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DISASTER
MANAGEMENT
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GS Paper-3: Disasters and Disaster Management La Excellence
Index
S.No Topic Page No

1 Disaster management Syllabus and Previous Questions 2-4
2 Basic Terminology 5-8
3 Types of Disasters 9
4 Disaster Management in India 10-25
5 National and International Framework on Disaster Management 26-27
6 International Frameworks on Disaster Management 27-30
7 Hazards and Types 21
8 Natural Hazard- Earthquake 32-40
9 Natural Hazard-Floods 41-49
10 Natural Hazard-Urban Floods 50-56
11 Natural Hazard-Landslides 56-63
12 Natural Hazard-Cyclones 64-73
13 Natural Hazard-Tsunamis 73-79
14 Natural Hazard-Drought 80-89
15 Natural Hazard-Heat wave 90-93
16 Natural Hazard-Cold Wave and Frost 94-96
17 Man Made Hazard-Nuclear and Radiological Hazards 97-100
18 Man Made Hazard-Biological Hazard 101-105
19 Man Made Hazard-Chemical Hazard 106-111
20 Man Made Hazard-Crowd Management 111-115
21 Man Made Hazard-Forest Fires 116-126
22 Man Made Hazard-Oil Spills 126-133
23 Role of Science and Technology in Disaster Management 134-136
24 Role of Media in Disaster Management 137-140
La Excellence IAS 9052 29 29 29 www.laex.in

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Disaster Management Syllabus
Disaster management as a subject needs to be studied along with the other subjects like
Environment, Geography.
So, the syllabus of Disaster Management includes:
GS3:
“Disaster and disaster management”
Environment: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental

impact assessment
GS1:
Important Geophysical phenomena such as earthquakes, Tsunami, Volcanic activity,

cyclone etc.,
Geographical features and their location- changes in critical geographical features

(including water bodies and ice-caps) and in flora and fauna and the effects of such
changes
GS4:
Ethics case studies
Previous Questions
(GS-3)
1. Describe various measures taken in India for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) before
and after signing ‘Sendai Framework for DRR (2015-2030)’. How is this framework
different from ‘Hyogo Framework for Action, 2005’? (250 Words, 15 Marks) (2018)
2. On December 2004, Tsunami brought havoc on 14 countries including India. Discuss
the factors responsible for occurrence of Tsunami and its effects on life and

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economy. In the light of guidelines of NDMA (2010) describe the mechanisms for
preparedness to reduce the risk during such events. (2017)
3. The frequency of urban floods due to high intensity rainfall is increasing over the
years. Discussing the reasons for urban floods, highlight the mechanisms for
preparedness to reduce the risk during such events.(2016)
4. With reference to National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) guidelines,
discuss the measures to be adopted to mitigate the impact of the recent incidents of
cloudbursts in many places of Uttarakhand. (2016)
5. The frequency of earthquakes appears to have increased in the Indian subcontinent.
However, India’s preparedness for mitigating their impact has significant gaps.
Discuss various aspects.(2015)
6. Drought has been recognized as a disaster in view of its party expense, temporal
duration, slow onset and lasting effect on various vulnerable sections. With a focus
on the September 2010 guidelines from the National disaster management authority,
discuss the mechanism for preparedness to deal with the El Nino and La Nina
fallouts in India (2014).
7. How important are vulnerability and risk assessment for pre-disaster management.
As an administrator, what are key areas that you would focus in a disaster
management? (2013)
Related topics: (GS-1)
1. In what way can floods be converted to sustainable source of irrigation and all
weather inland navigation in India? (2017 GS-1)
2. “The Himalayas are highly prone to landslides.” Discuss the causes and suggest
suitable measures of mitigation.(2016 GS-1)
3. Major cities of India are becoming more vulnerable to flood conditions.

Discuss.(2016)
4. Bring out the causes for more frequent landslides in the Himalayas than in Western
Ghats.(2013)

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Ethics: Case Study
1. There is a disaster prone state having frequent landslides, forest fires, cloudbursts,
flash floods and earthquakes, etc. Some of these are seasonal and often unpredictable.
The magnitude of the disaster is always unanticipated. During one of the seasons a
cloudburst caused a devastating floods and landslides leading to high casualties. There
was major damage to infrastructure like roads, bridges and power generating units.
This led to more than 100000 pilgrims, tourist and other locals trapped across different
routes and locations. The people trapped in your area of responsibility includes senior
citizens, patients in hospitals, women and children, hiker, tourist, ruling parties,
regional presidents along with his family, additional chief secretary of the neighboring
state and prisoners in jail.
As a civil services officer of the state, what would be the order in which you would
rescue these people and why? Give Justifications (20 Marks) (200 Words) (2015 GS-4)
Essay:
1. The country’s need for a better disaster management system. (2000)
Mains model Questions
1. Climate Change has increased the risk of disasters worldwide. India is not an
exception. Disaster preparedness is the best way to face the challenge of Disasters.
Explain.
2. Explain the role of IT in disaster management. How the disaster response is
experiencing paradigm shift in the 21st century?
3. Disaster management should keep in mind the climate change and its dynamics
and it should focus more on disaster risk reduction. Discuss.
4. Urban areas are more vulnerable to heat waves and associated disasters. Analyze
the reasons and add a note on suggestions to tackle this situation.

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Disaster Management- Basic Terminology

To define what a disaster is we should first learn about some basic definitions.
Hazard:
Hazard is a phenomenon when there is a potential for occurrence of an event. This

event might be a natural event (ex: earthquake) or a man made event (ex: chemical
accident).
When Hazard (potential threat) becomes reality and causes widespread losses to
humans, environment then that event is called a disaster.
Vulnerability:
Based on differential setting of the people and place the same hazard leads to
differential impact.
There are different kinds of vulnerabilities based on -
1. Socio-economic (Ex: Poor people are more vulnerable)
2. Physical (Ex: Poor design and Construction of Houses)
3. Geographical (Ex: Coastal areas are prone to Cyclones compared to interior areas)
4. Environmental (Ex: Global Warming)

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Risk:
When vulnerable area is exposed to a hazard (potential event), that region is prone to
huge damages. This is known as risk.
The following is the risk triangle.
Risk is dependent on 3 variables:
1. Hazard
2. Vulnerability
3. Exposure
So, if we reduce either hazard or vulnerability we can reduce the risk.
In case of natural hazard, let’s say Cyclone, we cannot prevent the hazard itself. Only we
can reduce the vulnerability to the hazard.

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Preparedness:
Preparedness to face the hazard reduces the potential losses.
Preparedness is by the following agents:
1. Community – the first responders
2. Governments
3. Voluntary agencies
4. Private Agencies
Preparedness is through
1. Early Warning System
2. Capability training

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3. Emergency Shelters, etc
Mitigation:
Mitigation is lessening and reducing the impact of hazards and the related disasters.
The measures under mitigation are of two types:
1. Structural measures- Any physical construction to reduce or avoid possible impacts of

hazards.
2. Non structural measures- Any measure not involving physical construction. It

involves use of knowledge, practice or agreement to reduce the risk. These measures
are in particular through policies and laws, public awareness, training and education.
Disaster:
“Disaster is a physical event, phenomenon or a human activity that leads to serious
disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human,
material, economic and environmental losses and impacts, which exceeds the ability of
the community or society to cope using its own resources.” – UNISDR (United Nations
International Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction)
“A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society at any scale due to
hazardous events interacting with conditions of exposure, vulnerability and capacity,
leading to one or more of the following: human, material, economic and environmental
losses and impacts.” (Revised definition UNISDR 2016)

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Types of Disasters
Every Disaster is unique in terms of the local socio-environmental factors that control it.
The social response it generates and the way each social group negotiates with it.
Primarily disasters are caused by-

1. Natural hazards
2. Human-induced
3. Result from a combination of both.
In particular, human-induced factors can greatly increase the adverse impacts of a
natural disaster.
Natural Hazards Manmade Hazards:
Geological Hazards: Hydro-Meteorological 1. Chemical Hazards

Hazards: 2. Biological Hazards
1. Earthquakes 1. Floods 3. Radiation Hazard
2. Landslides 2. Urban Floods 4. Forest Fires
3. Tsunamis 3. Snow Avalanches 5. Oil spills
4. Cyclones 6. Stampedes
5. Cloudbursts
6. Heat waves
7. Droughts
8. Cold wave and frost

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Disaster Management in India
India is vulnerable to large number of natural and manmade hazards. This vulnerability
is due to its geography, geology and demography.
India’s Vulnerability Profile:

 More than 58.6 per cent of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of moderate to very
high intensity;
 Over 40 million hectares (12%) of its land is prone to floods and river erosion;
 Close to 5,700 kms, out of the 7,516 kms long coastline is prone to cyclones and
tsunamis;
 68% of its cultivable area is vulnerable to droughts; and,
 Its hilly areas are at risk from landslides and avalanches.
Disaster risks in India are further compounded by increasing vulnerabilities related to -
 Changing demographics and socio-economic conditions,

 Unplanned urbanization, and development within high-risk zones,
 Environmental degradation,
 Climate change,
 Geological hazards,
 Epidemics and pandemics.
All these contribute to a situation where disasters seriously threaten India’s economy,
its population and sustainable development.
Let us understand the disaster management system in India.
Existing framework:
Earlier disaster management was focussing only on the rescue and rehabilitation. For
this purpose there were certain mechanisms established at the Central and State levels.

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At the central level,
National Crisis Management Committee was established. This committee deals with the
coordination during the crisis or disasters.
Cabinet Committee on Security evaluated the threats from the National Security
perspective.
At the State level,
State Crisis Management Committee was established. This committee coordinates

different departments and district committees during disasters.
There were two types of funds proposed by the Finance Commissions operating at
central and State levels.
1. Calamity Response Fund (State level fund. The amount is recommended by the
Finance Commission. )
2. National Calamity Response Fund (Central level fund)
However, there were no established institutional structures to deal with the disasters
comprehensively.
So, in 1999, GoI has established a High Powered Committee (HPC) headed by J.C. Pant to
recommend the institutional mechanism to deal with disasters.
After of few months of appointing this Committee India has experienced a huge scale
disaster- Odisha Super Cyclone 1999.This has led to huge deaths numbering 10,000 and
huge economic losses.
By the time the HPC recommendations are considered, India has faced another crisis-
Gujarat Earthquake (Bhuj Earthquake, 2001). Here also India experienced huge number
of deaths and economic losses.

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So, the Central Government has reconstituted the HPC and converted it to Working
Group on Disaster Management.
The final call in this is Indian Ocean Tsunami (2004) that wrecked havoc in the Indian
Eastern Coast. This event has exposed the weakness in the existing institutional
structures to deal with disasters. Responsibility fixing became very difficult without the
established institutional Structures.
Government after discussing the Working Group report has quickly enacted the Disaster
Management Act, 2005.
This act has provided for institutional mechanism at centre, state and district level.
The Present system: Disaster Management Act, 2005
This act defines disaster management as-
A continuous and integrated process of Planning, organising, coordinating and

implementing measures which are necessary or expedient for:
1. Prevention of danger or threat of any disaster.

2. Mitigation or reduction of risk of any disaster or its severity or consequences.
3. Capacity building including research and knowledge management.
4. Preparedness to deal with any disaster.
5. Prompt response to any threatening disaster situation or disaster.
6. Assessing the severity or magnitude of effects of any disaster.
7. Evacuation, rescue and relief.
8. Rehabilitation and reconstruction.
According to the revised UNISDR(United Nations International Strategy for Disaster

Risk Reduction- Office of UN that deals with disaster risk reduction internationally)
terminology (2016),
 Disaster Management (DM) is “the organization, planning and application of
measures preparing for, responding to and recovering from disasters”.

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 Disaster Risk Management (DRM) is “the application of disaster risk reduction

policies and strategies to prevent new disaster risk, reduce existing disaster risk and
manage residual risk, contributing to the Pre Disaster Preparedness Mitigation:
Prevention & Risk Reduction Response Recovery Post Disaster strengthening of
resilience and reduction of disaster losses” (UNISDR 2016)
Disaster Management Cycle
Disaster Management Act 2005 describes disaster management in two phases of the
cycle.
The typical disaster management cycle consists of two phases:
Phase1: The pre-disaster phase: It includes -
1. Prevention
2. Mitigation and
3. Preparedness
Phase2: The post-disaster phase: It includes -
1. Response (Rescue and Relief)
2. Recovery(Rehabilitation and Reconstruction )
A legal and institutional framework binds all these elements together. Before
understanding this framework let us understand- what is the meaning of each stage in
this disaster management cycle.

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Disaster event:
It is the real time event of hazard (potential event) that causes damage to the society or
community- socioeconomically, physically and environmentally.
The disaster event is of two types:
1. Slow onset disaster: These are disasters which are slow in its occurrence-like drought,
environmental degradation, etc. In these cases, the time factor to detect and respond is
high.
2. Rapid onset disaster: These disasters occur suddenly like Earthquake, Tsunami, etc. In
these cases the time available to detect and respond is very less.
Post Disaster phase:
Response:
Whenever there is a disaster event it affects humans in different ways. People get
stranded, physical infrastructure gets affected, and communication network gets
affected.
In this case, disaster response is needed. This includes- immediate rescue of the people,
providing immediate relief in the form of setting up relief camps, restoring
communication network, restoring infrastructure, etc.
Recovery:
Recovery phase involves implementation of different actions through which sustainable

redevelopment after the disaster is taken place.
It has two components in it.
1. Rehabilitation-
Rehabilitation is the process where measures are taken to make the society function
normally.

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Rehabilitation is of two types.
 Socio-Economic Rehabilitation- Under this process, physical infrastructure is

rebuilt. Livelihood opportunities are provided to the people.
 Psychological Rehabilitation- Psychological health care is provided to the people
to come of the disaster distress.
2. Reconstruction-
Reconstruction is the process where the communities are resilient to the disaster events
through better reconstruction of physical infrastructure such as replacement of roads,
buildings and other important infrastructure facilities.
Here long term development of infrastructure is given importance compared to the

existing infrastructure.
The difference between rehabilitation and reconstruction is- rehabilitation focuses on

building the existing structures or facilities; reconstruction focuses on making the new
and existing structures less vulnerable to disasters as compared to the pre existing
structures.
Pre Disaster Phase:
1. Prevention:
Prevention is removing the risk of disasters through structural and non structural
measures. (Refer basic terminology to understand the meaning of structural and non
structural).
However, preventing natural hazard risk is not possible because of the nature and scale
of these events.
Even for manmade hazards, we can’t prevent the risk because of the increasing
uncertainty and the rapid nature of some of the manmade events.
But we can reduce the risk of hazards. This reduction process is called mitigation.

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2. Mitigation:
Mitigation is lessening and reducing the impact of hazards and the related disasters.
Mitigation is a long term process. It focuses on
1. Reduction in the events of hazard
2. Reducing the potential threat to the elements at risk
The measures under mitigation are of two types:
1. Structural measures- Any physical construction to reduce or avoid possible impacts of

hazards.
Ex: Disaster resilient buildings and infrastructure, building dams,etc
2. Non structural measures- Any measure not involving physical construction. It involves
use of knowledge, practice or agreement to reduce the risk. These measures are in
particular through policies and laws, public awareness, training and education.
Ex: Vulnerability assessment of a particular area; Land use policies. etc
3. Preparedness:
It is a process under which individuals, communities and governments are ready to face
the hazard.
It is a short term process where measures are taken before the disaster event.
These include:
 Forecasting and warning systems for different disasters

 Emergency management plans
 Mock drills, training
 Community awareness and education

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Institutional and Legal Framework under National Disaster Management Act, 2005
Under this Act, at Central, State and District level various institutions are established.
@ Central Level:
1. National Disaster Management Authority:
- Composition:
1. Chairperson- Prime Minister
2. Members- Not exceeding nine. (Nominated by PM)
3. Vice chairperson- (Designed by PM among the members).
- NDMA shall meet as and when necessary –Fixed by Chairman – time & place.
- Functions:
1. Lay down policies on disaster management.
2. Approve the National plan.
3. Approve plans prepared by the Ministries or Departments of the Government.
4. Lay down guidelines for the purpose of integrating the measures for prevention of
disaster or the mitigation of its effects in their development plans & projects.
5. Coordinate the enforcement & implementation of the policy & plan for disaster
management.
6. Lay down policies & guidelines for the functioning of the National Institute of Disaster
Management.
2. Advisory Committee:
- To assist NDMA.

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3. National Executive Committee:
-Composition:
1. Chairman- The Secretary to the GOI.
2. Secretaries to various Ministries and Departments.
Functions:
1. Act as the coordinating & monitoring body for Disaster Management.
2. Prepare the National plan to be approved by the National Authority.
3. Coordinate & Monitor the implementation of National policy.
4. Coordinate response in the event of any disaster.
- NDMA shall provided guidelines for minimum standards of relief to be provided to

persons affected by disaster.
4. Role of Central Government:
Measures to be taken:
1. Coordinating of actions of the Ministries or Departments of the GoI, State

Government, NDMA, SDMA, NGOS, etc.
2. Ensuring the integration of measures for prevention & mitigation of disaster by

Ministries or Departments of GOI into their development plans & projects.
3. Ensure appropriate allocation of funds for prevention of disaster, mitigation,

capacity- building & preparedness by the Ministries or Departments of the GOI.
4. Deployment of naval, military & air forces, other armed forces of the Union or any
other civilian personnel.
5. Establish institutions for the research, training & developmental planning.

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6. Coordination with the United Nations agencies, International organisations and

Government of Foreign Countries.
5. National Institute of Disaster Management:
- Central Government Constituted an institute for responsible for planning & promoting
training and research in the area of disaster management , documentation and
development of national level information base relating to disaster management
policies, prevention mechanisms& mitigation measures.
6. National Disaster Response Force:
- Purpose: Specialist response
7. Finance:
1. National Disaster Response Fund- managed by: NEC. It is towards meeting the
expenses for emergency response, relief and rehabilitation in consultation with NDMA.
2. National Disaster Mitigation Fund- managed by NDMA. It is for projects exclusively

for the purpose of mitigation.
@ State level,
1. State Disaster management Authority:
Composition:
1. Chairperson- CM of the state. / Lt .Governor (UT).
2. Members- Not exceeding eight – nominated by Chairperson.
3. Chairperson of the State Executive Committee- CEO to SDMA.
Functions:
1. Lay down the state Disaster management policy.
2. Approve the State plan.

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3. Approve the plans prepared by the departments of the Government of the state.
4. Lay down guidelines for the purpose of integrating the measures for prevention of
disaster or the mitigation of its effects in their development plans & projects.
5. Recommend provision of funds for mitigation and preparedness measures.
6. Coordinate the enforcement & implementation of the State plan.
2. Advisory Committee:
- To assist SDMA.
5. Finances:
State Disaster Response Fund –SEC.
State Disaster Mitigation Fund- SDMA.
@ District Level,
1. District Disaster Management Authority:
Composition-
1. Chairperson- The Collector or DM or Deputy Commissioner.
2. Elected representative of the local authority is co – Chairperson.
[Tribal Areas (6th schedule) - Chief Executive of the District council of Autonomous
District – Co – Chairperson].
3. Chief Executive officer of DDMA- Appointed by State Government.
4. The Superintendent of Policy.
5. The Chief Medical Officer of the Disaster.
6. Not exceeding two other district level officers (by S.G).

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Functions:
1. Prepare a disaster management plan including district response plan for the district.
2. Set up, maintain, review & upgrade the mechanism for early warning & dissemination
of proper information to public.
Key national –level decision-making bodies for disaster management
{Note: You need not mug up the info given in the below table. Just to have an idea on
what is the role of different bodies in Disaster management this table is given. }
Name Composition Vital Role

1) Cabinet Prime Minister  Evaluation from a national security
committee ,Minister of Defence, perspective, if an incident has potentially
on security (CCS) Minister of Finance, security implications.
Minister of Home  Oversee all aspects of preparedness,
Affairs, and Minister mitigation and management of Chemical,
of External Affairs. Biological, Radiological and Nuclear
(CBRN) emergencies and of disasters
with security implications.
 Review risks of CBRN emergencies
from time to time, giving directions for
measures considered necessary for
disaster prevention, mitigation,
preparedness and effective response.

