scree at the foot of a slope.
 It is most effective where the temperature fluctuates around 0°C
Exfoliation or Onion Skin Weathering
 This type of weathering is common in warm areas.
 As the sun shines on rocks during the day it causes them to expand.
 During the night the rock contracts due to the colder temperature.
 Repetition of this process leads to cracks in the rocks.
 Over time, the rocks split along the cracks into smaller fragments. In well-jointed rocks
such as granite, the process widens existing joints, resulting in the breakdown of the
rocks into smaller blocks.

Types of Chemical Weathering

Carbonation
 The limestone solution process is also known as carbonation.
 Limestone is made of calcium carbonate.
 When carbon dioxide is dissolved in rainwater, it makes a weak acid called carbonic
acid.
 When carbonic acid comes into contact with limestone and passes through joints and
bedding planes, it reacts with the rock to form calcium bicarbonate.
 The calcium bicarbonate is soluble and is carried away in solution, gradually weathering
the limestone.

Hydrolysis is the chemical breakdown of a substance when combined with water.

 You can recall this term by remembering that the prefix 'hydro' means 'water,' and the
suffix 'lysis' means 'to break down.'
 With chemical weathering of rock, we see a chemical reaction happening between the
minerals found in the rock and rainwater.
 The most common example of hydrolysis is feldspar, which can be found in granite
changing to clay.
 When it rains, water seeps down into the ground and comes in contact with granite rocks.
The feldspar crystals within the granite react with the water and are chemically altered to
form clay minerals, which weaken the rock.

Types of biological weathering

Physical Biological Weathering
 Tree roots grow between the cracks and joints in rocks, widening and deepening them as
they grow
 This not only physically stresses the rocks but also makes the rocks more vulnerable to
other weathering processes
 Burrowing animals have a similar effect

Chemical Biological Weathering

 Organisms produce organic substances called chelates capable of breaking down rocks by
removing the metallic cations from minerals in the rocks
 This often occurs when decomposition of plants and animals produces humic acid, which
can cause chelation
Weathering in different climatic regions
Climate determines the type of weathering that takes place
Tropical humid regions
 Chemical weathering dominates
 High rainfall facilitates hydrolysis
 Conditions are favourable to plant growth, which contributes to biological weathering

Temperate humid regions

 Physical weathering dominates, particularly frost action
 Chemical weathering also takes place
 Low temperatures reduce the rate of evaporation, keeping the rocks moist, thus allowing
hydrolysis to work
 Solubility of carbon dioxide doubles at 0°C, facilitating carbonation

Arid regions
 Weathering by alternate expansion and contraction is dominant as the diurnal temperature
range is large
 Chemical weathering occurs when moisture is present from occasional rainfall, early
morning dew and fog blowing inland from offshore

ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES IN THE CARIBBEAN

Location of economic resources in the Caribbean
1. Fishing – Belize, Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados
2. Forestry – Guyana, Belize
3. Bauxite – Jamaica, Guyana, Suriname
4. Natural gas – Trinidad and Tobago
5. Limestone – Jamaica,
6. Petroleum – Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana
7. Gold – Guyana
8. Tourism – All Caribbean countries
9. Food Processing

Manufacturing Sector in the Caribbean

FOOD PROCESSING
Advantages/Benefits of the food processing industry
1. Export earnings for the country
o It has become a more important source of foreign exchange in recent years with
globalization. (Globalisation is the process by which the world is becoming
increasingly interconnected as a result of increased trade and cultural exchange).
o Globalisation has increased the production of goods and services.
2. Reduce wastage of agricultural produce
3. Increase the income and job opportunities of the rural population
4. Food security for the country

Case study: Food processing industry in Trinidad and Tobago

  One of the largest manufacturing sectors in the country
 Contributes over 50% of total manufactured output
 Employs 1% of the population
 Accounts for about 3% of GDP (2006 estimate)
 Consists of more than 400 companies, ranging from small family-run businesses to
multinational enterprises
 Multinational companies like Nestle have their HQs in other countries but the factories
are located in Trinidad and Tobago where labour is relatively cheap
 Many of the factories are in the large cities and towns
 Products cater mainly to the local market, with a small percentage for the international
market

Problems/Challenges and possible solutions for the food processing industry in Trinidad

1. Technology
o Unwillingness to upgrade technology
o Lack of capital to invest in new technology
o Lack of skilled manpower to run new technology
o Seafood industry is trying out new technology given the large market and the
perishable nature of the products