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2) National Crisis Cabinet Secretary  Oversee the Command, Control and

Management (Chairperson) Coordination of the disaster response.
Committee(NCMC) Secretaries of  Give direction to the crisis
Ministers Management Group as deemed necessary
/Departments and  Give direction for specific actions to
agencies with face crisis situations.
specific DM
responsibilities
3) National Prime Minister  Lay down policies, plans and

Disaster (Chairperson). guidelines for disaster management.
Management Members (not  Coordinate their enforcement and
Authority(NDMA) exceeding nine, implementation throughout the country.
nominated by the  Approve the NDMP and the DM plans
Chairperson) of the respective Ministries and
Departments of Government of India
 Lay down guidelines for disaster
management to be followed by the
different Central Ministries, Departments
and the state Governments.
4) National Union Home  To assist the NDMA in the discharge
Executive Secretary of its functions.
Committee (NEC) (Chairperson)  Preparation of the National Plan.
Secretaries to the  Coordinate and monitor the
GOI in the implementation of the National Policy.
Ministries/  Monitor the implementation of the
Departments of National Plan and the plans prepared by
Agriculture, Atomic the Ministries or Departments of the
Energy, Defence, Government of India.
Drinking water and  Direct any department or agency of

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sanitation, the Govt. to make available to the NDMA

Environment, or SDMAs such men, material or
Forests and climate resources as are available with it for the
change Finance purpose of emergency response, rescue
(Expenditure), and relief.
Health and Family  Ensure compliance of the directions
welfare, Power, issued by the Central Government.
Rural Development,  Coordinate response in the event of
Science and any threatening disaster situation or
Technology, Space disaster.
Telecommunications  Direct the relevant
, Urban Ministries/Departments of the Gol, the
Development, Water State Governments and the SDMAs
Resources, River regarding measures to be taken in
Development and response to any specific threatening
Ganga Rejuvenation, disaster situation or disaster.
The Chief of the  Coordinate with relevant Central
Integrated Defence Ministries/Departments/Agencies which
Staff of the chiefs of are expected to provide assistance to the
Staff Committee, ex affected state as per Standard Operating
officio as members. Procedures (SOPs).
Secretaries in the  Coordinate with the Armed Forces,
Ministry of External Central Armed Police Forces (CAPF), the
Affairs, Earth National Disaster Response Force (NDRF)
Sciences, Human and other uniformed services which
Resources comprise the Gol’s response to aid the
Development, Mines, State authorities.
shipping, Road  Coordinate with Civil Defence
Transport and volunteers, home guards and fire

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Highways and services, through the relevant

Secretary, NDMA are administrative departments of the State
special invitees to Governments.
the meetings of the
NEC.
5) National Specially trained  Provide assistance to the relevant
Disaster force headed by a State Government/District
Response Director General Administration in the event of an
Force(NDRF) Structured like para imminent hazard event or in its
military forces for aftermath.
rapid deployment.
6) National Union Home  Human resource development and
Institute of Minister, Vice capacity building for disaster
Disaster Chairman, NDMA, management within the broad polices
Management(NID Members including and guidelines laid down by the NDMA.
M) Secretaries of  Design, develop and implement
various nodal training programmes.
Ministries and  Undertake research
Departments of  Formulate and implement a
Government of and comprehensive human resource
State Governments development plan.
and heads of  Provide assistance in national policy
national levels formulation, assist other research and
scientific, research training institutes, State governments and
and technical other organizations for successfully
organizations, discharging their responsibilities
besides eminent  Develop educational materials for
scholars, scientists dissemination
and practitioners.  Promote awareness generation.

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National and International Framework for Disaster Management
Year National level International level

Executive bodies like Central Crisis
Management Committee and State Crisis
Management Committees were there.
1994 1st World Conference on Disaster
Risk Reduction
Yokohoma Declaration:
Recognised 1990-2000 as the
Decade of International Disaster
Risk Reduction
1999 High Powered Committee (HPC) was
constituted to recommend the
institutional mechanism for disaster
management
2001 After Bhuj Earthquake, HPC is
reconstituted as Working Group on
Disaster management
2005 Disaster Management Act, 2005 was 2nd World Conference on Disaster
enacted. Legal, institutional and financial Risk Reduction:
mechanisms were setup at the Central, Hyogo Framework Action Plan
State and District level.
2009 National Disaster management Policy,
2009
2015 3rd World Conference on Disaster
Risk Reduction:
Sendai Framework Action Plan
2016 1. National Disaster management Plan,
2016

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2. 10- point action formula for Disaster

risk reduction
3. Asian Ministerial Conference on
Disaster Risk Reduction- New Delhi
Declaration
2018 National Disaster management Plan ,
2018
International Framework for Disaster Management
Despite substantial scientific and technological progress in the world loss of property
and lives due to disasters is increasing.
Development cannot be substantial unless disaster mitigation is built into the

development process.
So, countries under UN have resolved to reduce the risk of disasters in a series of World
Conferences on Disaster Risk Reduction.
The World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction is a series of United Nations

conferences focusing on disaster and climate risk management in the context
of sustainable development.
Till now 3 World Conferences were held.
1. 1st World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction- Yokohoma Declaration:
Recognised 1990-2000 as the Decade of International Disaster Risk Reduction
2. 2nd World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction- Hyogo Framework Action Plan
The Yokohoma framework has set three strategic goals and five priority action areas
regarding the integration of disaster risk reduction (DRR) into sustainable development
policies, capacity building and preparedness and vulnerability reduction.

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Five Priority Actions under the Hyogo Framework

1. Ensure that disaster risk reduction is a national and a local priority with a
strong institutional basis for implementation.
2. Identify, assess and monitor disaster risks and enhance early warning.
3. Use knowledge, innovation and education to build a culture of safety and
resilience at all levels.
4. Reduce the underlying risk factors.
5. Strengthen disaster preparedness for effective response at all levels.
The three strategic goals of the Hyogo Framework for Action along with steps taken by
India towards its implementation are:
(a) Goal 1: "The more effective integration of disaster risk considerations into
sustainable development policies, planning and programming at all levels, with a special
emphasis on disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness and vulnerability
reduction;"
• With the enactment of the DM Act, 2005, and preparation of the disaster
management plan, 2016, the present focus of the government is to implement the
various provisions under them.
• All the government programs are being designed following the principle of "do
no harm".
(b) Goal 2: "The development and strengthening of institutions, mechanisms and
capacities at all levels, in particular at the community level, that can systematically
contribute to building resilience to hazards;"
• Strategies have been adopted to strengthen SDMAs and DDMAs.
• Comprehensive Human Resource Development Program is being prepared for
the entire country.
• Partnerships with Civil Society are being strengthened.
(c) Goal 3: "The systematic incorporation of risk reduction approaches into the design
and implementation of emergency preparedness, response and recovery programmes
in the reconstruction of affected communities."

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• "Build Back Better" is the underlining principle adopted by the Government for
all post reconstruction and recovery activities.
3. 3rd World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction- Sendai Framework Action Plan
The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 is a non-binding

agreement, which the signatory nations, including India, will attempt to comply with on
a voluntary basis.
The Sendai Framework aims to achieve substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses
in lives, livelihoods, and health and in the economic, physical, social, cultural, and
environmental assets of persons, businesses, communities, and countries.
The four priorities for action under the Sendai Framework are:
1. Understanding disaster risk
2. Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk
3. Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience
4. Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to “Build Back

Better” in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction.
Sendai Framework’s Seven Global Targets-

1. Substantially reduce global disaster mortality by 2030, aiming to lower average per
100,000 global mortalities between 2020-2030 compared to 2005-2015;
2. Substantially reduce the number of affected people globally by 2030, aiming to lower
the average global figure per 100,000 between 2020-2030 compared to 2005-2015;
3. Reduce direct disaster economic loss in relation to global gross domestic product by
2030;
4. Substantially reduce disaster damage to critical infrastructure and disruption of basic
services, among them health and educational facilities, including through developing
their resilience by 2030;

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5. Substantially increase the number of countries with national and local disaster risk
reduction strategies by 2020;
6. Substantially enhance international cooperation to developing countries through
adequate and sustainable support to complement their national actions for
implementation of the framework by 2030;
7. Substantially increase the availability of and access to multi-hazard early warning
systems and disaster risk information and assessments to the people by 2030.
Similarities and dissimilarities between Hyogo and Sendai frameworks-

Hyogo framework convention is extension of Yokohoma Convention and Sendai
convention is extension of Hyogo convention. So they have commonalities and
dissimilarities.
Similarities in approaches between Hyogo and Sendai Action Plans:
1. Collaboration of people at local level.
2. Fostering partnerships with the technological and private sector to share good
practices and supportive mechanisms globally.
3. Reducing the global disaster mortality.
4. Multi-stakeholder and inclusive approach for natural hazards.
Dissimilarities between Hyogo and Sendai Action Plans:
Hyogo Framework Action Plan Sendai Framework Action Plan

Focused more on Disaster losses Focuses on disaster risk
Minimising the impact of losses Reduction in size of disasters
Focused more on understanding the risk- Focus on means of implementation –‘the
‘the what’ how’
No specific targets 7 specific targets
Man made hazards are not focused Manmade hazards are also included

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Hazards and Types
As we have already seen in the previous section, hazard is a potential threat. It can be
due to natural event or manmade event or both.
Let us discuss each hazard in detail.
Our main focus should be on the measures to mitigate the hazard. Because, most of our
previous questions are from the Mitigational measures, suggested by the NDMA.
Now we will be studying each hazard in the following framework:
1. Definition of the Hazard
2. Reasons for the hazard
3. Impacts of the hazard
4. India’s vulnerability to that hazard
5. Successful examples to mitigate the vulnerabilities
6. Existing challenges in the disaster management of that hazard
7. NDMA guidelines on Disaster Management
Natural Hazards
Natural Hazards are the events that cause huge scale loss to humans, economy and to
the environment and these are induced by the natural causes/nature’s forces.
India is vulnerable to different types of natural hazards such as:
1. Earthquake 6. Cyclones
2. Landslide and Snow Avalanches 7. Cloudbursts
3. Tsunamis 8. Droughts
4. Floods 9. Heat waves
5. Urban Floods 10. Cold wave and frost

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1. Earth Quake
What is an earthquake?
The sudden release of energy in the form of seismic waves that results in ground shaking
is known as Earthquake.
This can be explained through Plate tectonic theory.
Plate tectonic theory:
The earth's crust is divided into seven major plates and numerous minor plates.
These plates move slowly and continuously over the earth's interior. This movement
causes 3 types of boundaries:
1. Convergent boundary
2. Divergent boundary
3. Transverse boundary
These plate boundaries form the areas of stress.
At these boundaries accumulated stress gets released by slipping or rupturing. These
zones are known as 'faults'.
The fault rupture generates vibration called seismic (from the Greek 'seismos' meaning
shock or earthquake) waves, which radiates from the focus (the point of origin of the
shock waves) in all directions.

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What are the reasons for occurrence of an Earthquake?

1. Crustal strain as explained through faults
2. Volcanoes
3. Landslides
4. Collapse of caverns
5. Man made activities like deep mining, huge dams that might induce seismicity
What are the impacts of Earthquakes?
 Damage occurs to human settlement, buildings, structures and infrastructure,
especially bridges, elevated roads, railways, water towers, pipelines, electrical
generating facilities.
 Aftershocks of an earthquake can cause much greater damage to already weakened
structures.
 Secondary effects of Earthquakes include fires, dam failure and landslides which may
block water ways and also cause flooding. [These are known as secondary hazards]
 Damage may occur to facilities using or manufacturing dangerous materials resulting
in possible chemical spills. [Chemical accident is a man made hazard but it also can be
induced by events like Earthquakes]
What are the Earthquake risk zones in India?

The Bureau of Indian Standards has classified regions in India into four seismic zones on
the basis of historical seismic activity. These are zones II, III, IV and V.
Among these, Zone V is the most seismically active region and zone II is the least active.
Zone V: It includes entire north-eastern India, parts of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Rann of Kutch in Gujarat, parts of North Bihar and Andaman &
Nicobar Islands.
Zone-IV: It includes the remaining parts of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.
Delhi-NCR region, Sikkim, northern parts of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal, parts
of Gujarat and small portions of Maharashtra near the west coast and Rajasthan also fall
in this zone.

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Zone III: Regions under zone III are Goa, Kerala, Lakshadweep, and remaining parts of
Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and West Bengal, parts of Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,
Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu and
Karnataka.
Zone II: The remaining portion of the country falls under zone II.
Ministry of Earth Sciences is the nodal agency to deal with Earthquake disasters.
The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) is the nodal agency for the monitoring of
seismic activity.
The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is the nodal agency for preparing earthquake-
resistant building codes and other safety codes.
Which regions of India are more prone to Earthquakes?
 The entire Himalayan belt is considered prone to great earthquakes of magnitude
exceeding 8.0.
 In a relatively short span of about 50 years, four such earthquakes have occurred:
1897 Shillong (M8.7); 1905 Kangra (M8.0); 1934 Bihar-Nepal (M8.3); and 1950
Assam-Tibet (M8.6).
 Due to the convergence boundary between Indian Plate and the Eurasian plate, the
entire Himalayan belt including North East is prone to Earthquakes.
 The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are also situated on an inter-plate boundary and
frequently experience damaging earthquakes.
Is Deccan peninsula a safer region to earthquakes?
 At one time regions of the country away from the Himalayas and other inter-plate
boundaries were considered to be relatively safe from damaging earthquakes.
 However, in the recent past, even these areas have experienced devastating
earthquakes, but of lower magnitude than the Himalayan earthquakes.
Cases:
Koyna Earthquake: The Koyna earthquake in 1967 led to revision of the seismic zoning
map, resulting in deletion of the non-seismic zone from the map. The areas

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surrounding Koyna were also re-designated to Seismic Zone IV, indicating high hazard.
Killari Earthquake:
The occurrence of the Killari earthquake (The earthquake struck at about 3.56 am on
September 30, 1993) in the intra-plate earthquake about 52 villages was destroyed, over
30,000 were injured and approximately 10,000 were killed. The earthquake left a huge
hollow at Killari, which was also the epicenter, remains in place till date) in 1993 resulted
in further revision of the seismic zoning map.
Under this the low hazard zone or Seismic Zone I was merged with Seismic Zone II, and
some parts of Deccan and Peninsular India were brought under Seismic Zone III
consisting of areas designated as moderate hazard zone areas.
Recent research suggests that as understanding of the seismic hazard of these regions
increases, more areas assigned as low hazard may be re-designated to higher level of
seismic hazard, or vice-versa.
BHUJ EARTHQUAKE – 2001
On 26th January, 2001, when all Indians were celebrating Republic day, the State of
Gujarat felt an earthquake in morning at 8.49 A.M. A powerful Earthquake of magnitude
6.9 on Richter-Scale rocked the Western region of India.
This earthquake was so devastating in its scale and suffering that the likes of it had not
been experienced in past 50 years. It caused extensive damage to life & property, about
14000 people died and thousands of people were injured.
This earthquake was spread up to 2250 km in circle. Twenty-one out of a total 25
districts of the State were affected consisting of around 18 towns, 182 talukas and 7904
villages which saw large-scale devastation.
The affected areas even spread up to 300 km from the epicenter. In the Kutch district,
where the epicenter was, four major urban areas – Bhuj, Anjar, Bachau and Rapar
suffered near total destruction. The rural areas in the region were also very badly
affected with over 450 villages almost totally destroyed.
In addition, wide spread damages also occurred in Rajkot, Jamnagar, Surendranagar,
Patan and Ahmedabad districts. Other urban areas such as Gandhidham, Morvi, Rajkot

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and Jamnagar also suffered damages to major structures, infrastructure and industrial
facilities. In Ahmedabad, the commercial capital of Gujarat was also severely affected,
750 people died in the city and 130 multistory flats, houses were destroyed.
Gujarat earthquake is very significant from the point of view of earthquake disaster
mitigation in India. This quake has provided numerous examples of geo-technical and
structural failures. Gujarat earthquake reconstruction initiative is widely acclaimed
world over for its unique features and sustainability.
The below map shows the Earthquake Hazard Zones in India:

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Is vulnerability to earthquakes is increasing?

 The increase in earthquake risk is due to the increase in developmental activities
driven by
1. Urbanization,
2. Economic development and
3. The globalization of India’s economy.
 The increase in use of high-technology equipment and tools in manufacturing and
service industries has also made them susceptible to disruption due to relatively
moderate ground shaking.
 As a result, loss of human life is not the only determinant of earthquake risk any more.
 Severe economic losses leading to the collapse of the local or regional economy after
an earthquake may have long-term adverse consequences for the entire country.
 This effect would be further magnified if an earthquake affects a mega-city, such as
Delhi or Mumbai
Handling Earthquake risk: Successful Example:
Superior Quake Protection in Japan
Earthquakes are ingrained in Japanese life; every year, around 2,000 shake the country.
This has created a society that’s aware of Mother Nature’s temperamental power, and a
government that takes the omnipresent seismic threat seriously.
But Tokyo, despite being named the second-most exposed city in the world for natural
disasters, is well prepared. For one, Japan is a world leader in the number of quake-
resistant structures. In Tokyo, 87% of buildings are reportedly built to withstand
earthquakes.
Skyscrapers and high-rises must follow strict building codes, and often rest
on Teflon that allows the base of the buildings to slide ever-so-slightly during a tremor.

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Others are built on rubber or inflated, fluid-filled bases that can absorb seismic shocks.
Then there’s Tokyo Skytree: Opened in 2012, it’s the tallest tower on the planet. The
soaring 2,080-foot structure took 100 engineers, architects and planners to create a
quake-proof design.
In addition to steel-reinforced concrete poles that root it over 160 feet into the ground,
Skytree’s inner structures mimic the shape of ancient wooden pagodas, which are famous
for standing strong in the midst of quakes and storms.
Tokyo’s Skytree holds the Guinness record for world’s tallest tower, and uses quake-
resistant engineering that’s borrowed from ancient Chinese pagodas.
For older buildings, Japanese companies are willing to invest, experiment, and innovate.
A Tokyo real estate company is toying with 300-ton, $51 million vibration-dampening
pendulums that allow skyscrapers to better sway in the face of intense shaking.
NDMA Guidelines on maintaining Earthquakes in India:

NDMA has given 6 pillars to manage earthquakes in India.

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National Earthquake Risk Mitigation Project

A National Earthquake Risk Mitigation (Preparatory phase) was approved as a Centrally
Sponsored Plan Scheme in 2013. The project is to be implemented by NDMA in
coordination with the State Governments/UT that lie in seismic zones IV & V in the
country. It aims to increase awareness of the key stakeholders on the need for adoption
of model building bye-laws and earthquake resistant construction and planning
standards.
National Building Code
The National Building Code of India (NBC) provides guidelines for regulating the building
construction activities on different materials, planning, design and construction practices
of buildings. It lays down provisions designed to protect the safety of the public with
regard to structural sufficiency, fire hazards and health aspect of buildings.
Critical Existing Challenges for Earthquake Mitigation in India:
 Inadequate enforcement of earthquake-resistant building codes and town planning

bye-laws;
 Absence of earthquake-resistant features in constructions in urban and rural areas.
 Lack of formal training among professionals in earthquake-resistant construction
practices.
 Lack of adequate preparedness and poor response capacity of various stakeholder
groups.
 Lack of awareness among various stakeholders about the seismic risk;
 Absence of systems of licensing of engineers and masons.