2. Standard of processed foods

 Imported products have raised standards
 Local producers must improve their processing methods to make their products
equally attractive
 Investment in research and development is necessary

3. Globalisation
o With more foreign products becoming available, local producers are having a
tougher time maintaining their share of the local market
CORAL REEFS
Corals are made up of the limestone skeletons of tiny marine organisms called coral polyps

Types of Coral Reefs

 Fringing reef - A narrow coral platform separated from the coast by a narrow, shallow
lagoon
 Barrier reef - A coral platform separated from the coast by a deep, wide lagoon
 Atoll - A circular coral reef which encloses or protects a lagoon
Conditions necessary for the growth of coral polyps
 Sea temperature between 20°C and 30°C
 Shallow sea water between 46 m to 70m deep
 Water with normal amount of salt. They will not grow close to the mouth of large rivers
or in very salty water e.g. The Dead Sea.
 Polyps thrive on the seaward side of coral reefs where waves and currents bring an
abundant supply of oxygen and food
 Extensive coral formations develop between latitudes 30°N and 30°S, on the eastern side
of land masses where there are warm currents
 Clear water that is not cloudy as sunlight need to penetrate for corals and algae to
survive. Suspended sediments will choke the corals causing them to die.

The importance/benefits of Corals reefs

Habit: Coral reefs provide a home for marine animals. Marine animals spawn, nurse, breed, and
feed in the coral environment.

Coastal Protection: Healthy coral reefs have rough surfaces that block incoming waves; this
protects shorelines from currents, waves, and storms, helping to prevent loss of life, property
damage, and erosion. Coastlines protected by reefs are more stable, in terms of erosion, and are
also a source of sand in natural beach renewal.

Provide Food: The fish that grow and live on coral reefs are a significant food source for over a
billion people worldwide—many of whom live far from the reefs that feed them.

Medicine: Many species found in coral ecosystems produce chemical compounds for defence or
attack, particularly the slow-moving or stationary species like nudibranchs and sponges.
Tourism and Recreation: Every year, millions of scuba divers and snorkelers visit coral reefs to
enjoy their abundant sea life. Even more tourists visit the beaches protected by these reefs. Local
economies receive billions of dollars from these visitors to reef regions through diving tours,
recreational fishing trips, hotels, restaurants, and other businesses based near reef ecosystems.

The threats to coral reefs

Warming Waters: Although there are many problems facing reefs today, rising seawater
temperature as a result of climate change is one of the most serious causes of stress to
corals throughout the world. When temperatures are too high, the algae that corals depend
on become bleached. Just one degree above the typical summer max is enough to bleach
many corals. If the temperature is too high for too long, corals and their algae are unable to
recover.
Warmer ocean temperatures cause even more problems when it comes to disease – high
temperatures allow corals to become sick more easily and allow disease-causing organisms to
grow faster.

Overfishing: Increasing demand for food fish and tourism curios has resulted in overfishing of
not only deep-water commercial fish, but key reef species as well.

Destructive fishing methods: Fishing with dynamite, cyanide and other methods that break up
the fragile coral reef. Dynamite and cyanide stun the fish, making them easier to catch. These
practices generally do not select or target particular fish species and often result in juveniles
being killed in the process.

Unsustainable tourism: Tourism generates vast amounts of income for host countries. Where
unregulated however, tourism pressures can cause damage to the very environment upon which
the industry depends. Physical damage to the coral reefs can occur through contact from careless
swimmers, divers, and poorly placed boat anchors. Hotels and resorts may also discharge
untreated sewage and wastewater into the ocean, polluting the water and encouraging the growth
of algae, which competes with corals for space on the reef.

Coastal development: The growth of coastal cities and towns generates a range of threats to
nearby coral reefs. Where space is limited, airports and other construction projects may be built
on land reclaimed from the sea. Sensitive habitats can be destroyed or disturbed by dredging
activities to make deep-water channels or marinas, and through the dumping of waste materials.

Pollution: Coral reefs need clean water to thrive. From litter to waste oil, pollution is damaging
reefs worldwide. Pollution from human activities inland can damage coral reefs when
transported by rivers into coastal waters. Do your bit - do not drop litter or dispose of unwanted
items on beaches, in the sea, or near storm drains.

Measures to reduce the destruction/degradation of coral reefs.