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NDMA Mitigational Measures:

These can be grouped into 3 categories as shown below.
DRR(Disaster Risk DRR(Disaster Risk Capacity development
Reduction)-Structural Reduction) -Non
measures structural measures
Social Housing Schemes Regulations and model Training
Codes for town Curriculum Development
Planning, civil works and [Drop-Cover-Hold Menthod]
Public infrastructure
Strengthening and seismic Structural safety audit of Community- Based Disaster
Retrofitting of prioritized Lifeline structures and Management
lifeline structures and Buildings
Buildings Prioritization of lifeline
Structures and buildings
For strengthening and
seismic retrofitting
Hazard resistant Licensing and Awareness Generation
Construction certification Mock Drills/Exercises
Of professionals Vocational Training / Skill
Development
Public Private Empowering Women,
Partnerships marginalised communities , and
persons with disabilities

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Floods
What is a flood?
Every water channel has a maximum capacity known as carrying capacity. When the
water holding capacity of the water body or water channel exceeds the carrying capacity,
the water starts overflowing.
This overflowing of water and silt is known as flood.
Floods are of different types:
1. Flash floods
2. River floods
3. Coastal floods
4. Urban floods
What are the reasons for floods?
Natural reasons:
 Monsoon Rainfall: Eighty per cent of the precipitation takes place in the monsoon
months from June to September. During this season, the rivers bring heavy sediment
load from catchments.
 Inadequate carrying capacity of rivers is responsible for causing floods, drainage
congestion and erosion of river-banks.
 Flash floods: Cyclones, cyclonic circulations and cloud bursts cause flash floods and
lead to huge discharges of water.
 Ice jams or landslides blocking streams also cause floods.
Man made reasons:
 Encroachment of flood plains and wetlands
 Improper handling of dams
 Lack of proper drainage system
 Heavy siltation in the catchment areas due to
 Deforestation
 Mining
 Over grazing

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Words to know:
Wetland-A wetland is a distinct ecosystem that is inundated by water, either permanently
or seasonally, where oxygen-free processes prevail.
All the rivers, lakes, marshy lands, even the rice field are called the wetlands.
Flood plain- Flood plain is an adjacent zone to the main river channel. This area gets
inundated during the peak rainfall season.
Catchment area- It is an area from where particular water body receives water through
rainfall, glacial melt, etc.
Why flood related damages are increasing in the recent years?
It is due to many reasons including-

 Steep increase in population,
 Rapid urbanization
 Growing developmental and economic activities in flood plains
 Encroachment of wetlands , which act as water buffers
 Global warming.
What are the impacts of floods?
 Structures like houses, bridges; roads etc. get damaged by the flood water.
 There is huge loss to life and livestock caused by drowning.
Intense monsoon rainfall over Kerala, August 2018
Kerala was inundated. There were widespread floods and thousands of landslides. The
disaster killed over 480 people and affected nearly 5.4 million. A massive response
operation was mobilized by the government, civil society, private sector, and local
fishermen. Over 260,000 were evacuated and more than 1.4 million were provided
shelter in 3,200+ relief camps.
At the request of the Government of India — the Government of Kerala, the World Bank,
and the Asian Development Bank conducted a Joint Rapid Disaster Needs Assessment to
quantify the damage and assess the long-term recovery needs. Considering the impact on

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housing, infrastructure, utilities, livelihoods, health, environment, and cultural heritage —

the estimated recovery cost is about US$ 3.5 billion⁵, just for the priority sectors.
This scale of damage from floods is not an outlier for India. The average annual loss from
floods in the country is estimated to be US$ 7.4 billion.
 Flooding may cause landslides in the Mountainous regions [Land slide here is a
secondary hazard]
 Lack of proper drinking water facilities, contamination of water (well, ground water,
piped water supply) leads to outbreak of epidemics, diarrhoea, viral infection, malaria
and many other infectious diseases.
 Flooding also leads to a large area of agricultural land getting inundated as a result
there is a huge crop loss. This results in shortage of food, and animal fodder.
 Floods may also affect the soil characteristics. The land may be rendered infertile due
to erosion of top layer or may turn saline if sea water floods the area.
Flood Forecasting and Warning in India: Real time discharge and rainfall data is the basic
requirements for the formulation of a flood forecast.
Most of the hydro-meteorological data are observed and collected by the field formations
of Central Water Commission. IMD supplies the daily rainfall data.
What is India’s vulnerability to floods?

Out of 40 million hectare of the flood prone area in the country, on an average, floods
affect an area of around 7.5 million hectare per year.
Floods in the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra plains are an annual feature. It is due to:
 Perennial Rivers in the region receiving heavy rainfall during monsoon.
 Young Rivers flowing through the Himalayas which are sedimentary mountains.
This leads to huge silt, which leads to the exceeding of the river carrying capacity.
 Meandering of rivers in the mid course.
 Flowing of the river in plain region leads to high siltation.

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Floods in the western India is due to:

 Less carrying capacity of the river
 Flash floods due to convection rainfall
Coastal floods are due to:
 Cyclones
 Strom surges
 River water stagnation near deltas
 Monsoon rainfall
 Narrow channel of west flowing rivers in the western coast region

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Cloudburst:
What is a Cloudburst?
A cloudburst is a sudden downpour within a radius of few kilometres. It usually lasts no
longer than few minutes. But it is capable of flooding the area. Rainfall from a cloudburst
is usually over 100 mm per hour.
How are cloudbursts formed?
 Monsoon clouds filled with water droplets move across the plains. Warm air currents
keep pushing the clouds up not allowing them to shed rain.
 More and more water droplets get collected and the clouds get bigger as they move up
a mountain or hill.
 The clouds soon stop moving since there is barely any wind up in the mountains.
 The warm air holding up the water drops in the clouds cools. The cloud bursts like a
soggy paper bag and the rain comes suddenly.
Cloudburst risks in India
As per the specific definition of IMD, Cloudburst is- If rainfall of about 10 cm or above per
hour is recorded over a place that is roughly 10 km x 10 km in area, it is classified as a
cloudburst event. This means 5 cm of rainfall in half an hour would also be classified as a
cloudburst.
India, in a normal year, gets about 116 cm of rain in the entire year i.e. every area in the
country, on an average, should expect to get only this amount during the course of the
year.
Why cloudbursts intensity sis increasing in India?
The events of extreme precipitation have been on the rise in the last few decades due to
global warming.
Distribution Pattern of Cloudbursts:
 Cloudbursts do happen in plains as well, but there is a greater probability of them
occurring in mountainous zones; as it has to do with the terrain of the region. For
example- like steep hills favour the formation of these clouds.
 Cloudbursts get counted only when they result in large scale destruction of life and

46
property, which happens mainly in mountainous regions.

Predictability about Cloudbursts
 There is no satisfactory technique for anticipating the occurrence of cloud bursts
because of their small scale.
 A very fine network of radars is required to be able to detect the likelihood of a
cloud burst about six hours in advance, sometimes even 12-14 hours in advance.
 This would be prohibitively expensive. Only the areas likely to receive heavy
rainfall can be identified on a short range scale.
 Much of the damage can be avoided by way of identifying the areas and the
meteorological situations that favour the occurrence of cloud bursts.
Measures taken to mitigate the impact of floods can be suggested for mitigating the
impact of cloudbursts also.
NDMA Guidelines on managing Floods:

[Note: The below is the list of all measures suggested by the NDMA. For the exam purpose
remember only the important ones]
The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) issued guidelines on management
of floods in 2008. The summary of the recommendations are as follows:
1. Embankments/flood walls/flood levees have to be constructed for prevention of
flooding after carrying out detailed hydrological and morphological studies regarding
their favourable and adverse effects.
2. The CWC and the state governments have to study the problem of rise in river beds in a
scientific manner and explore the techno-economic viability of desilting/dredging as a
remedial measure to mitigate the effects of rise in the river beds.
3. Appropriate channel improvement works have to be taken up to increase the velocity

and/or the area of flow and reduce the flood level in the river depending upon site-
specific conditions.

47
4. State governments should prohibit the blocking of the natural drainage channels and
sluices with an appropriate law and improve their capacity and construct new channels
and sluices to ensure flow of excess rainwater in the area.
5. State governments should study the feasibility of implementing the schemes for
diverting excess water to existing or new channels by bye-passing towns and cities to
prevent flooding.
6. Watershed management measures such as afforestation, check dams, detention basins

etc., have to be implemented in the catchment of rivers to prevent soil erosion, enhance
water conservation and minimise water and sediment runoff.
7. State governments should consider appropriate anti-erosion measures such as

revetments, slope pitching, permeable and impermeable spurs using conventional
materials and/or geo-synthetics for protection of towns, cities, and industrial areas,
groups of thickly populated villages, railway lines, roads and embankments from
erosion by rivers in a time-bound manner.
8. Sea walls/coastal protection works has to be planned and executed by the respective
coastal states/port authorities, keeping in view the complexity of sea behaviour and
other environmental aspects.
9. The state governments has to provide adequate number of raised platforms/flood

shelters at suitable locations in the flood plains with basic amenities such as drinking
water, sanitation, medical treatment, cooking, tents, lantern etc. for the people to take
shelter during floods.
10. Basin-wise flood hazard mitigation models have to be developed.
11. A mechanism has to be developed wherein representatives of the CWC, IMD, NRSA and
the states interact with each other, exchange data on a real-time basis and formulate the
flood forecasts and warnings.
12. With co-operation from Nepal, Bhutan and the China, data has to be collected on real-
time basis.

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13. The state governments have to enact and enforce appropriate laws for implementing
flood plain zoning regulations.
14. The reclamation of the existing wetlands/natural depressions has to be prohibited by

state governments and they must formulate an action plan for using them for flood
moderation.
15. Training and capacity building measures have to be taken up for designated authorities
dealing with the disaster.
16. A number of organizations, like NGOs, self-help groups, CBOs, youth organizations such
as NCC, NYKS, NSS etc., women’s groups, volunteer agencies, Civil Defence, Home
Guards, etc. must be encouraged to volunteer their services in the aftermath of any
disaster.
17. The state governments have to utilise different types of media, especially print, radio,
television and Internet, to disseminate timely and accurate information.
18. A team comprising a social worker, a psychologist and a psychiatrist should provide
counselling to victims.
19. Measures should be taken to strengthen Ganga Flood Control Board and Brahmaputra
Board.
Aapada Mitra Scheme
 The NDMA has approved a Centrally Sponsored Scheme nme Aapad Mitra Scheme.
 It is to focus on training community volunteers in disaster response in the 30 most
flood-prone districts of 25 states in India.
 It aims to train community volunteers with the skills that they would need to
respond to their community’s immediate needs and to undertake basic relief and
rescue tasks from emergency situations such as floods, flash floods, and urban
flooding, when emergency services are not readily available.

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NDMA Mitigational measures to address floods are:

DRR-Structural measures DRR-Non structural Capacity development
measures
Flood control measures such as Regulation and Training
construction of embankments enforcement of laws,
and levees norms, regulations,
Guidelines , regulation of
Reservoirs
Construction of engineered Regulations to promote Curriculum Development
structures in the flood plains flood resilient buildings
and strengthening of structures and Infrastructure
to withstand flood forces and
seepage.
Multi-purpose Flood Shelters Wetland conservation Awareness Generation
and restoration
Waterways and drainage Public Private Mock Drills/Exercises
Systems for roads, highways, Partnerships
and expressways
Enhancing the safety of dams Catchment Area Vocational Training / Skill
and reservoirs Treatment/Afforestation Development
Desilting/ dredging of rivers to Integrated Water Empowering Women,
improve flow; drainage Resources marginalised communities
Management (IWRM) for , and persons with
flood proofing disabilities
Social Housing Schemes Dam safety mechanisms Community- Based
Disaster Management

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Urban Floods
What is urban flood?
Flooding in urban areas can be caused by flash floods, or coastal floods, or river floods.
But there is a specific flood type that is called urban flooding.
In Urban areas there is little open soil that can be used for water storage and water
percolation.
So, nearly all the rainwater needs to be transported to the surface water system or to the
sewage system.
When there is a high intensity rainfall, the water starts inundates the city when the
capacity of drainage is less.
What are the reasons for urban floods?

Urban flooding is caused by the combination of meteorological, hydrological, and human
factors.
 Meteorological factors: Heavy Rainfall associated with Urban Heat Islands.
Word to know:
Urban Heat Island:
An urban heat island, or UHI, is a metropolitan area that's a lot warmer than the rural
areas surrounding it.

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 Land Use Change: Due to land-use changes, flooding in urban areas can happen very
rapidly with large flow.
Ex: Chennai Floods of 2015- Flood plain areas are now being used for development
activities. And the low lying areas are used for construction of buildings due to paucity
of land in urban areas. This has led to flooding when there was a heavy rainfall.
 Limited capacity of storm water drainage system: Storm water drainage systems in the
past were designed for rainfall intensity of 12 – 20 mm. But the average rainfall in
Indian cities far exceeds the capacity of drainage system. The designed system
capacities do not work due to poor maintenance.
 Encroachment of wetlands is another big problem in many cities and towns.
Consequently the capacity of the natural drains such as lakes, streams, etc has
decreased, resulting in flooding.
 Improper disposal of solid waste, including domestic, commercial and industrial waste
and dumping of construction debris into the drains also contributes significantly to
reducing their capacities.
 Developed Catchment areas: Rapid urbanisation leads to developed catchments. These
increase the flood peaks from 1.8 to 8 times and flood volumes by up to 6 times.
Consequently, flooding occurs very quickly due to faster flow times, sometimes in a
matter of minutes.
What are the impacts of urban floods?
 Inundation of some or large parts urban areas for several hours to many days.
 Temporary relocation of people, dispersal of animals,
 Damage to civic amenities,
 Deterioration of water quality
 Risk of epidemics due to water stagnation
 Urban areas of major centres of economic activity. Urban floods can severely
damage the economic activity, which may take long time for reconstruction of the
economy.
 Slums areas get disproportionately affected which may cause severe socio-
economic distress to those communities.

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What areas to vulnerable to Urban Floods India?
In the past several years, there is an increasing trend of urban flood disasters in India.
All major cities are prone to urban floods due to –
 Increased pollution and population density in the urban centres

 Impact of Global warming and climate change leading to unpredictable rainfall
patterns
 Inadequate urban infrastructure in terms of sewage infrastructure, lack of proper
solid waste management, etc
Examples of Urban floods:
Floods in Hyderabad in 2000, Ahmadabad in 2001, Delhi in 2002 and 2003, Chennai in
2004, Mumbai in 2005, Surat in 2006, Kolkata in 2007, Jamshedpur in 2008, Delhi in
2009, Guwahati and Delhi in 2010, and Chennai in 2015.

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Existing Challenges:
 Less importance to comprehensive risk assessment of urban flooding. It includes
understanding, analysis and assessment of urban flood risks, before flood mitigation
measures are planned and implemented.
 Ignorance of mapping of different factors and risks in different cities and non-
inclusion of the same in development planning
 Unsatisfactory coordination among different institutions for experience sharing for
the purpose of public awareness and imparting professional training of disaster
managers.
 Lack of information sharing,
 Disintegrated investment decisions, and
 Lack of consultation with stakeholders.
NDMA guidelines on management of urban flooding-
[Note: The below is the list of all measures suggested by the NDMA. For the exam purpose
remember only the important ones]
The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has issued guidelines on
management of urban flooding in 2010.
1. Key guideline was to create a National Hydro-meteorological Network. The guidelines

say that for providing early warning, the Central Water Commission (CWC) should
maximize the real-time hydro-meteorological network to cover all the urban centers
in dealing with urban flooding. The requirement should consider all cities/ towns
which are particularly located on river banks, upstream and downstream of major and
medium dams and island cities. Based on that assessment, CWC will initiate the
process to prepare a plan and implementation strategy.
2. Use of Doppler Weather Radars to be expanded to cover all urban areas in the
country.
3. Coordination mechanism to be established among all agencies for deriving maximum
benefit from the efforts of each individual organization.

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4. A dedicated high bandwidth communication channel is to be built, for ensuring

smooth underlying sensor web flow of all available information and products.
5. State-of-the-art automatic water level recorders must be installed throughout the
drainage network of the watershed, which may sometimes extend beyond the
administrative boundary of the ULB.
6. Technical Umbrella for urban Flood Forecasting and Warning to be established at
national and state level.
7. An inventory of the existing storm water drainage system to be prepared. The
inventory will be both watershed based and ward based.
8. Catchment to be the basis for planning and designing the storm water drainage
systems in all ULBs.
9. Contour mapping of urban areas to be prepared at 0.2 to 0.5 m contour interval for
detailed delineation of the watershed/ catchment for planning drainage systems.
10. Pre-monsoon desilting of all major drains to be completed by March 31 each year.
11. Suitable interventions in the drainage system like traps, communitors, trash racks can
be provided to reduce the amount of solid waste going into the storm sewers.
12. All future road and rail bridges in cities crossing drains to be designed such that they
do not block the flows resulting in backwater effect.
13. Inlets to be provided on the roads to drain water to the roadside drains and these has
to be designed based on current national and international practices.
14. Every building in an urban area must have rainwater harvesting as an integral
component of the building utility.
15. Concept of Rain Gardens to be incorporated in planning for public parks and on-site
storm water management for larger colonies and sites those are to be developed.
16. Low-lying areas in cities have to be reserved for parks and other low-impact human
activities.
17. Encroachments on the drain should attract penal action.
18. Flood hazard assessment has to ascertain level of acceptable risk of flooding on the
basis of projected future scenarios of rainfall intensities and duration and land use
changes.

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19. Flood damage has to be according to the physical characteristics of the area such as
land use, topography, drainage area, outfall system and the capacity of the existing
storm water drainage system.
20. Ward level Information System has to be developed using high resolution satellite
images/aerial photos, integrated with socio-economic data covering natural resources
and infrastructure facilities on appropriate scale (1:1000) at community level.
21. States/UTs have to build partnerships with public/ private insurance companies and
civil society to sensitive communities about available schemes and also develop
appropriate micro-insurance schemes targeted at low-income groups.
22. The database of the National Urban Information System (NUIS) will be expanded to
cover infrastructure facilities at community level integrated with socio-economic data.
23. Urban Flooding has to be dealt as a separate disaster, de-linking it from riverine
floods which affect the rural areas.
24. Storm water drainage concerns will be made a part of all EIA norms.
25. Buildings have to be designated as Flood Shelters and all necessary arrangements
have to be ensured ahead of the flood season. Children, women, the aged and the
differently-abled persons has to be given special attention.
26. Post-floods, restoration of power, telecommunications, road and railway transport
will get top priority.
27. Media, corporate, NGOs has to be involved in awareness generation.
NDMA Mitigational measures:
DRR-Structural DRR-Non structural measures Capacity development

measures
Strengthening, and Preparation of comprehensive Training
retrofitting of all lifeline Urban Storm Drainage Design
structures and critical Manual (USDDM)
infrastructure
Establishment of Preparation of Storm Water Curriculum Development

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Emergency Drainage System Inventory

Operation Centres
Hazard resistant Operation and Maintenance of Awareness Generation
construction Drainage Systems
Urban land use Design Environmental Impact Mock Drills/Exercises

Assessment
Compliance of Techno-Legal Vocational Training / Skill
Regime Development
Constitution of Urban Flooding Empowering Women,
Cell for Integrated UFDM marginalised communities ,
and persons with disabilities
Public Private Partnerships Community- Based Disaster
Management
Landslide
What is a landslide?
Landslide is a process of down slope movement of rock, debris and /or earth under the
influence of gravity.
What are the reasons for landslides?
Natural Factors:
 Earthquake- Shocks and Vibrations

 Heavy rainfall and snowfall leads to loosening of the soil layers.
Anthropogenic Factors:
 Unplanned construction activities near the slopes
 Building dams near the weak zones

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 Deforestation
 Overgrazing
Similar Phenomenon-
Snow Avalanches
Avalanches are block of snow or ice descending from the mountain tops at a river like
speedy flow.
 They are extremely damaging and cause huge loss to life and property.
 In Himalaya, avalanches are common in Drass, Pir Panijal, Lahaul-Spiti and
Badrinath areas. As per Snow and Avalanche Study
 Establishment (SASE), of Defence Research and Development Organisation
(DRDO), on an average, around 30 people are killed every year, due to this disaster
in various zones of the Himalayan range.
 Beside killing people, avalanches also damage the roads, properties, and
settlements falling in its way. Traffic blockage, structural damages of roads, and
retaining wall damages occur most frequently due to avalanches.
Snow avalanches occur in several stretches of the Himalayan range with the following
areas being more vulnerable:
 Western Himalaya – the snowy regions of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh
 Uttarakhand, especially Tehri Garhwal and Chamoli districts
 Jammu and Kashmir – Higher reaches of Kashmir and Gurez valleys, Kargil and
Ladakh and along some of the major roads
 Himachal Pradesh – Chamba, Kullu-Spiti and Kinnaur
What are the impacts of landslides?
 Lead to economic decline: Landslides results in destruction of property. If the
landslide is significant, it could drain the economy of the region or country.
 Destruction of infrastructure: Infrastructure such as roads, railways, leisure
destinations, buildings and communication systems gets affected by landslide.
 Loss of life: Communities living at the foot of hills and mountains are at a greater risk
of death by landslides.