1. Coastal management - focusing on controlling sedimentation and disposal of sewage
and industrial effluent which would destroy the habitat of live corals.
 2. Public awareness campaigns - targeting locals and visitors and reinforcing the
importance of healthy reef ecosystems. This reduces trampling, destroying live corals and
sedimentation of water.

3. Laws enacted to reduce marine pollution and the breakage of corals, and restrict
anchoring of boats in coral beds with well-publicized severe penalties which are strictly
enforced.

4. Creating marine reserves - where the use of the area is regulated through monitoring by
the environmental agencies. Also, coastal zoning with designated areas for different
uses.

5. Improved monitoring of the marine environment to reduce illegal activities such as

sand mining, walking on coral reefs, and improper fishing techniques.

BENEFITS/IMPORTANCE OF MANGROVES
Tourist attractions
 Visits to wetlands as part of eco-tourism attraction provides jobs for locals while
preserving the environment for future generations.
 The government will get revenue from taxes collected. This revenue can be used in the
development of the country.

Habitat/Sanctuary for endangered plants and animal species

 Mangroves are breeding grounds and nursery for fish and crustaceans.
 Mangrove forests also provides a refuge to a wide array of wildlife such as birds, fish,
invertebrates, mammals and plants.
 Mangrove forests are often important spawning and nursery territory for juvenile marine
species including shrimp, crabs, and many sport and commercial fish species such as
redfish, snook and tarpons.
Reservoirs to store and release water naturally when streams are in flood
 They act as reservoirs to store and release water naturally when streams are in flood.
 Also, trunks and canopy reduce the force of oncoming waves and storm surge and thus
reduce flooding.

Natural Filter/Traps for sediments

 The complex mangrove root systems filter nitrates, phosphates and other pollutants from
the water, improving the water quality flowing from rivers and streams into the ocean
environment. In short mangroves traps sediments.

Storm buffer
 Mangroves stabilise the coastline as the prevents strong waves from eroding the beach
and cliffs etc.
 Mangroves also provide natural infrastructure and protection to nearby populated areas
by preventing erosion and absorbing storm surge impacts during extreme weather events
such as hurricanes.
Decrease Carbon Dioxide (Reduce Global Warming)
 Mangrove forests capture large amounts of carbon dioxide emissions and other
greenhouse gases from the atmosphere, and then trap and store them in their carbon-rich
flooded soils for a long time. This is an important function as we face climate change.

TOURISM – CRUISE SHIP INSDUSTRY

Cruise tourism competes with land-based resorts
 The Caribbean receives up to half the world’s cruise visits.
 It is close to the USA.
 Winter months are warm.
 Each island has attractions.
 Cruise passengers spend less than hotel tourists. Cruise lines use expensive port facilities
but pay few taxes.
 However, cruise lines employ some Caribbean staff, and passengers may return for a
longer stay in a hotel.

FISHING IN BELIZE: A RESOURCE0BASED PRIMARY INDUSTRY

 Rivers bring nutrients to the sea.
 Shallow waters hold nutrients for marine life.
 Coastal mangroves shelter young fish.
 Crustaceans and fish and thrive on coral reefs. The barrier reef is 280 km long.
 There are deep-water fishing grounds further offshore, beyond the reef.

Fishing co-operatives
 Fisheries make up 13% of Belizean exports.
 Most fishers belong to a co-operative.
 Co-operatives buy catch from fishers, process it, and find an export market. The profits
are shared.
 Co-operatives lend funds for new equipment and pay for pensions.

Conservation and Sustainability

 Fish stocks must be carefully managed. Worldwide, grouper, and some types of tuna are
threatened with extinction.
 Threats include over-fishing, destruction of mangroves, pollution from pesticides, and
damaging fishing methods.
 Conservation requires scientific understanding of food sources, breeding patterns,
pollution, nutrients and other factors.
 In Belize, there are closed seasons to protect young conch and lobster. Groupers and
some other species are protected by law.
 Trawlers are banned because they damage the seabed. Co-operatives have an
annual quota or maximum catch.
 Protected areas and marine reserves conserve marine habitats. Belize has
internationally recognised marine heritage sites.
Aquaculture or fish farming
 Aquaculture makes up over 36% of world fisheries.
 Belize has five large shrimp farms. Warm temperatures; a saltwater supply; clay
soil to retain water; labour; and good roads all assist production.
 Fish and shrimp are given high-protein feed.
 Oxygen, temperature, chemicals and food safety are carefully managed.