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 Impacts river ecosystems: The soil, debris, and rock sliding downhill can find way into
rivers and block their natural flow. It may cause flood. Many river habitats like fish
can die due to interference of natural flow of water. Communities depending on the
river water for household activities and irrigation will suffer if flow of water is
blocked.
What is India’s vulnerability to landslides?

Landslides are one of the natural hazards that affect at least 15 per cent of the land area
of our country—an area which exceeds 0.49 million km2.
Landslides of different types are frequent in geo-dynamically active domains in-
1. The Himalayan and Arakan-Yoma belt of the North-Eastern parts of the country
2. The relatively stable domains of the Meghalaya Plateau, Western Ghats and Nilgiri
Hills.
In all, 22 states and parts of the Union Territory of Pudducherry and Andaman & Nicobar
Islands are affected by this hazard.
The phenomenon of landslides is pronounced during the monsoon period.
Himalayas:
India has the highest mountain chain on earth, the Himalayas. These are formed due to
collision of Indian and Eurasian plate.
The northward movement of the Indian plate towards China causes continuous stress on
the rocks.
This renders the rock weak and prone to landslides and earthquakes.
Western Ghats:
Landslides are also common in Western Ghats. Llandslides, characterized by a lateritic
cap, pose constant threat to the Western Ghats in the South, along the steep slopes of
Konkan coast besides Nilgiris.
In the Nilgiris, in 1978 alone, unprecedented rains in the region triggered about one
hundred landslides which caused severe damage to communication lines, tea gardens
and other cultivated crops.

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North Eastern Region:

The Northeastern region is badly affected by landslides.
Landslides in the Darjeeling district of West Bengal as also those in Sikkim, Mizoram,
Tripura, Meghalaya, Assam, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh pose chronic problems,
causing recurring economic losses worth billions of rupees.
Case Studies:
A GSI survey after the Malin landslide (2014) had identified around 20 villages which
might face landslides.
The villages are located around Dimbhe dam on Ghod river. Locals often complain of
increased occurrences of landslides since it was constructed.
It took just a few minutes for the tribal village of Malin in Ambegaon taluka of Pune

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district to be wiped out from the face of the earth. The landslide which resulted in the
death of over 150 people was the result of incessant rains coupled with geographical
instability of the area.
Two years down the line, residents of villages around Malin’s vicinity are scared of the
same fate befalling them. With landslides becoming increasingly common, some have
even taken to migrating to safer destinations during the monsoons.
Following the devastating landslide, the Geological Survey of India (GSI) had conducted a
detailed survey about the geological stability of the area. In its report, it had identified
around 20 villages and hamlets which might face threats of landslide.
These villages are located around the Dimbhe dam which was constructed on the Ghod
river. Experts have pointed out to the inherent dangers of the dam which seems to be
silting at an alarming rate. Local residents have often complained of increased
occurrences of landslides since the dam was constructed.
Existing Challenges:
 Integrating landslide concerns in the development of disaster management plans at
different levels i.e., national, state, district, municipal/Panchayat.
 Switch-over from piecemeal remediation of landslides to simultaneous and holistic
implementation of control measures.
 Techno-legal regime for introduction of sound slope protection, planned urbanisation,
regulated land use and environment friendly land management practices.
 Zero tolerance against deliberate environmental violence and unhealthy construction
practices.
 Laws governing new constructions and alteration of existing land use on problematic
slopes and in landslide prone areas.
 Innovation in the management of multi-institutional and multi-disciplinary teams.
 Establishment of a disaster knowledge network and a mechanism for dissemination of
information at the national level, mechanism for international linkages, cooperation
and joint initiatives.

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NDMA Guidelines for Landslide Disaster Management:
NDMA follows a 9 –step process to manage Landslides. These include the following major
elements to enhance the effectiveness of managing landslide hazard in the country:
1. Landslide Hazard, Vulnerability and Risk Assessment:
This includes delineating areas prone to landslide hazards and status of landslide hazards
in different areas.
This is to assess the resources at risk due to these hazards as per the requirement of
communities and for planning and decision making purposes.

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2. Multi-Hazard Conceptualisation:
Integrating landslide concerns into multi-hazard disaster management plans at different

levels for effective risk assessment, mitigation and response.
3. Landslide Remediation Practice:
It includes encouraging implementation of successful landslide remediation and

mitigation technologies
This also includes monitoring of landslides and development of early warning systems.
4. Research and Development:
The study of landslide hazards is an area that requires active research. Unlike many other
violent acts of nature, landslide hazards can be mapped out. They can be predicted and
contained based on the research.
5. Knowledge Network and Management:
Establishing an effective system for gathering information on landslides, loss assessment

resulting from landslides and the effective dissemination of technical information and
maps is an essential component of disaster management process.
A web portal, India Disaster Knowledge Network (IDKN) is launched at National level.
6. Capacity Building and Training:
Developing institutional capacity and training for geoscientists, engineers, and planners
are necessary for effective management of landslide hazard.
7. Public Awareness and Education:
It requires effective communication of landslide hazard issues to the affected

communities through education, public awareness, posters, audio-visual aids, media
campaigns, etc.

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8. Emergency Preparedness and Response:
It covers the development of coordinated landslide rapid response capability involving

scientists, engineers, local authorities, National Disaster Response Force and paramilitary
forces. Rescue, relief and rehabilitation are covered in this component.
9. Regulation and Enforcement:
Establishment of a techno-legal mechanism of landslide hazard assessment and

mitigation with provisions for enforcing compliance thereof are important.
NDMA Guidelines on Land slide Mitigation:
DRR-Structural measures DRR-Non structural measures Capacity development

Protection of Site selection for Human Training
Human settlements Settlements in Landslide and
Snow Avalanche Prone Areas
Protection of heritage Regulations and building codes Curriculum Development
Structures
Multi-Hazard shelters Licensing and certification Community- Based Disaster
Of professionals Management
Surface Drainage Control Public Private Partnerships Mock Drills/Exercises
Works
Building retaining walls; Insurance Vocational Training / Skill
increasing Vegetation Development
cover
Regulation of Land Use Use of Drone Technology for Empowering Women,
Practices for development regular monitoring marginalised communities ,
activities persons with disabilities

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Cyclones
1. What is a cyclone?
Cyclone is a low pressure system which carries heavy winds and rains with it.
Cyclones are classified as:
(i) Extra tropical cyclones (also called temperate cyclones); and
(ii) Tropical cyclones.
Extra tropical cyclones occur in temperate zones and high latitude regions, though they
are known to originate in the Polar Regions.
Tropical Cyclones: Cyclones that develop in the regions between the Tropics of Capricorn
and Cancer are called tropical cyclones.
Tropical cyclones are large-scale weather systems developing over tropical or
subtropical waters.
2. What are the reasons for formation of cyclone?
The conditions favourable for the formation and intensification of tropical storms are:
(i) Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C;
(ii) Presence of the Coriolis force;
(iii) Small variations in the vertical wind speed;
iv) A pre-existing weak low-pressure area or low-level-cyclonic circulation;
(v) Upper divergence above the sea level system.

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Worldwide terminology:
Cyclones are given many names in different regions of the world – They are known as –
1. Typhoons in the China Sea and Pacific Ocean;
2. Hurricanes in the West Indian islands in the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean;
3. Tornados in the Guinea lands of West Africa and southern USA.
4. Willy-willies in north-western Australia and
5. Tropical cyclones in the Indian Ocean.
Indian Meteorological Department
The criteria below have been formulated by the Indian Meteorological Department
(IMD), which classifies the low pressure systems in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea
on the basis of capacity to damage, which is adopted by the WMO.
1. On the basis of speed
2. On the basis of extent of damage
On the basis of Wind Speed:
Wind Speed in Knots

Type of Disturbances Wind Speed in Km/h
1 knot - 1.85 km per hour
Low Pressure Less than 31 Less than 17
Depression 31-49 17-27
Deep Depression 49-61 27-33
Cyclonic Storm 61-88 33-47
Severe Cyclonic Storm 88-117 47-63
Super Cyclone More than 221 More than 120

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On the basis of extent of damage:
Cyclone Category Wind Speed in Km/h Damage Capacity
01 120-150 Minimal
02 150-180 Moderate
03 180-210 Extensive
04 210-250 Extreme
05 250 and above Catastrophic
3. What are the impacts of cyclones?

 Cyclones cause damage to the structures, viz. houses; lifeline infrastructure-power
and communication towers; hospitals; food storage facilities; roads, bridges and
culverts; crops etc.
 The most fatalities come from storm surges and the torrential rain flooding the
lowland areas of coastal territories.
Related topic:
Storm surges-
Storm surges (tidal waves) are defined as the rise in sea level above the normally
predicted astronomical tide. Major factors include:
 A fall in the atmospheric pressure over the sea surface
 Effect of the wind
 Influence of the sea bed
 A funnelling effect
 The angle and speed at which the storm approaches the coast
 The tides

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The very high specific humidity condenses into exceptionally large raindrops and giant
cumulus clouds, resulting in high precipitation rates. When a cyclone makes landfall, rain
rapidly saturates the catchment areas and the rapid runoff may extensively flood the
usual water sources or create new ones.
4. What is Cyclone vulnerability in India?
 The Indian subcontinent is exposed to nearly 10 per cent of the world’s tropical
cyclones
 India has a coastline of 7,516 km, of which 5,700 km are prone to cyclones of
various degrees.
 There are 13 coastal states and union territories (UTs) in the country,
encompassing 84 coastal districts which are affected by tropical cyclones.
 Four states (Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal) and one UT
(Puducherry) on the east coast and one state (Gujarat) on the west coast are
highly vulnerable to cyclone disasters.

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Nature of Tropical Cyclones in India:

 Cyclones occur frequently on both the coasts (the West coast - Arabian Sea; and the
East coast - Bay of Bengal).
 Out of all the cyclones that affect India, the majority of them have their initial genesis
over the Bay of Bengal and strike the East coast of India.
 On an average, five to six tropical cyclones form every year, of which two or three
could be severe.
 More cyclones occur in the Bay of Bengal than the Arabian Sea and the ratio is
approximately 4:1.
 An analysis of the frequency of cyclones on the East and West coasts of India between
1891 and 1990 shows that nearly 262 cyclones occurred (92 of these severe) in a 50
km wide strip above the East coast. Less severe cyclonic activity has been noticed on
the West coast, where 33 cyclones occurred the same period, out of which 19 of were
severe.
Why less severe cyclonic activity in the Western Coast?
There are certain factors that led to less intensity of cyclones in the western coast as
compared to high intensity and impact of cyclones in the eastern coast.
Factor of influence Western Coast Eastern Coast
Formation of Low Comparatively less frequency Comparatively more frequency
pressure Zone because of more specific heat because of less specific heat
of the saline water. required to form the low
pressure zone.
This is because more fresh
water that gets drained into
the Bay of Bengal due to east
flowing rivers.
Direction of Cyclone Western Coast experiences As the direction of Cyclones is
movement cyclone effect due to the re- from East to West all the
curving of cyclone. cyclones formed over Bay of

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So only Gujarat State and Bengal impacts one or other

parts of Maharashtra gets state in the Eastern Coast.
affected through the cyclones
formed over Arabian Sea.
Alignment of the Western Coast is narrow and Eastern Coast is broader and is
Coast is planked by the continuous planked by the discontinuous
mountains of Western Ghats. Eastern Ghats. So, the cyclonic
These mountains act as a storm spreads to the interior
barrier for the cyclonic storm areas.
to spread to interior areas.
 Tropical cyclones occur in the months of May-June and October-November. Cyclones
of severe intensity and frequency in the North Indian Ocean are bi-modal in character,
with their primary peak in November and secondary peak in May.
 The disaster potential is particularly high during landfall in the North Indian Ocean
(Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea) due to the accompanying destructive wind, storm
surges and torrential rainfall.
 Of these, storm surges cause the most damage as sea water inundates low lying areas
of coastal regions and causes heavy floods, erodes beaches and embankments,
destroys vegetation and reduces soil fertility.
Case Studies:
Orissa super cyclone, 1999 –
A super cyclone hit the coast of the state of Orissa on October 29, 1999, with wind speed
of 270-300 kmph, accompanied by torrential rains ranging from 400 mm to 867 mm
continuously for three days.
The turbulent sea surged up to 7 m high, with waves that rushed in and travelled up to
15-20 km inland. The super cyclone caused extensive damage.
About ten thousand people were killed, while over 1.6 million houses were damaged. The
sectors of agriculture, livestock, village industries, infrastructure and environment were
badly devastated.

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Success Story: Cyclone Phailin: Odisha

The Cyclone Phailin that hit Odisha coast is of same intensity as Super Cyclone of Odisha
of 1999. The 1999 cyclone killed almost 10,000 people but the casualties due to Cyclone
Phailin’s are very less.
The following are the best management practices Odisha has taken up for this
remarkable result.
Dedicated response force: Odisha has its own State Disaster Response Force (SDRF)
unlike other states. Better coordination between NDMA and SDRF provided for swift
evacuation and rescue.
Early Warning System: The impact of the cyclone was minimized because timely and
accurate information was disseminated quickly, which helped in conceiving an action
plan and implementing it. Strong Early Warning System is established at the Coastal
districts.
Community Awareness:
Large scale community awareness programs were being conducted as part of
preparedness. Media and social media played important role in this awareness
generation.
Recognising all these efforts UNSIDR has appreciated Odisha’s Zero Causality approach
and added it as global best practice.
Existing Challenges
 The failure to adequately respond to warnings stemming from lack of planning and
coordination at the national and local levels, as well as a lack of understanding by
people of their risks.
 Bare minimum the terminal-end equipment and communication back-up equipment
support.
 Lack of grass root level participation in disaster management to build up effective
resilience to disasters.

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 Lack of a fully automated and state-of-the-art OC at NDMA and MHA with all terminal-
end facilities and communication connectivity both for routine activities and also
during disasters.
 The need for integration of networks set up by various agencies to establish various
types of networks in the country for disaster management.
 Failure of even well-engineered structures such as communication and transmission
towers past cyclones.
What are the NDMA guidelines to handle Cyclones?

The National Guidelines for the Management of Cyclone have been formulated after a
‘nine step’ process fully taking on board various Central Ministries and Departments and
the States and UTs.
A National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project-
 It is started for approx Rs 1600 Cr with assistance from the World Bank is in the
process of finalization covering all the 13 coastal States/UTs.
 The various activities under this project will include construction of cyclone
shelters, shelter belt/mangrove plantations, establishing last mile connectivity,
improving link roads etc.
 Once all the activities, as laid down in these guidelines are implemented, we will be
much better prepared to face the hazards of cyclones.
NDMA in its guidelines has identified 10 key areas of cyclone management:

1. Establishing a state-of-the-art cyclone early warning system (EWS) involving
observations, predictions, warnings and user friendly advisories.
2. Commissioning of the ‘National Disaster Communication Infrastructure’ (NDCI) to
provide dedicated and failsafe communications to the National, State and District
Disaster Management Authorities and officials concerned.
3. Expanding the warning dissemination outreach by introducing ‘Last Mile Connectivity’,
this will include providing public address system along the entire coast line, using VHF

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technology. This will be done along with putting in place all other options currently in
vogue internationally.
4. Implementing the National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project (NCRMP) in all the 13
coastal states and UTs.
5. Taking up structural mitigation measures like improving structural lifeline
infrastructure; construction of multi-purpose cyclone shelters and cattle mounds,
ensuring cyclone resistant design standards in rural and urban housing schemes,
building all-weather road links, bridges, culverts and saline embankments etc.
6. Management of coastal zones to include mapping and delineation of coastal wetlands,
patches of mangroves and shelterbelts and identification of potential zones for expanding
bio-shield spread based on remote sensing tools.
7. Setting up of an exclusive eco-system monitoring network to study the impact of
climate change.
8. Establishing a comprehensive ‘Cyclone Disaster Management Information System’
(CDMIS) covering all phases of Disaster Management.
9. Setting up of a ‘National Cyclone Disaster Management Institute’ in one of the coastal
states to address all issues related to cyclone risks.
10. Commissioning of “Aircraft Probing of Cyclone (APC) facility” to fill the critical
observational data gaps and significantly reduce the margin of error in predicting cyclone
track, intensity and landfall.
NDMA Mitigational guidelines:
DRR-Structural measures DRR-Non structural Measures Capacity development
Multi-purpose Cyclone Laws Regulations Enforcement Training
Shelters building mechanisms
Land Use Control Techno-legal regimes Curriculum Development
Hazard resistant Institutional arrangements Awareness Generation
construction, Strengthening codes for disaster risk Mock Drills/Exercises
retrofitting of all lifeline reduction compliance Vocational Training / Skill
structures and critical monitoring Development

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infrastructure
Coastal Belt Planting Such as Public Private Partnerships Community- Based Disaster
Mangroves Management
Engineered Structures to Empowering Women,
withstand wind forces marginalised communities ,
persons with disabilities
Flood mitigation structures
Tsunami
What is a Tsunami?
A tsunami is a series of waves with a long wavelength and period (time between crests).
Time between crests of the wave can vary from a few minutes to over an hour.
The term Tsunami has been derived from a Japanese term Tsu meaning 'harbor' and
nami meaning 'waves'.
Tsunamis are popularly called tidal waves but they actually have nothing to do with the
tides.
What are the reasons for Tsunami?
The major reasons for Tsunami are occurrence of any of the following events in the
sea/ocean.
1. Earthquakes
2. Volcanoes
3. Landslides
 Earthquakes happen when plates move with respect to each other.

 When one plate is forced to move beneath another plate, it causes the vertical motion.
 When this movement happens over ocean or sea, this creates tsunami.

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 It is usually generated by sudden displacements in the sea floor caused by earthquake,

landslides, or volcanic activity.
 Most tsunamis, including the most destructive ones are generated by large and
shallow earthquakes which usually occur near geological plate boundaries, or fault-
lines, where geological plates collide.
 Since the wave height in deep ocean will be only a few decimetres or less (i.e., a few
inches), tsunamis are not usually felt aboard ships. Nor are they visible from the air in
the open ocean. The waves could travel away from the triggering source with speeds
exceeding 800 km/h over very long distances.
 They could be extremely dangerous and damaging when they reach the coast. It is
because when the tsunami enters shallow water in coastal areas, the wave velocity
will decrease accompanied by increase in wave height.
 In shallow waters, a large tsunami crest height may rise rapidly by several metres
even in excess of 30 m causing enormous destruction in a very short time.
3. What are the impacts of Tsunami?
 Local tsunami events or those less than 30 minutes from the source cause the
majority of damage.
 It is normally the flooding affect of the tsunami that causes major destruction to the
human settlements, roads and infrastructure thereby disrupting the normal
functioning of the society.
 Withdrawal of the tsunami causes major damage. As the waves withdraw towards the
ocean they sweep out the foundations of the buildings, the beaches get destroyed and
the houses carried out to sea.
Case study: Indian Ocean Tsunami

As seen on Indian Ocean shores in December 2004, tsunami can cause massive death and
destruction. They are particularly dangerous close to their sources, where the first waves
in the tsunami train can arrive within a few to tens of minutes of the triggering event.

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The earthquake and resulting tsunami in Indian Ocean on 24 December 2004 had
devastating effects on India. Many people died and millions were displaced. The hardest
hit areas were on Southern coast and the Andaman and Nicobar Island. Tsunamis have
the potential of causing significant casualties, widespread property damage, massive
infrastructure loss and long-term negative economic impacts.
People caught in the path of a tsunami often have little chance of survival. People die
from drowning or debris crushing them.
The disaster invited attention of affected countries for setting up effective tsunami early
warning system and institutional mechanism for handling disasters.
The Government of India has put in place an Early Warning System for mitigation of such
oceanogenic disasters under the control of Indian National Center for Ocean Information
Services (INCOIS), Hyderabad.
A state-of-the-art early warning centre was established with the necessary computational
and communication infrastructure that enables reception of real-time data from sensors,

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analysis of the data, generation and dissemination of tsunami advisories following a

standard operating procedure.
Seismic and sea-level data are continuously monitored in the Early Warning Centre using
custom-built software application that generates alarms/alerts in the warning centre
whenever a pre-set threshold is crossed.
Tsunami warnings/watches are then generated based on pre-set decision support rules
and disseminated to the concerned authorities for action, as per pre-decided standard
operating procedure.
The efficiency of this end-to-end system was proved during the large under-sea
earthquake of 8.4 M that occurred on September 12, 2007 in the Indian Ocean.
What is India’s vulnerability to Tsunamis?
The east and west coasts of India and the island regions are likely to be affected by
Tsunamis generated mainly by subduction zone related earthquakes from the two
potential source regions, viz.,
1. The Andaman-Nicobar-Sumatra Island Arc and

2. The Makran subduction zone north of Arabian Sea.

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What are the NDMA guidelines to address Tsunami risks?

The 2004 tsunami also prompted NDMA to formulate Tsunami Risk Management
Guidelines (2010) to outline inter-agency roles and responsibilities, tsunami risk
preparedness, mitigation and response.
1. Awareness generation, capacity building, education, training and research &

development for better tsunami risk management through multi stakeholder
approach.
2. Effective dissemination of tsunami alert and warning messages generated by INCOIS
to the concerned agencies and coastal vulnerable communities exposed to tsunamis in
a coordinated manner.
3. Structural Mitigation measures, on design and construction of new structures as well
as strategies for protecting lifeline and priority structures from Tsunamis along the
seafront. The Guidelines urge BIS to roll out the pending construction standards
entitled ‘Criteria for Tsunami-Resistant Design of Structures’.
4. Effective Integrated Coastal Management system according to the M. S. Swaminathan
Committee recommendations
In order to protect the coastal environment and the life and property of the people
along the coastal areas from natural hazards including tsunami, the M.S. Swaminathan
Committee Report has further recommended that:
 Mangrove wetlands should be regenerated.
 Coral reefs, grass beds, and coastal forests should be preserved and conserved for
both short-term and long-term ecological and livelihood benefits.
 Raising coastal plantations like casuarinas, saliconia, palm, bamboo, etc. will act as
an effective bio-shield and provide protection to the coastal communities.
 Geomorphologic features like sand dunes, beaches, coastal cliffs should be
protected.
 Impact of natural hazards in the coastal and marine areas should be taken into
account while formulating coastal area management schemes.

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5. It further recommends a robust techno-legal regime through efficient land use

practices, bio shields, and shelter belt plantation and mangrove regeneration with
community involvement.
Example: Tree plantation is a cost-effective long- lasting means of tsunami mitigation in

comparison to the artificial barriers. Some locations of Indian Ocean where Tsunami
struck in 2004 remained almost intact because the existing coconut palms and
mangroves trees absorbed the tsunami’s energy. Similarly, the village of Naluvedapathy
in Tamil Nadu region faced minimal damage and few deaths because of the forest of 80,
244 trees planted along the shoreline in 2002.
6. A strong mechanism has been recommended for effective emergency response by
involving local police network, civil defence volunteers wherever available, home
guards, State Disaster Response Forces and National Disaster Response Force.
Existing Challenges to Tsunami Risk management in India:

 Lack of easily accessible tsunami documentation and paleo-tsunami studies for better
understanding of past tsunami events for improved risk assessment;
 Lack of high resolution near-shore bathymetric and topographic data will prove to be
a limiting factor for inundation models;
 Inadequate community awareness on tsunami risk and vulnerability.
 Lack of people's participation in strengthening disaster preparedness, mitigation and
emergency response in the coastal areas.
 Lack of documentation of traditional knowledge for tsunami risk management.
NDMA Mitigational measures to address Tsunami risk:
DRR-Structural measures DRR-Non structural Capacity development
Strengthening of lifeline structures Mainstreaming DM into Training
and high priority buildings Development Planning
Shelters from storm surges and Regulation and Curriculum
tsunamis enforcement of relevant Development
laws – Coastal

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Regulation Zone Norms

Hazard resistant construction, Techno-Legal Regime Awareness Generation
Strengthening, and retrofitting of all
lifeline structures and critical
infrastructure
Construction of submerged dykes Non-structural shore Mock Drills/Exercises;
(one or two rows along the stretch Stabilization measures Community- Based
of the coast) so as to decrease the And bio-shields Disaster Management
impact due to the incoming tsunami
and inland dykes to safeguard vital
installations
Periodical dredging of the inlets Safety audits and Empowering Women,
and associated water bodies so as Evaluation of all lifeline marginalised sections,
to absorb the influx during tsunami Structures and and disabled people.
important facilities
Construction of large scale Public Private Vocational Training /
submerged sand barriers Partnerships Skill Development
Protection of Geomorphic features Coastal Area
like Coastal cliffs, Sand dunes, etc Management Plans
Mangrove , wetland regeneration Proper implementation
of Indian Ocean Tsunami
Warning and Mitigation
system.
Protection of Coral reefs and
Coastal forests

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Drought
What is drought?
There is no globally adopted operational definition for drought applicable to all
contexts.
Drought results from long period of dry weather and insufficient precipitation, which
causes acute dry conditions.
The National Commission on Agriculture in India defines three types of droughts:
1. Meteorological drought, defined as a situation when there is significant decrease
from normal precipitation over an area (i.e. more than 10 %)
2. Agricultural drought, signifying the situation when soil moisture and rainfall are
inadequate to support healthy crop growth
3. Hydrological drought resulting from prolonged meteorological drought manifested
in depletion of surface and sub-surface water resources, which could occur even
when the rainfall is normal, if there has been a substantial reduction in surface
water holding capacity

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The IMD recognizes five drought situations:

1. ‘Drought Week’ when the weekly rainfall is less than half of the normal
2. ‘Agricultural Drought’ when four drought weeks occur consecutively during mid-
June to September
3. ‘Seasonal Drought’ when seasonal rainfall is deficient by more than the standard
deviation from the normal
4. ‘Drought Year’ when annual rainfall is deficient by 20 percent of normal or more,
and
5. ‘Severe Drought Year’ when annual rainfall is deficient by 25 to 40 percent of
normal or more
In the year 2016, (Only related to meteorological drought) with an aim to make the
interface more audience friendly and fill the communication with civil administration, the
India Meteorological Department (IMD) has changed the languages and also redefined
many of its terms.
The use of more realistic and precise term would ensure better understand the terms
used in weather forecasts.
Classification of seasonal rainfall:
The recent modification has changed the classification of seasonal rainfall.
IMD has introduced six new categories to replace the four old rainfall categories i.e,
excess, normal, deficient and scanty.
New categories are as follows:
1. Large excess: 60 per cent and above.
2. Excess: between 20 per cent and 59 per cent.
3. Normal: minus 19 per cent to plus 19 per cent;
4. Deficient: minus 20 per cent to minus 59 per cent.
5. Large deficient: below 60 per cent No Rain: 0 per cent.

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What are the reasons for drought?
Natural reasons:
 Geography and climate of a particular area impact the rainfall pattern.
Ex: Drought in arid and semi arid regions of the country.
 Elnino: It impacts the monsoon rainfall adversely in India.
 Low soil moisture holding capacity
 Absence of irrigation facilities
Man made reasons:

 Livestock without adequate fodder storage facilities leads to over grazing
 Poor water management
 Deforestation
 Water consuming cropping patterns
 Excessive ground water extraction
 Soil erosion
 Population growth and urbanization
 Industrialization
 Global warming

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What are the impacts of drought?

 Increasing severity of drought can lead to
 Livelihood crisis with crop losses
 Widespread unemployment
 Irrigated areas are affected much later than the rain-fed areas.
 Availability of drinking water diminishes,
 Reduction in energy production,
 Ground water depletion,
 Food shortage,
 Health reduction and loss of life,
 Increased poverty, reduced quality of life
 Migration.
Why vulnerability to droughts is increasing in India?
 High population is increasing the stress on water resources
 Water pollution is leading to non usability of water resources
 Global warming
What is India’s drought profile?
A third of the country is drought prone. It affects parts of Rajasthan (chronically),
Gujarat, Maharashtra, MP, UP, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Andhra Pradesh.
Most of the drought-prone areas are found in arid, semi-arid, and sub-humid regions of
the country, which experience less than average annual rainfall.
Broadly, the drought-affected areas in India can be divided into two tracts.
Desert and Semi Arid regions:
The first tract comprising the desert and the semi-arid regions covers an area of 0.6
million sq. km. It is rectangle shaped area whose one side extends from Ahmadabad to
Kanpur and the other from Kanpur to Jullundur. In this region, rainfall is less than
750mm and at some places it is even less than 400 mm.

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East of Western Ghats:
The second tract comprises the regions east of the Western Ghats up to a distance of
about 300 km from coast. Known as the rain shadow area of the Western Ghats, rainfall
in this region is less than 750mm and is highly erratic. This region is thickly populated
and periodic droughts cause considerable suffering and distress.
Besides these two tracts of scarcity, there are many pockets of drought in India. Some of
these are:
 Tirunelveli district, south of Vaigai River in Tamil Nadu

 Coimbatore area in Kerala
 Saurashtra and Kutch regions in Gujarat
 Mirzapur plateau and Palamu regions in Uttar Pradesh
 Purulia district of West Bengal
 Kalahandi region of Orissa.
Together, these scattered pockets occupy an area of 0.1 million sq. km. Drought is a
recurrent phenomenon in Andhra Pradesh where no district is entirely free of droughts.
Rajasthan is one of the most drought prone areas of India. Eleven districts of the state are
in arid regions including Jaisalmer as the driest district. No perennial river flows in
Jaisalmer. Groundwater level in the district is 125–250 ft deep and at some places 400 ft
deep. The rainfall in the district is extremely low at 164 mm. Out of 365 days of a year, on
an average 355 days are dry.

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Successful Case study:
The Solapur model under a Maharashtra government programme stands as a real

example that could be successfully emulated
Maharashtra, in western India, struggles periodically with severe droughts. In 2014, the
state government launched the Jalyukt Shivar programme (henceforth referred to as JYS
and roughly translated as “Water-filled fields”) as an ambitious attempt to permanently
drought-proof the state by 2019.
JYS is a large-scale decentralized programme to conserve soil and water in the

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countryside. Existing programmes for watershed development, agriculture, groundwater

management etc. were converged and made a priority for the district administration.
Activities included watershed interventions like bunds, trenches, digging percolation
ponds, recharging wells, tree plantation, desilting of water bodies and more. These
interventions are not new and were being carried out already, though in a more ad-hoc
and less coordinated manner.
The District Collector has strictly enforced groundwater management rules like
prohibiting/regulating new bore wells near public water sources commandeering private
bore wells for community use during periods of water stress. He has also prevented the
powerful sugar lobby from misappropriating water for the sugarcane crop at critical
times. The DC has also worked on hard problems of the drinking water supply systems to
the villages. Many of the systems are defunct for a variety of reasons, and progress on
new systems was also slow. The DC has been able to correctly diagnose the reasons for
non-functioning schemes and solve them, and expedite the new schemes. The average
number of water sources per village jumped dramatically from 5.67 to 39.24 in a matter
of a couple of years.
The Solapur model stands as a real example that could be successfully emulated to
address drought.
Existing Challenges in Drought Management-
 Drought management encompasses three vital components namely,

o drought intensity assessment and monitoring;
o drought declaration and prioritization of areas for drought management and
o development and implementation of drought management strategies
 Each step in drought management lacks holistic approach to ensure effective end
result.
 Development of standard procedures for drought vulnerability assessment and
generation of vulnerability maps in each state needs to be done.

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 Absence of Crisis Management Authority for drought to manage the various phases of
drought.
 Ineffective dissemination of credible and verified information on relevant aspects of
drought to the people and media.
 Ineffective monitoring and early warning system to provide accurate and timely
information on rainfall, crop sown area, data on soil moisture, stream flow,
groundwater, lake and reservoir storage.
 Half hearted attempts to detect drought conditions as early as possible in order to
implement District Agriculture Contingency Plans and the Crisis Management Plan.
 Lack of community participation.
What are the National Disaster Management Guidelines on Management of Drought?

The NDMA guidelines on management of drought are issued in 2010. The
recommendations are as follows:
1. Creation of Drought Monitoring Cells (DMCs) cells at state level with requisite staff.
2. Preparation of vulnerability maps for each state by the State DMCs.
3. Development of real-time drought related information by using information and
communication technology.
4. The watershed development approach would be taken up for drought management.
5. Integration of ground-based information with the space-based information for
comprehensive reporting.
6. Assessment of damage would include agricultural production, depletion of water
resources, livestock population, land degradation and deforestation as well as human
health.
7. Revamping of Drought Management Information System of Department of Agriculture.
8. To enable micro level analysis and forecasting, automatic weather station and rain-
gauges to be put in place.
9. Development of drought resistant crop varieties through large scale research.

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10. The mitigation measures to be taken would include cloud-seeding and conduct of
pilot studies in all categories of drought prone areas for suggesting long term mitigation
measures.
11. Formulation of a cloud seeding policy.
12. Promoting crop diversification through sprinklers/Drip irrigation systems (micro
irrigation techniques).
13. Prompt provision of credit in the drought affected areas; and extension of marketing
and price support.
14. Afforestation with subabul, seemaruba, casurina, eucalyptus and bio diesel plantation
like Jatropha and pongomia.
15. Development of insurance products for different agro-climatic zones providing
coverage against drought. Crop insurance to be extended to post-harvest losses.
Promotion of price linked insurance products to avoid distress sales of farm produce. Use
of satellite derived crop condition images as surrogates to crop yield estimates for
settling insurance claims.
16. Framing a realistic national training and capacity building programme for drought
management. Officers at PRIs and ULBs to be provided with required training.
17. Encouraging NGOs, PRIs and ULBs for generating awareness among farmers.
18. Updating the syllabi of graduate and under-graduate courses in agriculture to include
drought management.
19. Fodder, Cattle feed and mineral mixture to be supplied to all productive animals to
prevent distress sales of cattle.
20. Wherever necessary and feasible, the corporate sector should also be involved in
supporting drought risk management efforts as part of CSR.

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NMDA Mitigational Measures:

DRR-Structural DRR-Non structural measures Capacity development
measures
Storage Facilities Mitigation Measures Training
Water Conservation Promote water conservation, Curriculum Development
Structures harvesting, efficient irrigation, Awareness Generation
Afforestation
Social Housing Providing – Agricultural credit Empowering Women,
Schemes especially Micro credit, marginalised communities , and
Agricultural inputs, Finance, differently-abled persons
marketing, and crop insurance
Irrigation Projects Reducing Climate Change Mock Drills/Exercises
impact
River water linking Alternative livelihood planning Vocational Training / Skill
projects Development
Implementation of Food Drought Management plans
Security Act (Swaraj Abhiyan
Case)
Afforestation Implementation of Social
Security schemes
Waste land Implementing measures to
management check migration(Ex; MGNREGA)

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Heat Wave
What is heat wave?
A Heat Wave is a period of abnormally high temperatures, more than the normal
maximum temperature that occurs during the summer season.
What are the reasons for formation of heat wave?
Heat Waves typically occur between March and June, and in some rare cases even extend
till July.
The extreme temperatures and resultant atmospheric conditions cause heat waves.
The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) has given the following criteria for Heat
Waves:
 Heat Wave need not be considered till maximum temperature of a station reaches
1. 40*C at least for Plains and
2. 30*C at least for Hilly regions
 When normal maximum temperature of a station is less than or equal to 40*C
1. Heat Wave Departure from normal is 5*C to 6*C
2. Severe Heat Wave Departure from normal is 7*C or more
 When normal maximum temperature of a station is more than 40*C
1. Heat Wave Departure from normal is 4*C to 5*C
2. Severe Heat Wave Departure from normal is 6*C or more
 When actual maximum temperature remains 45*C or more irrespective of normal
maximum temperature, heat waves should be declared.
Why the vulnerability to the heat waves is increasing?
 Global warming is resulting into delayed monsoons and droughts. These are
increasing the intensity of heat waves.
 El Nino effect
 Desertification and land degradation in North Western India is increasing. Due to this,
Loo effect in Northern India is intensifying.
 Rapid and unplanned urbanisation. This is causing Urban Heat Island effect.

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 Higher daily peak temperatures and longer, more intense heat waves are becomingly
increasingly frequent globally due to climate change.
What are the impacts of heat wave?
1. The health impacts: Heat Waves typically involve dehydration, heat cramps, heat
exhaustion and/or heat stroke. The signs and symptoms are as follows:
 Heat Cramps: Ederna (swelling) and Syncope (Fainting) generally accompanied by
fever below 39*C i.e.102*F.
 Heat Exhaustion: Fatigue, weakness, dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting, muscle
cramps and sweating.
 Heat Stoke: Body temperatures of 40*C i.e. 104*F or more along with delirium,
seizures or coma. This is a potential fatal condition.
2. Crop Losses: Crop loss due to high temperature results into food insecurity, livelihood
issues, etc
3. Effects on Nature
 Heat waves can lead to droughts with decrease in moisture in the air and soil.
Moisture in soil helps in cooling down the temperature by evaporation
 Wildfires in open areas or forests become frequent due to heat waves.
 Coral bleaching in oceans can rise
4. Effects on Infrastructure and Economy

 Heat waves tests the ability of infrastructure to withstand the pressure created by
increased energy demand.
 Electricity transmission line expands due to heat waves
 Transport services gets impacted
 Loss of labour efficiency

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What are the areas in India vulnerable to heat waves?
[Note: In the above map PoK is not represented because of non availability of data]
Existing Challenges in Heat Wave Management

 Lack of research using sub-district level data to provide separate indices for urban
and rural areas to enable more targeted geographical interventions.
 Narrow analysis of urban ward-level data to provide intra-city vulnerability patterns.
 Less active usage of available provisions of public messaging (radio, TV), mobile
phone-based text messages, automated phone calls and alerts.
 Lack of Public awareness like promotion of traditional adaptation practices, such as
staying indoors and wearing comfortable clothes.
 Half-hearted attempts for popularization of simple design features such as shaded
windows, underground water storage tanks and insulating housing materials.
 Unavailability of provision of drinking water within housing premises and indoor
toilets.

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What are the NDMA guidelines to address Heat wave risk?

In 2016, the National Disaster Management Agency prepared guidelines for state
governments to formulate action plans for the prevention and management of heat
waves. It outlined four key strategies:
1. Forecasting heat waves and enabling an early warning system;
2. Building capacity of healthcare professionals to deal with heat wave-related
emergencies;
3. Community outreach through various media; and
4. Inter-agency cooperation as well as engagement with other civil society
organizations in the region.
Mitigational measures:
DRR-Structural measures DRR-Non structural measures Capacity development
Storage Facilities Quality health care Training
provisions- timely provision
of medicines and medical
personnel
Water Conservation Promote water conservation, Curriculum Development
Structures harvesting, efficient Awareness Generation
irrigation, Afforestation
Social Housing Schemes- Providing Agricultural credit, Empowering Women,
White layering of the Agricultural inputs, marginalised communities ,
roofs of the houses marketing, &crop insurance and differently-abled persons
Reducing Climate Change Mock Drills/Exercises
impacts
Alternative livelihood Vocational Training / Skill
planning Development
Food security provisions Heat wave Action plans

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Cold Wave and Frost

What is a cold wave?
Cold wave and frost is a seasonal and localized hazard that occurs in parts of the country,
which experience severe winter.
IMD defines cold wave as:
Cold wave is a phenomenon where the rapid fall in temperature within 24 hours to a
level requiring substantially increased protection to agriculture, industry, commerce, and
social activities.
a) When normal minimum temperature is equal to 10°C or more.
Cold Wave Departure from normal is -5°C to -6°C.
Severe Cold Wave Departure from normal is -7°C or less
b) When normal minimum temperature is less than 10°C.
Cold Wave Departure from normal is -4°C to -5°C.
Severe Cold Wave Departure from normal is -6°C or less.
When the temperature of a region is 0°C or less, Cold Wave should be declared
irrespective of normal minimum temperature of the station. However, this criterion is
not applicable for those stations whose normal minimum temperature is below 0°C.
What are the reasons for Cold Wave?
1. Local climatic conditions
2. Geographic and Topographic features of the place.
The conditions favourable for cold wave are:
i) Inflow of cold air mass from higher latitudes over the region.
ii) Foggy weather during the day which inhibits day warming of the region.
iii) Strong radiation cooling during the night under clear sky conditions.
Cold wave over India:
 Cold waves over the country are generally experienced during December -
February. Rarely these may also occur in the northern parts of the country in the
months of November and March as well.

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 The frequency of occurrence of cold waves is maximum over north-western parts

of India.
 It falls considerably towards the southern and eastern parts.
 Occurrence of cold wave is associated with the inflow of very cold air from
extreme north-western parts of the Indian-sub-continent or even beyond.
What are the impacts of cold wave?

 Cold wave can cause death and injury to human beings, livestock and wildlife.
 If a cold wave is accompanied by heavy and persistent snow, grazing animals may be
unable to get the requisite food. They may die of hypothermia from prolonged
exposure or starvation.
 Prolonged frost conditions and cold wave can damage certain frost sensitive plants
causing crops loss. It might affect the food security of the region and the country.
 Cold waves associated with fog create problem for transportation- road, rail and
flight.
What measures should be taken?
Higher caloric intake is needed for all animals, including humans to withstand exposure
to cold and poor nutritional status can prove deadly in extreme cold conditions.

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Cold Wave Hazard Mitigation-

 In case of cold wave/frost situation, States needs to initiate location specific measures
as outlined in District Crop Contingency Plans and in consultation with respective
State Agricultural Universities to minimise its impact.
 Farmers are to provide light irrigation as per need, immediately prune damaged tips
of branches or shoot, burn leave/waste material in the orchard to create smoke and
manage rejuvenation of damaged crops through pruning of dead material, application
of extra doses of fertilizer through foliar sprays.
 Plan for the potential to convert schools and other public buildings into shelters to
keep vulnerable citizens out of the cold.
 Remain aware of the effects that exposure to extreme cold has on children, the elderly,
as well as those already ill, and promote outreach and preparedness efforts.
 Insulate any water lines running along exterior walls so your water supply will be less
likely to freeze.
 Adequate preparedness of the community and local governments can prevent deaths
due to cold waves.
Existing Challenges in Cold Wave Hazard Management
 As Cold Wave/Frost is a localised disaster event, location specific mitigation plans
should be drawn up by the concerned State Governments instead of a National level
plan.
 Lack of participation at community level like SHGs, PRIs.
 Lack of preparedness in advance.

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Man Made Hazards
Manmade hazards are those events that are induced by the humans either accidentally or
deliberately that cause huge scale looses to the humans, economy and to the
environment.
India is vulnerable to different types of manmade hazards. They are:
1. Nuclear and Radiological emergency
2. Biological disasters
3. Chemical disasters
4. Oil spills
5. Stampedes
6. Forest fires
Nuclear and Radiological Hazard

What is the meaning of this hazard?
Any radiation incident resulting in or having a potential to result in exposure
and/or contamination of the workers or the public in excess of the respective permissible
limits can lead to a nuclear/radiological emergency.
What are the causes for this hazard?
 The growth in the application of nuclear science and technology in the fields of power
generation, medicine, industry, agriculture, research and defence has led to an
increase in the risk of occurrence of Nuclear and Radiological emergencies.
 Nuclear and Radiological Emergency can arise in a nuclear facility at plant level
leading to plant/ site or offsite emergency depending upon the extent of its impact on
the surroundings.

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 It can also take place while using radiation sources, either at Hospitals, Industries,
Agriculture or Research Institutions due to loss or misplacement or due to faulty
handling.
 The other events that can lead to Nuclear or Radiological Emergency in the public
domain include, accident of a vehicle carrying radioactive/nuclear material, due of an
orphan source i.e. the source which is not under regulatory control or due to usage of
radiation source/radioactive material in malevolent activities.
 Nuclear emergencies can also arise due to factors beyond the control of the operating
agencies; e.g., human error, system failure, sabotage, earthquake, cyclone, flood, etc.
Such failures, even though of very low probability, may lead to an on-site or off-site
emergency.
What are impacts of this hazard?
 Death, increased risk of cancer, cataract in eyes, hair loss
 Radiation Sickness: A person's risk of getting sick depends on how much radiation the
body absorbs. Radiation sickness is often fatal and can produce such symptoms as
bleeding and shedding of the lining on the gastrointestinal tract.
 Damage or destruction of agricultural products – animals and crops
 Degradation of environmental resources
 Devaluation or loss of use of public and private property
 Genetic changes can happen after the exposure to the radiation in the generations to
come by mutation
What is India’s vulnerability profile to this hazard?
 For improving the quality of life in society, India has embarked upon a large
programme of using nuclear energy for generation of electricity.
 As on date, India has 20 power reactors and three research reactors in operation
along with five power reactors under construction.
 It is also planned to explore setting up Thorium based reactors to meet its ever
increasing energy needs. The country is also at the verge of making operational the
first 500MW prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) after a prolonged experience of
operation of FBTR (Fast Breeder Test Reactor).

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 Further, the country utilizes radioisotopes in a variety of applications in the non-

power sector, viz., in the field of industry, agriculture, medicine, research, etc.
Case Studies: Sad memories of the use of nuclear weapons dropped on Hiroshima and
Nagasaki, and the wide publicity given to the reactor accidents at Three Mile Island (TMI)
in USA and Chernobyl in erstwhile USSR, have strongly influenced the public perception
of any nuclear or radiological emergency to be most often linked, erroneously though, to
only these events.
What are the NDMA guidelines to mitigate the impact of this hazard?
Due to the inherent safety culture, the best safety practices and standards followed in
these applications and effective regulation by the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board, the
radiation dose to which the persons working in nuclear/radiation facilities are exposed
to, is well within the permissible limits and the risk of its impact on the public domain is
very low.
Mobile Radiation Detection System (MRDS)
NDMA, as part of a pilot project on national level preparedness to cope with Radiological
Emergencies, has taken an initiative to equip police and NDRF personnel for management
of radiological emergencies in public domain.
Nuclear Hazard Mitigation Strategies-

There are four ways in which people are protected from identified radiation sources:
1. Limiting time. In occupational situations, dose is reduced by limiting exposure time.
2. Distance. The intensity of radiation decreases with distance from its source.
3. Shielding. Barriers of lead, concrete or water give good protection from high levels of
penetrating radiation such as gamma rays. Intensely radioactive materials are
therefore often stored or handled under water, or by remote control in rooms
constructed of thick concrete or lined with lead.
4. Containment. Highly radioactive materials are confined and kept out of the workplace
and environment.

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Nuclear reactors operate within closed systems with multiple barriers which keep the
radioactive materials contained.
 Promoting flexibility in management of emergencies, for efficient use of resources.
 Maintenance of full-time capability for immediate response
 Ensuring the responders, plans, facilities, and any necessary inter-organizational
coordination are sufficient to provide the desired protection.
 Appropriate steps and measures to be taken against occupational exposure and safety
measures for nuclear accidents.
Steps Taken by the Government:
 With increased emphasis on power generation through nuclear technology, the threat
of nuclear hazards has also increased. The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) has
been identified as the nodal agency in the country in respect of manmade radiological
emergencies in the public domain.
 Nuclear facilities in India have adopted internationally accepted guidelines for
ensuring safety to the public and environment.
 A crisis management system is also in place to take care of any nuclear hazard.
 Other types of emergency response plans in place within the facility to handle local
emergencies, response plans have also been drawn up for handling such emergencies
in the public domain, which are called as “offsite Emergencies”.
 These plans, drawn up separately in detail for each site - which are under the
jurisdiction of the local district administration, cover an area of about 16 km radius
around the plant or the offsite Emergency Planning Zone.

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Biological Hazards
Biological disaster is a phenomenon of organic origin or conveyed by biological vectors.
It is caused due to the exposure to pathogenic micro-organisms, toxins and bioactive
substances that may cause loss of life, injury, illness or other health impacts, property
damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or
environmental damage.
Examples of biological disasters include outbreaks of epidemic diseases, plant or animal
contagion, insect or other animal plagues and infestation.
Biological disasters may be in the form of:-
Epidemic affecting a disproportionately large number of individuals within a
population, community, or region at the same time, examples being Cholera, Plague,
Japanese Encephalitis (JE)/Acute Encephalitis Syndrome (AES); or,
Pandemic is an epidemic that spreads across a large region, that is, a continent, or
even worldwide of existing, emerging or reemerging diseases and pestilences, example
being Influenza H1N1 (Swine Flu)
Case studies:
Avian influenza epidemic disease-2006
The outbreak of avian influenza among poultry was noticed in 2006 in India. In the
poultries located in Nandurbar and Jalgaon districts of Maharashtra and adjoining
districts of Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh this disease was observed in the poultries. Due
to speedy action of Government authorities and awareness among the people, this
disease could be controlled. Poultry farm owners culled the affected and nonaffected
chicken in their poultry, as per guideline of Health ministry, as a preventive measure.
Swine flu in 10 states - 2009-10

Swine flu disease spread in India through people coming from foreign countries. During
May’ 2009 to August’ 2010 period, 1833 death were reported in India. In August 2010 the
World Health Organization declared the swine flu pandemic officially. Highly affected

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states by Swine flu disease were Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh,
Orissa, West Bengal, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Goa and Uttar Pradesh. In Government
laboratories, influenza tests of 1,54,259 people were carried out. However people of
India showed resilience and as such in the last quarter of 2010, the epidemic was on the
decline in the country.
 Poor sanitary conditions leading to contamination of food and water due to
inadequate disposal of human or animal carcasses in post disaster situations like
floods and earthquakes.
 Poor solid waste management may create epidemics like plague. Incidence of plague
is quite uncommon now but it can still occur claiming many human lives and
disrupting normal life as it did in Surat in 1994.
 Bio terrorism
 It can result into heavy mortalities in the short term
 Depletion of population in the long term with a corresponding drop in economic
activity
 It leads to diversion of substantial resources of an economy to contain the disaster.
 Bio weapons of mass destruction.
Methods of Dissemination Used by Bio-terrorists
 Aerosols- biological agents are dispersed into the air forming a fine mist that may
drift for miles.
 Animals- fleas, mice, flies, mosquitoes and livestock
 Food and Water contamination- some pathogenic organisms and toxins may
persist in food and water supplies.
 Person to person- small pox, plague and the Lassa viruses.

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In India, the major sources of epidemics can be broadly categorized as follows:
 Water-borne diseases like cholera (and forms of gastroenteritis), typhoid, Hepatitis
A, Hepatitis B etc. – major epidemics of such diseases have been recorded in the
past and continue to occur;
 Vector-borne (often mosquito-borne) epidemics like dengue fever, chikungunya
fever, Japanese encephalitis, malaria, kala-azar etc., which usually occur in certain
regions of the country;
 Person to person transmission of diseases e.g. AIDS and other venereal diseases;
and Air-borne diseases like influenza and measles that can also be transmitted
through fomites (used clothes etc.).
In addition to the above, there are certain types of emerging infectious diseases such as
epidemic of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), which had occurred in China or
the recent outbreak of avian flu in poultry in certain parts of the country and which has
the potential of being transmitted to human beings.
Epidemics due to the Dengue virus have occurred in many metropolitan cities of India
and outbreak of various other types of viral diseases is also a recurring phenomena.
Trends Favouring Biological Disaster
 Low cost and wide spread availability
 More efficient in terms of coverage per kilogram of payload
 Advances in biotechnology has made production easy
 Used agents are largely natural pathogens to simulate existing diseases
 Have unmatched destructive potential
 Lethal biological agents can be produced easily and cheaply
 The lag time between infection and appearance of symptoms are longer than with
chemical exposure.
What are the existing challenges to address this hazard?
The essential challenges posed by natural and artificial outbreaks of disease
(bioterrorism) include:
 The development of mechanisms for prompt detection of incipient outbreaks

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 Mobilisation of investigational and therapeutic countermeasures

 International collaboration as epidemics do not respect national borders
 No plan for prevention of post-disaster epidemics
 Yet to be devised an integrated disease surveillance system
 Absence of standard risk and vulnerability assessment plans.
 Lack of indicators and field-tested variables for various locations vulnerable to acts
of biological terrorism.
 Non-availability of risk-zonation maps, especially for computing the trans-frontier
spread.
 No comprehensive studies have been performed to assess the linkages between
various global attacks and enhanced risk potential in the Indian context.
 A multi-dimensional information network and flow of information on various
biological agents amongst stakeholders is lacking.
 Detailing the role of the emergency functionaries, vis-à-vis the intelligence
gathering agencies is also grossly inadequate.
 Lack of capability for collection of samples and proper dispatch to laboratories.
 Inadequate facilities for early detection and characterisation of biological agents at
an incident site.
Prevention and Mitigation Measures-
 The general population should be educated and made aware of the threats and
risks associated with it.
 Only cooked food and boiled/chlorinated/filtered water should be consumed.
 Insects and rodent control measures must be initiated immediately.
 Clinical isolation of suspected and confirmed cases is essential.
 A network of laboratories should be established for proper laboratory diagnosis.
 Existing diseases surveillance system as well as vector control measures have to be
pursued more rigorously.
 Mass immunisation programs in suspected areas have to be followed more
rigorously.

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 More focus should be given on the research of the vaccines which are not available.
Steps Required for Biological Disaster Management
 Legal framework - The Epidemic Diseases Act was enacted in 1897 and needs to be
repealed. This Act does not provide any power to the centre to intervene in biological
emergencies. It has to be substituted by an Act which takes care of the prevailing and
foreseeable public health needs including emergencies such as BT attacks and use of
biological weapons by an adversary, cross-border issues, and international spread of
diseases
 Operational framework - At the national level, there is no policy on biological
disasters. The existing contingency plan of MoH&FW is about 10 years old and needs
extensive revision. All components related to public health, namely apex institutions,
field epidemiology, surveillance, teaching, training, research, etc., need to be
strengthened.
 Command, control and coordination - One of the lessons learned during the plague
outbreak in Surat in 1994 and avian influenza in 2006 is the need to strengthen
coordination with other sectors like animal health, home department, communication,
media, etc., on a continuous basis for the management of outbreaks of this nature
 Augmentation in human resource - There is a shortage of medical and paramedical
staff at the district and sub-district levels. There is also an acute shortage of public
health specialists, epidemiologists, clinical microbiologists and virologists. There have
been limited efforts in the past to establish teaching/training institutions for these
purposes.
 Basic infrastructural setup – Bio-safety laboratories for prompt diagnosis, network of
sub centres, PHCs and CHCs, dispensaries with stockpile of essential vaccines and
medicines need to be expanded to handle epidemic.

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Chemical Hazards
A chemical hazard is the unintentional/intentional release of one or more hazardous
substances which could harm human health or the environment.
Chemical, being at the core of modern industrial systems, has attained a very serious
concern for disaster management within government, private sector and community at
large.
Chemical disasters may arise in number of ways, such as:-
1. Process and safety systems failures
-Human errors
-Technical errors
-Management errors
2. Induced effect of natural calamities
3. Accidents during the transportation
4. Hazardous waste processing/ disposal
5. Terrorist attack/ unrest leading to sabotage
Chemical/ industrial accidents are significant and have long term impact on the
community and environment.
It leads to injuries, pain, suffering, loss of lives, damage to property and environment.
 With rapid economic development, there has been spread of chemical industries –
small, medium and large – across the country.
 However, there is a relatively higher presence along the west coast, largely due to the
proximity to raw materials and ports.
 Gujarat alone is estimated to contribute around 53 percent to the total production in
the country, followed by Maharashtra, which contributes nine percent. The other

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major producing states include Uttar Pradesh (UP), Tamil Nadu (TN), Madhya
Pradesh (MP), and Punjab.
 On the other hand, in the case of heavy chemicals segment, especially inorganic
chemicals, fuel availability is a determining factor, and hence there is a concentration
of these companies around power plants.
 Due to the regional concentration of chemical companies in certain pockets, the
chemical hazard has increased many folds.
 The growth of chemical industries has led to an increase in the risk of occurrence of
incidents associated with hazardous chemicals (HAZCHEM).
 There are about 1861 Major Accident Hazard (MAH) units, spread across 301 districts
and 25 states & 3 Union Territories, in all zones of country.
 Besides, there are thousands of registered and hazardous factories (below MAH
criteria) and un-organized sectors dealing with numerous range of hazardous
material posing serious and complex levels of disaster risks.
What are the existing challenges to address this hazard?
 In spite of the existence of a large number of laws, their enforcement has left much to
be desired.
 Lack of understanding and research towards devising a sustainable solution to the
issue of industrial disasters
 No adequate separation of parameters, awareness and preparedness for such
disasters.
 Absence of national regulations on occupational safety and health and medical
emergency management.
 Harmonisation of classification and definitions in existing regulations including
petroleum and petroleum products.
 Absence of regulations on storage and transportation of cryogenics.
 Lack of legislation on risk assessment requirements and classification, labeling and
packaging for industrial chemicals.
 Non-availability of statutes for grant of compensation to chemical accident victims.
 Harmonisation and incorporation of international laws in chemical management.

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Case study:
Bhopal Gas Tragedy:
India has witnessed the world’s worst chemical (industrial) disaster “Bhopal Gas
Tragedy” in the year 1984. The Bhopal Gas tragedy was most devastating chemical
accident in history, where over thousands of people died due to accidental release of
toxic gas Methyl Iso Cyanate (MIC).
Such accidents are significant in terms of injuries, pain, suffering, loss of lives, damage to
property and environment. India continued to witness a series of chemical accidents even
after Bhopal had demonstrated the vulnerability of the country. Only in last decade, 130
significant chemical accidents reported in India, which resulted into 259 deaths and 563
number of major injured.
Safety initiatives taken in India to address chemical risk:
The comprehensive legal/ institutional framework exists in our country. A number of
regulations covering the safety in transportation, liability, insurance and compensations
have been enacted.
Following are the relevant provisions on chemical disaster management, prevailing in
country:-
1. Explosives Act 1884 - Petroleum Act 1934
2. Factories Act 1948 - Insecticides Act 1968
3. Environment Protection Act 1986 - Motor Vehicles Act 1988
4. Public Liability Insurance Act 1991 - Disaster Management Act 2005
Government of India has further reinforced the legal framework on chemical safety and
management of chemical accidents by enacting new rules such as MSIHC Rules, EPPR
Rules, SMPV Rules, CMV Rules, Gas Cylinder Rules, Hazardous Waste Rules, Dock
Workers Rules and by way of amendments to them.
The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) of India had come out with very
specific guidelines on Chemical Disaster Management.

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 The guidelines have been prepared to provide the directions to ministries,

departments and state authorities for the preparation of their detailed disaster
management plans.
 These guidelines call for a proactive, participatory, multi-disciplinary and multi-
sectoral approach at various levels for chemical disaster preparedness and response.
 Further, NDMA has provided specific inputs to the GOM for avoidance of future
chemical disasters in the country, along with suggested amendments on the existing
framework.
 NDMA is also working on revamping of CIFs (Chief Inspectorate of Factories) to
strengthen chemical safety in India.
 In addition, the National Action Plan on Chemical Industrial Disaster Management
(NAP-CIDM), has been finalized which will act as the roadmap for chemical disaster
management in India.
Industrial Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Strategies-
 Design and Pre-modification review: this involves proper layout, facilities and material
selection. Research should be done try to substitute extremely toxic chemicals with
safer ones. Less chemicals should be stored; a reduction in inventory will
automatically mean less damage if an accident is to occur.
 Chemical Risk Assessment: Chemicals are assessed based on compatibility,
flammability, toxicity, explosion hazards and storage.
 Process Safety Management: reliability assessment of process equipment,
incorporating safety trips and interlocks, scrubbing system, etc. should be done before
effecting major process changes. Management should try to develop a culture of safety
in industrial organizations
 Safety Audits: Periodical assessment of safety procedures and practices, performance
of safety systems and gadgets along with follow up measures should be carried out.
 Emergency Planning: A comprehensive risk analysis indicating the impact of
consequences and specific written down and practiced emergency procedures along
with suitable facilities should be done. This can be done by communities as well as

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national or regional corporation authorities

 Training: Proper training of employees and protective services should be done.
 Special times and escorts for dangerous vehicles
 Public Cooperation on the road: the public should cooperate with the police and any
tankers and heavy duty vehicles to avoid accidents and allow for the shortest possible
on road time for dangerous vehicles.
 Public awareness: Everyone should be aware of potential disasters and informed of
protective and safety measures. Cautions must be placed to standout on dangerous
household and car care products.
 Proper storage of hazardous Materials: All chemicals and hazardous materials should
be kept at proper storage temperature and in locked cupboards away from children
and animals. Also, if reactive substances are stored, it should be stored is a watertight
container.
 Proper and safe disposal of hazardous waste to be ensured as per existing regulations.
 Transition towards the use of safer alternatives and adoption of safer, affordable and
sustainable technologies and processes
 Strict implementation of land use policy should be there. A legislation on the buffer
zone (or to be referred as ‘no man’s’ zone) should be introduced so that residential/
slum colonies are not established in proximity to industries. The already settled
residential colonies need to be relocated.
 A scheme for giving good performance awards to industries for achieving exemplary
safety standards and statutory compliance shall be developed and implemented.
Steps to be taken-
 Need to identify technical competent authorities and standardisation of reporting

mechanisms for the status of implementation of various chemical disaster-related
activities.
 Greater focus on need to understand industrial disaster. These are not simply safety
problems that need to be resolved. They also have wider significance because they
offer important opportunities to learn about the "goodness of fit" between society,

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technology, and environment and about how that fit can be strengthened or
weakened by unexpected events. This is the kind of information that will be
invaluable to humanity during an era of deep and far-reaching societal and
environmental change.
 It is time to make a clear distinction between two types of industrial disasters -
"routine" disasters and "surprises". Routine disasters are well understood by experts
and susceptible to management using long established principles and practices.
Surprises are quite different and much less understood. They include disasters like
Bhopal and Chernobyl and Minamata events or their consequences or both - that lie
outside the realm of previous experience. It will help in better preparation of
mitigation strategies and policies.
Crowd Management (Stampede)
Stampedes are a frequent occurrence in India most often due to poor crowd management
and the way our public spaces including temples and railway stations are controlled.
 Inadequate Infrastructure
 Structural collapses
 Absence of emergency exits
 Fire accidents
 Crowd Behavior-Rumors
 Lack of proper planning and crowd control methods

 Loss of life
 Loss to the cultural property and infrastructure

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Stampedes have been a recurring phenomenon in India. Tragedies of people being

trampled to death have taken place at religious gatherings, mass processions, election
rallies and even at music concerts.
According to the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), a total of 3216 incidents of
stampede have taken place in India between 2001 and 2014, leading to 2421 casualties.
Moreover, 79% of all such stampedes in India occur at places of worship. The high
incidence of such stampedes in India highlights the need for effective crowd management
in the country.
So, the way forward is to shift from crowd control to crowd management.
Stampedes in the recent years:
 Mumbai Elphinstone Railway station Stampede -2017 – Due to inadequate

infrastructure
 Rajamundry stampede – 2015 - Godavari Pushkaralu

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 Datiya Stampede- Madhya Pradesh- 115 got killed near a bridge during Navaratri
Case study:
AP- Godavari Pushkaralu (2015) vs Krishna Pushkaralu (2016)

Godavari Pushkaralu:
At least 27 people, including four women died, while several were injured when a
stampede occurred at Rajahmundry in AP during the Godavari Pushkaralu in June 2015.
The stampede brought to the fore the failure of the official machinery in making proper
scientific ground work for the Godavari Pushkaralu that witnessed the second highest
human gathering in the country after Kumbh Mela in Allahabad.
Krishna Pushkaralu:
The remarkable aspect of the Krishna Pushkarams 2016 has been the extensive use of
technology to manage the event. Apart from surveillance cameras, drones, mobile apps
and virtual inspection systems are being used to make the river festival a smart affair.
Some 1,400 surveillance cameras have been set up at vantage points at the seven ghats,
pushkar nagars and important routes in Vijayawada. The surveillance cameras are
powerful ones. They can be zoomed, tilted and panned by remote, giving a 180-270
degree view of the area.
The drones are octocopters equipped with surveillance cameras to hover over the throng
at the ghats and pushkar nagars. Airborne and mobile, they provide a bird's eye view of
the happenings, and can be moved closer to potential trouble spots. Each of the 18 drones
can be airborne for 15 minutes and cover a 1-2 sq km area. They can hover as low as 6
feet from the ground and transmit footage in real time.
IVRS technology being used to get feedback from the public in form of a sample survey.
Kaizala, developed by Microsoft, is another technology being employed. It works on the
same lines as Whatsapp and Telegram and can accommodate the mobile numbers of the
entire population of the state. It can be used as an instant messenging system to
communicate within a group.
According to experts, it can be even used to locate and keep track of the people. This

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facility is being used by the authorities to stay in communication with each of the 60,000
government employees who are engaged in the Krishna Pushkaralu. After they download
the app and are assigned a task, they are geo-fenced, providing their exact whereabouts.
Further, using different mobile apps developed for Kaizala, photos taken with
smartphones can be uploaded instantly with details like the place and time taken. The
location can be tracked on Google Maps, as it is geo tagged. Another technology, Virtual
Inspection System, is being used to help officials to inspect any ghat from their offices. It
involves a person carrying a smart video camera which can transmit footage instantly to
the servers. The person tasked with carrying the lightweight equipment will act as per
the instructions of the inspecting officer.
All the footage, feed, opinions, photos are being monitored from command control
centres, where they are collated, analysed and stored. Based on the analysis, officials can
take informed decisions. "It is smart crowd management which tracks the movement and
mood of the crowd," chief minister Chandrababu Naidu said while demonstrating how
new technologies are being used.
He said after the Krishna Pushkaram, the government is contemplating to utilize such
technology in various ways. They want to utilise surveillance cameras in urban bodies
like Vijayawada not only for security purposes but also to evaluate sanitation position
and other purposes.
The state government, which recruited engineering students to analyse the footage from
surveillance cameras, drones, IVRS, Kaizala and mobile apps, is encouraging them to
come out with ideas and use the Internet of Things (IoT). It is offering to make their
ideas into revenue generating entrepreneurs, by organising innovation societies at
different levels.
This has made the difference between the two events. Krishna Pushkaralu has become
successful compared to Godavari Pushkaralu.

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1. Crowd ques should be maintained based on better crowd control methods.
2. VIP entry control for during peak days to reducing overcrowding.
3. Better communications- CCTV surveillance
4. Provision of medical facilities at venue
5. Maintenance of basic facilities like fire safety
6. Involvement of Civil Society in crowd management from planning level to

implementation level
7. Using media for info dissemination
8. Capacity building of various stake holders

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Forest Fires

A wildfire/forest fire is an uncontrolled fire that is wiping out large fields and areas of
land.
Fire Triangle:
There are basically three components i.e. fuel, heat and oxygen that are needed in right
combination to produce fire. Combination of these components produces the “fire
triangle”.
Out of three essential components of fire triangle, two components i.e. fuel and oxygen
are naturally available in forest.
It is the third component i.e. heat that really initiates fire in the forest. Heat may be
supplied by either natural or artificial reasons. Depending upon the source of the heat,
the causes for forest fire may be classified as natural or artificial.
Why forest fire is kept under Man made hazards?
More than ninety five percent forest fires are caused either by negligence or unknowingly
by the human being. The rest of the fires are caused by natural reasons i. e. lightning,
extreme rise in the temperature etc., which are very rare.
In general all over the world the main causes of forest fires are anthropogenic.
According to FAO report “Fire Management- Global Assessment 2006”, regional estimates
of human induced forest fires are as follows:
a. Mediterranean- 95%
b. South Asia 90 %

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c. South America 85 %
d. North America 80 %
e. Balkan countries 59 %
What are the reasons for forest fires?
Forest fires are caused by Natural causes as well as manmade causes
1. Natural causes- Many forest fires start from natural causes such as lightning which set
trees on fire. However, rain extinguishes such fires without causing much damage. High
atmospheric temperatures and dryness (low humidity) offer favourable circumstance for
a fire to start.
2. Man made causes- Fire is caused when a source of fire like naked flame, cigarette or
bidi, electric spark or any source of ignition comes into contact with inflammable
material.
Traditionally Indian forests have been affected by fires. The menace has been aggravated
with rising human and cattle population and the consequent increase in demand for
Forest products by individuals and communities. Causes of forest fires can be divided

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into two broad categories: environmental (which are beyond control)

and human related (which are controllable).
i) Human related causes result from human activity as well as methods of forest
management. These can be intentional or unintentional, for example:
 Graziers and gatherers of various forest products starting small fires to obtain
good grazing grass as well as to facilitate gathering of minor forest produce like
flowers of Madhuca indica and leaves of Diospyros melanoxylon
 The centuries old practice of shifting cultivation (especially in the North-Eastern
region of India and inparts of the States of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh).
 The use of fires by villagers to ward off wild animals
 Fires lit intentionally by people living around forests for recreation
 Fires started accidentally by careless visitors to forests who discard cigarette
butts.
ii) Environmental causes are largely related to climatic conditions such as temperature,
wind speed and direction, level of moisture in soil and atmosphere and duration of dry
spells. Other natural causes are the friction of bamboos swaying due to high wind velocity
and rolling stones that result in sparks setting off fires in highly inflammable leaf litter on
the forest floor.
The causes of forest fire have been increasing rapidly. The problem has been accentuated
by the growing human and cattle population. People enter forests ever more frequently
to graze cattle, collect fuel-wood, timber and other mini forest produce. It has been
estimated that 90% of forest fires in India are man-made.
Types of Forest Fires-
There are two types of forest fire i) Surface Fire and ii) Crown Fire

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Surface Fire-
A forest fire may burn primarily as a surface fire, spreading along the ground as the
surface litter (senescent leaves and twigs and dry grasses etc) on the forest floor and is
engulfed by the spreading flames.
Crown Fire-
The other type of forest fire is a crown fire in which the crown of trees and shrubs burn,
often sustained by a surface fire. A crown fire is particularly very dangerous in a
coniferous forest because resinous material given off burning logs burn furiously. On hill
slopes, if the fire starts downhill, it spreads up fast as heated air adjacent to a slope tends
to flow up the slope spreading flames along with it. If the fire starts uphill, there is less
likelihood of it spreading downwards.
What are the impacts of forest fires?
Fires are a major cause of forest degradation and have wide ranging adverse ecological,
economic and social impacts, including:
 Loss of valuable timber resources

 Degradation of catchment areas
 Loss of biodiversity and extinction of plants and animals
 Loss of wildlife habitat and depletion of wildlife
 Loss of natural regeneration and reduction in forest cover
 Global warming
 Loss of carbon sink resource and increase in percentage of co2 in atmosphere
 Change in the microclimate of the area with unhealthy living conditions
 Soil erosion affecting productivity of soils and production
 Ozone layer depletion
 Health problems leading to diseases

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 Loss of livelihood for tribal people and the rural poor, as approximately 300 million
people are directly dependent upon collection of non-timber forest products from
forest areas for their livelihood.
Impact of Forest Fires- Report:
The report, Strengthening Forest Fire Management in India, jointly prepared by the
ministry of environment, forest and climate change (MoEFCC) and the World Bank.
According to this report, Forest fires occur in around half of the country’s 647 districts
every year. However, repeated fires in short succession are reducing diversity of species
and harming natural regeneration, while posing a risk to over 92 million in India who live
in areas of forest cover.
Analysing patterns and trends of forest fires in India, the report highlights that central
India has the largest area affected by fire. The region, which has the highest forest cover
in India after North-East, accounts for 56% of burnt forest land during 2003-2016,
followed by southern states and the North-East.
However, North-eastern states account for the biggest share of fire detections, with at
least 55% of fire incidents reported during 2003-2016. The report calls for a national
plan for the prevention of forest fire.
The findings are significant since preventing forest fires is crucial to meet Nationally
Determined Contributions (NDC) in order to limit global warming. As per the Fifth
Assessment Report of IPCC, forest fires globally contribute 2.5 billion to 4.0 billion tonnes
of CO2 to carbon emissions every year.
Tackling forest fires is even more important in India as the country has committed to
bringing 33% of its geographical area under forest cover by 2030, as part of its Nationally
Determined Goals (NDC) and increases its forest cover by 5 million hectares, as part of
India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change.

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Himalayas:
The most vulnerable stretches of the world to forest fire are the youngest mountain
ranges of Himalayas.
Because of the more rain density, the forests of Eastern Himalayas are less vulnerable to
forest fires as compared to those in Western Himalayas.
With large scale expansion of Chir forests in Himalayan mountains, the frequency and
intensity of forest fires have increased alarmingly.
In 1995, the fires, particularly in the Uttarakhand hills had destroyed more than 3, 75,000
hectares of forest wealth. In all around 34, 24,857 hectares or 63.91percent forest area of
Uttarakhand is vulnerable to forest fire.
Ganga Yamuna Water shed:
The other affected area to fire in the country happens to be in the Ganga-Yamuna
watershed, the most vital of the country's four watersheds. Frequent vast fire incidences
are reported from this basin.
In the year 1999, the region experienced a huge fire, which caused major devastation
over an area of more than 80,000 hectares of forests, turning it into ashes.
Type of vegetation is the other major factor in deciding the vulnerability of the forests to
fire.
Following are some of examples of tree species and forest types, which are more prone /
vulnerable to fire in different parts of the country.
a) Chir- Due to resin content, the chir tree is very prone to forest fire. As a result of fire
the lower stem of chir tree (previously used for resin tapping) becomes black. It is clear
for this tree that this species regenerates strongly if the over storey density is sufficiently

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low. Crown fire is rarity in the chir forests and the most forest fires are in fact, ground
fires.
b) Other coniferous species- Like chir, other conifers including, fir (Abies sp.), Spruce
(Picea smithiana), Cedrus deodara are also very susceptible to forest fire.
c) Sal- The butt damage of this species occurs, even if the fire intensity is not much.
d) Other Plantations - The plantations like Eucalyptus, Teak, Poplar, Sisham and several
other species are also vulnerable to fire. Among these species, Eucalyptus is grown on 8
years rotation for pulpwood, while other species are grown on longer rotations for larger
and higher value timber products. From the age of about 5 years, both Teak and
Eucalyptus are quite resistant to ground fire. There is only three-year period i.e. between
the ages of 2 and 5, when Eucalyptus and Teak are at maximum risk from forest fire.
e) Mixed Dry Forest- Fire is commonly used by tribal people in such forests to prepare
the ground for harvesting mahua flowers and fruit, and it is apparent that they use fire
skill for this purpose. But when these practices are used indiscriminately, it causes much
damage to the surrounding species and soil.
In addition to the susceptibility of particular species, other factors viz. the age of the
trees, climate, the terrain etc. also decide the incidence of forest fire in a particular forest.
The socio- economic and socio-cultural pattern of the society also decides the
vulnerability of forest to fire.

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Existing Challenges in Wild fires Hazard Management-

 The incidence of forest fires in the country is on the increase and more area is burned
each year. The major cause of this failure is the piecemeal approach to the problem.
Both the national focus and the technical resources required for sustaining a
systematic forest fire management programme are lacking in the country.
 Inadequate research on previous wildfires, including ignition sources, burn severity
patterns, season of burning, and fire size
 Half hearted attempts to study the effects of post fire runoff and erosion on aquatic
ecosystems and species
 Narrow spatial reach to monitor and provide early warnings using new technology,
sensor webs, and satellite technology
 Need to develop tools and methods to minimize impacts on human life and property,
especially in the wild land urban interface
 We never ask village communities to participate in managing forest resources, but
expect their support at times of crisis. Such attitude and approach should be changed
by making them aware of the situation and teach them what to do in case of such
emergencies.
Forest Fire Management:
The incidence of forest fires in the country is on the increase and more area is burned
each year. The major cause of this failure is the piecemeal approach to the problem.
Both the national focus and the technical resources required for sustaining a systematic
forest fire management programme are lacking in the country.
Important forest fire management elements like strategic fire centres, coordination
among Ministries, funding, human resource development, fire research, fire management,
and extension programmes are missing.
Taking into consideration the serious nature of the problem, it is necessary to make some
major improvements in the forest fire management strategy for the country.

125
Case studies: The recent Bandipur forest fire destroyed more than thousand hectares of
the forest, also, claiming the life of a forest guard and injuring four others. It had spread
through most of the north-western part of the reserve, also posing danger to the
adjoining Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala.
Last year’s dreadful and destructive forest fire of Uttarakhand burnt down more than
4000 hectares of forest and claimed seven lives. The fire was finally doused using IAF
helicopter fitted with Bambi buckets. According to a report by Parliamentary Standing
Committee on Science and Technology, India, the country has seen a 55% rise in the
number of forest fires as on December 2016.
The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, has prepared a National
Master Plan for Forest Fire Control.
This plan proposes to introduce a well-coordinated and integrated fire-management

programme that includes the following components:
 Prevention of human-caused fires through education and environmental modification.

It will include silvicultural activities, engineering works, people participation, and
education and enforcement. It is proposed that more emphasis be given to people
participation through Joint Forest Fire Management for fire prevention.
 Prompt detection of fires through a well coordinated network of observation points,
efficient ground patrolling, and communication networks. Remote sensing technology
is to be given due importance in fire detection. For successful fire management and
administration, a National Fire Danger Rating System (NFDRS) and Fire Forecasting
System are to be developed in the country.
 Fast initial attack measures.
 Vigorous follow up action.
 Introducing a forest fuel modification system at strategic points.
 Fire fighting resources.

126
Each of the above components plays an important role in the success of the entire system
of fire management. Special emphasis is to be given to research, training, and
development
Integrated forest protection
The main objective of this scheme to control forest fires and strengthen the forest
protection in Tamilnadu. The works like fire line clearing, assistance to Joint Forest
Management committees, creating water bodies, purchase of vehicles and
communication equipments, purchase of fire fighting tools, etc., are being undertaken.
Oil Spills

An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment. It can
be either on the land or on the water.

Oil spills can occur during the entire supply chain starting from oil extraction,
transportation and refinement.
Oil spills may originate in natural or anthropogenic causes.
Natural causes –
1. Oil that seeps from the bottom of oceans which enters the marine environment. Crude
oil is formed during long periods of time through natural processes involving organic
matter from dead organisms. Thus, oil exists in many environments and may be naturally
spilled due to various factors (including climatic conditions, disturbance, etc.). Such
natural oil spills may occur in oceans, due to eroding of sedimentary rocks from the
bottom of the ocean (the effect may be similar with that of an accidental oil spill from
human drilling in oceans such as the recent BP oil spill from the Gulf of Mexico).

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Anthropogenic causes -These including accidental oil spills as well as leaks and spills due
to a large variety of human activities related to oil refining, handling and transport,
storage and use of crude oil and any of its distilled products.
Another classification: Oil spills can also be classified as Accidental spills and Intentional
spills.
Accidental Spills
Accidental spills may occur in various circumstances, most often during the following
activities:
 Storage - oil and oil products may be stored in a variety of ways including
underground and aboveground storage tanks; such containers may develop leaks over
time
 Handling - during transfer operations and various uses
 Transportation - these could be large oil spills (up to million and hundreds of million
gallons) on water or land through accidental rupture of big transporting vessels (e.g.,
tanker ships or tanker trucks). or smaller oil spills, through pipelines and other
devices also happens and their impact is mainly due to a large number of usually
minor spills
 Offshore drilling - we have recently experienced the massive oil spill in the Gulf of
Mexico, with its terrible consequences on the environment, marine life and humans as
the spill continues since April 22, 2010, and it may take a while until a solution is
implemented
 Routine maintenance activities - such as cleaning of ships may release oil into
navigable waters. This may seem insignificant; however, due to the large number of
ships even a few gallons spilled per ship maintenance could build up to a substantial
number when all ships are considered

128
 Road runoff - oily road runoff adds up especially on crowded roads. With many
precipitation events, the original small amounts of oil from regular traffic would get
moved around and may build up in our environment
Intentional Oil Discharges
Intentional oil discharges are not necessarily malevolent. Most of them occur in the
following circumstances:
 Through drains or in the sewer system. This include any regular activities such as
changing car oil if the replaced oil is simply discharged into a drain or sewer system
 Indirectly through the burning of fuels, including vehicle emissions; they release
various individual components of oils and oil products, such as a variety of
hydrocarbons (out of which benzene and PAHs could pose serious health risks).

On Marine Ecology-
The marine ecology is affected in two ways:
1. Direct from the oil:
 Oil enters the plumage of birds and the fur of mammals reducing its insulating ability.
This makes them vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and less buoyant.
 Interferes in the identification of young ones by their parents with young ones
eventually starving and dying.
 Blinding the animals leaving them defence-less.
 Impairs the flying ability of bird and preventing them from foraging.
 Ingestion can cause poisoning and impair the digestive process.
 Mangrove ecosystem gets affected.
2. Response to the cleanup process:
 The oil-consuming bacteria occur naturally and act to remove oil from ecosystem.
Their biomass tends to replace other populations in the food chain.

129
 The chemicals (eg- dispersants, shoreline cleaning agents) increase the toxic
hydrocarbon levels in the fish and may kill fish eggs. These can also lethally
contaminate corals.
On Economy and Livelihood-
 Livelihoods of the people dependent on the marine ecosystem get affected.
 Fisheries sector gets affected.
 Health of the people who consume the fish/ marine organisms in the polluted water
gets affected.
Case study:
The Ennore Oil Spill: A Lesson for India’s Maritime Agencies

On 28th January 2017 at about 3:45 AM, two ships MT Dawn Kanchipuram and MT BW
Maple collided; two nautical miles off the Kamarajar Port at Ennore, MT Dawn
Kanchipuram suffered damages, spilling tonnes of fuel oil into the sea.
The extent of damage became visible on the next day when large patches of oil started
appearing on the rocky shores close to Bharathiyar Nagar which is approximately 13 km
from the Kamarajar Port. Organized cleanup began on January 29th, 2017 and by this
time the oil had already reached the Ennore groin field.
As computed by INCOIS, the oil slick drifted along the Chennai coast up to 32km south
and beached at the Palavakkam beach on the East Coast Road. Later, about two weeks
after the incident, reports emerged that traces of oil were observed even along
Pondicherry coast, 180 km away from incident area. An oil spill, no matter how big or
small is considered a serious threat to marine environment. A study was undertaken
immediately after the spill to assess the ecological footprint and its effects on water
quality and biodiversity in the coastal areas of Chennai.
As expected, total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) concentration was significantly high.
However, other physico-chemical parameters were within normal range. Usually, in such
events, the planktons and vertebrates get affected due to their proximity with toxic
compounds floating on the sea surface, nonetheless, significant variations were not
observed.

130
No mass mortality of fish occurred however few incidences of Mullets and Anchovies
deaths were reported by fishermen. Very few cases of dead Olive ridley turtle drenched
with oil were reported, however, the reason of their deaths is uncertain.
The impact of the spill has directly affected the local fishing community as there was a
sharp fall in fish sale due to the existing notion amongst public that fishes are
contaminated with oil and not fit to consume.
Mumabi Oil Spill (2010)

The 2010 Mumbai oil spill occurred after the Panama-flagged MSC Chitra (IMO:
7814838) and MV Khalijia 3 (IMO: 8128690) collided off the coast of India near Mumbai
on Saturday, 7 August 2010 at around 9:50 A.M local time. MSC Chitra, which was
outbound from South Mumbai's Nava Sheva port, collided with the inbound MV Khalijia-
III, which caused about 200 cargo containers from MSC Chitra to be thrown into the
Arabian Sea. Khalijia-III was apparently involved with another mishap on 18 July 2010.
MSC Chitra tilted to about 80 degrees soon after the collision, spilling an estimated 400
tonnes of oil, according to the official estimates. The ship was loaded with an estimated
2,600 tonnes of oil, 300 tonnes of diesel and 70 tonnes of lubricating oil at the time of the
accident.
What are the strategies to address the Oil spill pollution?

1. Chemical dispersants-
 Dispersants are chemicals that are sprayed on a surface oil slick to break down the
oil into smaller droplets that more readily mix with the water.
 Dispersants do not reduce the amount of oil entering the environment, but push
the effects of the spill underwater.
 While dispersants make the oil spill less visible, dispersants and dispersed oil
under the ocean surface are hazardous for marine life.
 Chemical dispersants are harmful for the marine life and humans. Through bio-
magnification chemicals can enter into the food chain from the marine organisms.

131
Know the basics:

Bio magnification, also known as bio amplification, is the process by which substances
become more concentrated in the bodies of consumers as one moves up the food chain
(trophic levels).
Bio-accumulation:
Bioaccumulation occurs within a trophic level. It is the increase in concentration of a
substance in certain tissues (usually in fatty tissue.) of organisms' bodies due to
absorption from food and the environment.
2. Bioremediation-
 It is a treatment that uses naturally occurring organisms to break down hazardous
substances into less toxic or non-toxic substances.
 It uses microorganisms to degrade organic contaminants in soil, groundwater,
sludge, and solids.
 The microorganisms break down contaminants by using them as an energy source
or metabolizing them with an energy source.
 When Fungi are used, it is called myco-remediation. Bioremediation may be
conducted in situ or ex situ.
Oil Zappers, a 5set bacterial strain developed by TERI (The Energy and Resources
Institute) is used to bio remediate the oil.

132
For the first time this is used during the oil spill near Mumbai Coast in 2010.
Example: Bioremediation- Ennore Oil spill
On the advice of the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, Government of India, Indian
Oil’s R&D Centre has taken action in the containment of the oil spill that occurred near
Ennore Port at Chennai recently, where two ships had collided.
The R&D Centre has deployed an effective and non-hazardous bio-remediation process
named Oilivorous-STM which was developed by the Centre to deal with such onshore oil
spills. The technology involves use of identified microbes, which when administered to
the oil spills with specific nutrients; eat away the oil and sludge, leaving the soil
completely oil-free and harmless. In the past, this technology was successfully employed
to remediate oil spills that occurred on Mumbai coast in the year 2010 due to collision
between two ships.

India’s western cost and eastern coasts are vulnerable to the oil spills. India’s western
coast is particularly vulnerable because of its geographical location near to the oil
exporting countries and also due to huge refineries dotting along this coast.
India has 12 major ports and near to 187 small and minor ports. These ports are
regularly used for transporting oil. Considering the large volume of oil that is being
transported probability of tanker accident is very high.
What measures are already taken?
To address the vulnerability,
The Government has formulated the National Oil Spill –Disaster Contingency Plan (NOS-
DCP) of 1993, for establishing an integrated national system for responding promptly
and effectively to deal with any oil pollution incident.
The Indian Coast Guard (ICG) is designated as the Central Coordinating Agency (CCA) for
marine oil spill response activities.

133
Measures need to be taken to address Oil spills:
1. National Policy on Oil Spill Response need to be formulated for addressing effective
coordination and response during the event of oil spill.
2. Mapping of Oil Spill vulnerability Zones for implementing better mitigation and
prevention strategies.
3. Better use of technologies for monitoring and coordination. (GIS and Drone)
4. Contingency plans should be prepared at the cross border level to handle the inter
border spills.
5. Conducting regular awareness programs on Oil spills including the Port Authorities as
the major stakeholders. (Because ports are the major first responders and they should
pass information and take first incident response.)

134
Role of Science and Technology in Disaster Management
The scientific and technological disciplines which are involved in Disaster management
include basic and engineering sciences, natural, social and human sciences.
They relate to -
1. The hazard environment (i.e., hydrology, geology, geophysics, seismology,

volcanology, meteorology, and biology),
2. The built environment (i.e., engineering, architecture, and materials), and
3. The policy environment (i.e., sociology, humanities, political sciences, and
management science).
The applications of Science and Technology in Disaster management are:
1. Remote sensing and GIS technology
 To map the hazard zones

 To identify the stranded people due to floods, cyclones, etc
 To identify the losses post disaster
2. ICT
 To provide early warning

 To educate the people regarding the various disasters and the precautions that
needs to be taken
 Mobile communication
3. Early warning system and forecasting through integrated Satellite, tele-communication

technology.
5. Big data analytics for policy formulation
6. UAVs (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles) in landslide mapping

135
Case study:
Seven years ago, in 2011, the economic cost of natural catastrophes and man-
made disasters worldwide amounted to USD 370 billion, a colossal step up from the
previous year. The Japanese earthquake and tsunami alone cost the national economy at
least USD 210 billion. Science and technology play an increasingly vital role in managing,
and there’s no doubt that technology can dull the consequences of disasters, even in
impoverished societies with few resources for being prepared. After the natural disaster
in Japan in 2011 – an event which caused the death of over 800 people – the main town
that was affected prioritized building resilience against future disasters, by not only co-
operating with the private sector to restore interrupted e-government services but also
by leveraging technologies.
This is just one of a number of example of Japan’s experience in using technology in the
disaster management cycle. On March 25, ministers and high-level policy makers from
nine disaster-prone countries – Bangladesh, Chile, Indonesia, Myanmar, the Philippines,
Sri Lanka, Thailand, Turkey, and Vietnam – met with more than 150 participants from the
Japanese government, disaster-related agencies, embassies, the private sector, academia,
and civil society in Tokyo in order to learn from Japan’s rich experience and discuss how
it might be applied to disaster risk management in developing countries.
Since then, when it comes to dealing with disasters, a variety of technology tools,
including but not limited to Ushahidi, Twitter, and Open Street Map have been used as a
way of both mitigating and recovering from disasters, and the power of technology for
disaster risk management has been widely recognized around the world. The Tokyo
event highlighted technologies Japan leveraged in the aftermath of the Great East Japan
Earthquake and tsunami, which included: real-time traffic maps that were generated and
made available to the public using data gathered from moving vehicles; observation data
from flood sensors that was distributed to car navigation systems and smartphones; and
GPS data from mobile phones which was used to reproduce and analyze the flow of

136
people at the time of the earthquake.
The Japanese presented other advanced technologies for disaster risk management,
including for early warning (such as J-alert - a nationwide automated early warning
system); emergency response, data analysis and decision making (such as tsunami
arrival time, flood level and risk analysis); and information sharing (such as mobile TV
and satellite mobile phones).
All of the above examples clearly points to ways in which technology can be an
instrumental and vital part of the disaster management cycle, wherever in the world the
disaster might take place, and whatever sort of disaster it may be.
{Note: Write down the current issues related to new technologies in DM from the current affairs
notes or news paper}

137
Role of Media in Disaster Management
The role of the media is very important in Disaster management. In all phases of disaster
management, media plays two major roles:
1. Information dissemination
2. Awareness creation
Pre-disaster
 The media can influence the government to prioritize Disaster Risk Issues.
For example, it may expose excessive and inefficient expenditure on disaster
preparedness in a particular region.
 It can help disaster mitigation experts create early warning systems. Emergency
alerts using TV, radio, cable services across the country can be very effective.
 To educate the community in recognising symptoms and reporting them early if
found.
 Ensuring cooperation of the community in risk reduction by forewarning the people
about the consequences of their dangerous actions and operations.
During disaster
 During the disaster, what is of utmost importance is to keep the morale of the people
high, to create self-confidence in them and to prevent panic. The media can help, in
many ways in ensuring these conditions.
 Continuous and factual coverage, particularly by local media, can assist the
authorities, voluntary organizations and volunteers in reaching the affected with
assistance and relief.
 Cautioning the affected or to be affected people about the Dos and Don’ts, of scotching
rumours and preventing panic and confusion.
 Identifying the needy spots and focusing attention on them, giving details on
impassable roadways and downed utility lines.
 Communicating the information to the people and the concerned authorities
sufficiently in advance to enable them to take the necessary steps to minimize the
losses of lives and property.

138
 It provides the outside world with a glimpse of what that affected community is
dealing with.
Post-disaster
 Collection of material resources and the enlisting of man-power by appealing to the
people to come forward to render help.
 Helping the affected in establishing contacts with their closed ones
 Keeping a watch and report on some anti-social elements who try to take advantage of
such situations
 Contributing by countering the damaging, exaggerated and negative reporting and
propaganda in the foreign media on the occurrence of the disasters.
Facebook- Disaster Response:
Facebook has partnered with the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) and a
non-profit body, SEEDS in India, to offer tools to these agencies to help them respond
more effectively to natural disasters.
Facebook will offer ‘disaster maps data’ that illustrate aspects like people’s movement
and concentration of Facebook users in the given area before and after a calamity.
Facebook Head of Programs (India, South and Central Asia) said the intention of
introducing these initiatives is to help improve response efforts to natural disasters in
India.
Negative Effects of Media
 The media may exaggerate some elements of the disaster and create unnecessary
panic.
 Inaccurate portrayal of human behaviour during and after a disaster may create a
very dramatic and exciting picture but it is only partially truthful.
 Influential politicians may manipulate the media for personal and political gains.
 Biased coverage for the purposes of sensationalism by choosing to capture only small
incidents of horrific devastations leads to misreporting.
 Convergence of media representatives on a high-profile event can create tremendous
"congestion" in the affected area.
 Media sensationalism and Focus on TRPs.

139
Examples:
1. Live coverage of critical operations can disrupt the counter-terrorism strategy of the
forces, as was observed in Mumbai 26/11 attacks.
2. In their desire for TRPs and sensationalism, the media has overlooked basic ethics of
journalism. During the Nepal earthquake, media was severely criticized as well as during
the Uttarakhand floods, the visits of politicians was focused on rather than disaster
management.
Role of Social Media in Disaster Management

 Social media is different from conventional media in that it allows for one-to-one, one-
to-many and many-to-many communications. It enables communication to take place
in real time or asynchronously over time.
 It is also device indifferent and can take place via a computer, tablets and smart
phones which are relatively mobile and easy to carry around. It also allows
participants to create or comment or on social media networks.
 During disasters all the conventional communications generally stop functioning at
the time while social media or networking services stay active.
 Its role as a news source is invaluable with instantaneous information available with
power outages shutting down TV stations and landlines. Emergency service agencies
are utilising the power of social media and SMS to instantly broadcast and amplify
emergency warnings to the public.
Case Studies:
Use of Social Media during HudHud Cyclone:
During the devastating Hudhud cyclone that struck Visakhapatnam, PWD officials created
a WhatsApp group that acted as the main tool of communication for sharing information.
No meetings and discussions were organised at the district level as the WhatsApp group
helped identify and access required resources.
Role played by Social Media during Chennai Floods:
1. Social Media as a Means of getting News and latest updates on the situation:

140
With no current and water logging, watching news on TC or getting newspapers was not
possible for the first few days. And with radio signals being poor, social media accessed
through mobile phones became the most popular means of staying in touch with what
was happening in the city. Even with limited conenctivity, having a charged mobile
became such a critical asset that along with food, water and other relief material, power
banks were distributed allowing people to charge their phones.
From weather forecast updates on skymet, to latest updates on Twitter of how to
commute from one point to another based on which roads the water had receded.
2. Social Media Helped people stay in touch with family and friends:
Every time the mobile signal improved everybody tried to reach out to their loved ones
by posting and commenting on Twitter, Facebook, etc., which happened instantaneously
unlike messaging which takes time to send or download, thereby enabling
communication before the signal went off again.
Even as normal calls were not going through, the calls made through WhatsAppwere
having lesser drop rates, helping people stay in touch.
Facebook came up with ‘Chennai Flooding safety check’ where by marking yourself safe,
allowed all your friends to know that you are doing just fine.
 Online social networking services and social media like Facebook, Twitter, Google+,
Etc. try to solve many problems during natural disasters by establishing link with
closed ones.
 Concerns such as the threat of technology failure, hackers, stalkers, viruses will have
to be addressed in the development of emergency online networks.
 Also, the spread of rumours can be quick leading to spread of panic.
Therefore, social media cannot and should not supersede current approaches to disaster
management communication or replace existing infrastructure, but if managed
strategically, they can be used to bolster current systems.
{Note: Write down the current issues related to new initiatives by media in DM from the current
affairs notes or news paper}

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DISASTER

# 1-10-233/F, Ashok Nagar Extension, OPP. ICICI Direct,

S.No Topic Page No

La Excellence IAS 9052 29 29 29 www.laex.in

Disaster Management Syllabus

So, the syllabus of Disaster Management includes:

“Disaster and disaster management”

Environment: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental

Important Geophysical phenomena such as earthquakes, Tsunami, Volcanic activity,

Geographical features and their location- changes in critical geographical features

Ethics case studies

La Excellence IAS 9052 29 29 29 www.laex.in

Related topics: (GS-1)

3. Major cities of India are becoming more vulnerable to flood conditions.

La Excellence IAS 9052 29 29 29 www.laex.in

Ethics: Case Study

1. The country’s need for a better disaster management system. (2000)

Mains model Questions

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Disaster Management- Basic Terminology

Hazard is a phenomenon when there is a potential for occurrence of an event. This

There are different kinds of vulnerabilities based on -

1. Socio-economic (Ex: Poor people are more vulnerable)

2. Physical (Ex: Poor design and Construction of Houses)

4. Environmental (Ex: Global Warming)

La Excellence IAS 9052 29 29 29 www.laex.in

The following is the risk triangle.

Risk is dependent on 3 variables:

So, if we reduce either hazard or vulnerability we can reduce the risk.

La Excellence IAS 9052 29 29 29 www.laex.in

Preparedness to face the hazard reduces the potential losses.

Preparedness is by the following agents:

1. Community – the first responders

1. Early Warning System

La Excellence IAS 9052 29 29 29 www.laex.in

3. Emergency Shelters, etc

The measures under mitigation are of two types:

1. Structural measures- Any physical construction to reduce or avoid possible impacts of

2. Non structural measures- Any measure not involving physical construction. It

La Excellence IAS 9052 29 29 29 www.laex.in

Primarily disasters are caused by-

Geological Hazards: Hydro-Meteorological 1. Chemical Hazards

La Excellence IAS 9052 29 29 29 www.laex.in

Disaster Management in India

India’s Vulnerability Profile:

Disaster risks in India are further compounded by increasing vulnerabilities related to -

 Changing demographics and socio-economic conditions,

Let us understand the disaster management system in India.

La Excellence IAS 9052 29 29 29 www.laex.in

At the central level,

At the State level,

State Crisis Management Committee was established. This committee coordinates

2. National Calamity Response Fund (Central level fund)

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The Present system: Disaster Management Act, 2005

This act defines disaster management as-

A continuous and integrated process of Planning, organising, coordinating and

1. Prevention of danger or threat of any disaster.

According to the revised UNISDR(United Nations International Strategy for Disaster

La Excellence IAS 9052 29 29 29 www.laex.in

 Disaster Risk Management (DRM) is “the application of disaster risk reduction

La Excellence IAS 9052 29 29 29 www.laex.in

The disaster event is of two types: