Maize: Dry Milling
KD Rausch, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
SR Eckhoff, (Retired) University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA
ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Topic Highlights
• Maize dry milling utilizes approximately 200 million
bushels (5 million tonnes) of maize in the United States
annually.
• The maize dry milling process attempts to fractionate the
maize kernel into the germ, pericarp, and endosperm
components.
• Proper tempering of the grain is the key process step, which
increases kernel moisture from 15 to about 22%, causes
hydration of the germ, and allows proper separation of
the germ and pericarp from the endosperm.
• Additional steps use physical properties (e.g., particle size,
density, and terminal velocity) to separate the endosperm,
germ, and pericarp process streams.
• Modern dry milling produces grit (endosperm) products
that have varying particles sizes with less than 1% fat,
allowing long shelf life.
• Primary products from dry milling include flaking grits,
brewers grits, corn meal, corn cones, and flour.
• The process coproduces hominy feed, a mixture of the germ
and pericarp, used in animal diets.
Learning Objective
• To gain fundamental understanding of the maize dry mill-
ing process and typical processing steps used to make dry
milling coproducts.
Introduction
The term dry milling is often used to describe three distinctly
different processes when discussing maize processes. The first
process, stone grinding, is the oldest and is also known as
whole kernel dry milling or full-fat dry milling. Whole kernel
dry milling does not fractionate the maize kernel but rather
seeks to grind the kernel to uniform particle size, usually flour
or meal. The term ‘stone ground’ refers to the use of two stone
grinding plates between which the maize is ground into a flour
or meal. Other devices for particle size reduction can be used to
produce meal or flour, including hammer mills, pin mills, and
disk mills. The defining characteristics of this type of dry mill-
ing are that no separation of kernel components takes place
and the resultant product is used for human nutrition. The
products are usually referred to as ‘full-fat’ flour or ‘full-fat’
meal because the germ has been left unseparated from the
other components. Full-fat products have a fuller flavor but a
much shorter shelf life than degermed products due to the
potential for oxidation of the germ oil, causing rancidity of
the product.
The second process refers to the production of ethanol from
maize. A hammer mill is used to grind maize prior to jet
458 Encyclopedia of Food Grains, Second Edition
cooking, liquefaction, saccharification, and fermentation.
This process is more accurately referred to as the ‘dry grind’
process to prevent confusion. The dry grind process results in
coproducts that are entirely different from other processes,
primarily the production of fuel ethanol and distillers dried
grains with solubles.
The third process referred to as maize dry milling is the
process we are considering in this article. More accurately
referred to as degerminated dry milling, this process attempts
to remove germ and pericarp from the collection of grits, meal,
and flour that are left. Degermination improves shelf life of the
endosperm products by removing the germ oil in the maize
kernel (
75%).
Process Overview
Maize, which has been mechanically cleaned to remove broken
pieces of maize, weed seed, other grains, and any other adul-
terant, is tempered. Numerous tempering methods exist, but a
single-stage tempering would be to first spray 6–8% water on
the kernels as they are dropped into a low-rpm horizontal
screw conveyor or similar type of mixing device. Residence
time in this screw conveyor would be 2–10 min. The moist-
ened maize is conveyed into the top of a tall, small-diameter
mass flow bin, which provides input to the degerminator
(Figure 1) for a total tempering time of 15–40 min.
The degerminator is fed at a constant rate and results in one
or two streams containing a mixture of detached germ, pericarp
pieces, and endosperm pieces of varying sizes. In degermina-
tors with two streams, the objectives are to divert the germ and
pericarp into one stream with small endosperm pieces (‘thru
stock’) and to divert large endosperm pieces (‘tail stock’) to go
into the second stream.
Exploiting density, size, and aerodynamic properties that
exist in the different particles, it is possible to make a
separation among the pericarp, germ, and endosperm and to
recover various size fractions of endosperm. To accomplish
these tasks, a variety of equipment can be used, including
most of the equipment described elsewhere in this Encyclope-
dia. Because of the differences in objectives between wheat
flour milling and maize dry milling, maize dry millers gener-
ally do not find it cost-effective to use equipment other than
sieves, aspirators, roller mills, and gravity tables. Sieves, aspi-
rators, and roller mills are almost essential components of a
maize dry mill, but good germ separation can be achieved
without using gravity tables as shown in Figure 1. The figure
shows the process flow for a simple, low-cost dry mill using a
Beall-type degerminator. The initial and maintenance costs of
gravity tables make recovery of the germ using a roller mill and
sieve attractive. However, worldwide, there are many maize dry
mills still using gravity tables to separate the germ.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394437-5.00238-2
 BARLEY, RICE AND MAIZE PROCESSING | Maize: Dry Milling 459

Water spray Cleaned

maize
Tempering
Tempering auger
tank

Tails Vibratory
screener
Degerminator 3½ M
6M
Thrus
15 M
60 M
Roller
Sifter mill Flaking grits
10 M
Aspirator

Sifter Dryer
Dried germ
Aspirator
Hammer
Sifter mill
Hominy feed
Dryer
30 M
50 M
80 M Regular grits
200 M Fine meal (cones)
Coarse flour
Coarse meal
Aspirators
Aspirator Fine flour

Figure 1 Process flow diagram for a maize dry mill.

In Figure 1, the tempered maize is split into two fractions Tail

by the degerminator. The first fraction (40–80%) is the ‘thrus’ stock
referring to the germ, endosperm, and pericarp that pass
through the screen on the degerminator. The second fraction,
the tails, is usually smaller (20–60%) and is a function of 3.5 mesh screen
maize quality and genetics. The tails, being predominately
flaking grits, some recycle, and flour, can be screened with a
vibratory screener using a 5.6 mm screen as a scalper to recover
oversized grits with attached germ and unbroken kernels. This
scalped material can be recycled or diverted into the hominy Recycle or feed
feed fraction. The vibratory screener also has a 3.55 mm screen 6–10 mesh
for recovery of flaking grits (5.6 to þ3.55 mm; this designa-
tion indicates ‘through a 5.6 mm screen and retained on a
3.55 mm screen’). The material that goes through the
3.55 mm screen is mixed with the 1.25 to þ250 mm fraction
sieved from the thrus. The flaking grits are aspirated, with the
aspirate (lifted material) going to the hominy feed fraction. A
stationary sieve (as shown in Figure 2) can be used in place of
the vibratory screener with comparable results. The stationary
sieve can often be built locally for lower cost and operates with Add to
no energy input and minimal maintenance. thru stock Clean grits
Screening devices come in many configurations and sizes
Figure 2 Static sifter.
but employ the same basic principle for achieving separation–
size difference. Particles smaller than the screen opening can
fall through, while those larger than the screen opening remain
on the screen. The probability that any piece of maize material affect the length of exposure: (1) the depth of the material on
will pass through the screen not only is a function of screen the screen, (2) the distance that the particles must transverse
opening size but also is affected by the length of exposure the (basically the length of the screen), and (3) the amount of
piece of maize has to the screen opening. Three major factors angle at which the screen is operated. Most screens used in
460 BARLEY, RICE AND MAIZE PROCESSING | Maize: Dry Milling
corn dry milling are metal wire screens with the size openings
given in millimeters or micrometers.
Most commercial screens enhance the separation process by
using some type of mechanical action. There are a variety of
reciprocating motions that are used to help the material to be
removed and work its way to the screen surface. The action also
serves to increase the exposure of the maize material to the
screen openings, since the particles are agitated or turned to
expose different orientations to the screen openings. This
increases the likelihood of the particle falling through the
screen.
Although it is often said that aspiration will separate light or
less dense material, material with a density or weight greater
than the maize fraction may actually be removed using aspira-
tion because the aerodynamic characteristics of a particle
depend upon the shape, texture, and weight or density and
not density or weight alone. There are two primary forces that
act upon a particle in an air stream. The downward gravita-
tional force experienced by the particle is due to its total weight
(total mass multiplied by the gravitational constant) and not
due to its density. The force that counteracts the gravitational
forces is the upward drag force. It is made up of two compo-
nents: form drag and frictional drag. The amount of frictional
drag is dependent upon surface texture and total exposed sur-
face area. Form drag, which is dependent upon the projected
area of a particle and upon its shape characteristics, dictates the
amount of separation that will occur in an aspirator.
The rate at which a particle will move up or down in an
airstream depends upon the difference between the drag force
and the gravitational force. If the two forces are equal, the
particle will remain stationary. If the drag force is greater than
the gravitational force, the particle will be carried upward by
the air stream.
Aspirators are designed to force an airstream across the path
of flowing mill products, usually at a 90 angle to the flow. The
less aerodynamic fiber particles are the first to be removed by
aspiration. The small, soft, floury endosperm pieces are usually
the next particle group to be removed. Larger/heavier particles
can also be removed, if enough air flow is used in the system for
them to reach fluidization. Multiple pass aspirators, where the
flowing particle stream is exposed sequentially to multiple air
streams, are generally preferable to a single airstream aspirator.
The thrus fraction from the degerminator is sieved
into three fractions, a þ1.25 mm, 1.25 to þ250 mm,
and 250 mm. The þ1.25 mm fraction contains large grits
and grits with attached germ or pericarp and germ. This frac-
tion is passed through a roll stand with a gap setting that breaks
the large (3.55 to þ2 mm) grits and grits with attached germ
or pericarp. The germ, containing ample water, does not break
but rather is squeezed or compressed into flat flakes. The germ
can now be sieved out of the endosperm material, dried, and
aspirated to recover the pericarp and small endosperm mate-
rial. The aspirate is added to the hominy feed. The germ can be
pressed on site, recovering 14–21 kg oil per tonne or delivered
to solvent extraction facilities where recovery of oil can vary
from 21 to 23 kg oil per MT.
The bulk of the thru material (1.25 to þ 250 mm) is dried,
aspirated, sieved into various fractions, and aspirated again to
achieve a variety of low-fat endosperm products. If needed to
achieve mill balance, larger grits and flaking grits can be
reduced in size by roller milling to achieve a more marketable
granulation. The 250 mm fraction is known as degerminator
fines or degerminator flour and is usually added to the hominy
feed due to its high fat content.
A roller mill consists of a pair of parallel cylindrical rolls
made out of hardened steel, which rotate opposite to each
other, rotating so as to pull material into the nip between
the two rolls. The rolls generally range in size from 10 to
40 cm (diameter) and up to 1.3 m in length. The roll faces
can be corrugated with a variety of cuts or can be smooth-
face; however, smooth-face rolls are generally not used in
maize milling. The gap setting between the two rolls is
adjustable, and the rolls are operated with a slight rpm
differential. The larger the particle size being roller milled,
generally the fewer the corrugations per centimeter on the
roll face. As the particle size decreases, the corrugations per
centimeter increase.
Tempering
Tempering maize is much different than tempering wheat and
other cereal grains milled into flour. The purpose of tempering
wheat is to induce a moisture gradient in the kernels that
causes the germ to swell and the bran layer to release from
the endosperm. Wheat is often tempered overnight to allow
the added moisture to distribute uniformly throughout the
kernel, and then, 10–30 min before processing the wheat, it
is tempered an additional 4–6% moisture to enhance germ and
bran layer recovery. The moisture added during the overnight
temper is beneficial to keep the flour particles from becoming
too dry due to pneumatic handling and the heat from the break
and sizing rolls. The stress cracking lowers the energy required
to produce flour and helps ensure that it will be easier to
separate from the bran.
In maize dry milling, tempering is done to create differen-
tial swelling resulting from the germ and pericarp of the maize
absorbing moisture and swelling faster than the endosperm.
This swelling loosens the connecting tissue between the peri-
carp and the aleurone layer of the endosperm and between the
germ and the endosperm. In tempering maize, the objective is
to not increase the moisture content of the endosperm. Increas-
ing the moisture of the endosperm risks the chance of creating
stress cracks, which will lower the yield of large grit material,
and means that the moisture absorbed by the endosperm must
be removed by drying, thereby requiring more capital and
energy. In scientific literature, maize tempering is usually
shown as a two- or three-stage process. Industrial practice in
the United States for the last 40þ years has been to use a single-
stage temper (6–8% added, wb; 10–40 min). For very dry
maize (<10% moisture, wb), single-stage tempering is still
used. It is preferable to buy maize at 12–14.5% moisture
content.
Steam or hot water can be used to increase the rate of
absorption and decrease temper times, especially in cold
weather climates. Steam alone can be difficult to control with-
out overheating the kernel surface and gelatinizing starch. A
combination of steam and hot water is recommended in such
cases.
 BARLEY, RICE AND MAIZE PROCESSING | Maize: Dry Milling
Types of Degerminators
There are many ‘brands’ of degerminators used around the
world with the majority of them being emulations or modifica-
tions of a few basic designs. With some exceptions, the patents
on most commercially used degerminators have expired, and
reverse engineering has become an accepted practice in the
industry. For example, the patent for the Beall degerminator
was granted in 1901, and it is not uncommon to see similar
degerminators for sale by competing major manufactures. Parts
are sometimes interchangeable although they may not be of the
same quality. This reverse engineering keeps prices for degermi-
nators competitive and makes it difficult for new degerminators
with slightly improved performance to enter the market. The
various degerminators in use can be classified into six categories.
Kernel-to-Kernel Shear (Beall Type)
The Beall-type degerminator is one of the oldest maize deger-
minators but is still recognized as the best when the objective is
to produce large, low-fat flaking grits (5.6 to þ3.55 mm). The
design for the Beall has been widely copied and is one of the
most used degerminators worldwide (Figure 3).
The basics of the Beall-type design are a truncated cone
covered with hemispheric nodules, known as ‘pearling knobs’
or ‘knobbies,’ of
2.5 cm diameter, inside an outer truncated
cone, half of which is screen surface and the other half knobby
surface. The inner cone is driven counterclockwise and can be
adjusted in and out relative to the outer cone as a means of
controlling gap spacing between the two cones. Tempered
maize is fed into the degerminator at the top of the small end
of the cone (Figure 3). Spiral ridges on the small one-third of
the cone (not shown) move kernels away from the opening
and help fill the cavity between inner cone and screens. Dis-
charge from the degerminator occurs when the kernel breaks
into pieces. The smaller pieces work their way to and then go
through the screen, while the large flaking grits and unbroken
kernels are shoved out the tailgate. The thrus consist of whole
and broken germ pieces, the pericarp, and smaller endosperm
pieces. A 6.4 mm round hole screen is common, but different
size screens can be used depending upon the size of the maize
kernels and the separations desired.
Tempered maize
Power
shaft
Stationary Screen
bearing
Pin coupling
Figure 3 Diagram of a Beall-type degerminator, using kernel-to-kernel shear for separation.
461
At steady state, the degerminator is half to two-thirds full,
and knobbies on the surface of the rotating cone create shear-
ing action between adjacent layers of kernels. It is this kernel-
to-kernel shear that breaks open the kernel and releases the
germ. Because knobbies are rounded, there are no significant
direct impact forces exerted on the kernels by the degermina-
tor. Once the kernel is broken, the germ and pericarp are
released due to continued shearing action. Eventually, the
broken particles reach the screen surface where all but the
largest grits can be discharged. A high percentage of thru mate-
rial passes through the first two-thirds of the screen surface. If
the tempering time was too short or too much water was
added, the pericarp can become gummy and clog up the
screen. Very quickly, the entire degerminator will plug, and
drive belts will slip or direct drive shear pins will break. The
degerminator must then be disassembled and cleaned. The last
one-third of the screen surface and the tail area (between the
large-diameter end plate of rotor and tail plate surface) is a
polishing area where the large grits are abrading each other,
removing loose, soft endosperm material and attached germ
and pericarp, and breaking apart weak grits. This polishing
action can be enhanced by increasing the tailgate weight dis-
tance, thereby increasing back pressure.
Increasing the gap increases residence time and results in
increased capacity and cleaner flaking grits. While the manufac-
turer sells the Beall with half the outer cone as knobbie plates
and the other half as screen, many dry millers operate with
three-fourth screen and one-fourth knobbie plates. This setup
has increased capacity with some reduction in performance.
Impact
This category includes a variety of horizontal and vertical disk
pin-type mills. Disks with concentric rings of intermeshing
pins with one or both of the disks driven are classically
known as pin mills. If both disks are rotating, then they spin
in opposite directions. The maize is fed into the center of the
disks and pass between the rotating pins, where they are ran-
domly impacted. The number of impacts is generally high and
the magnitude and frequency of impact do not give good
pericarp and germ separation from the endosperm as much
as simply grinding the maize.
Knobbie Weighted
plates tailgate
Tails
Gap
adjustment
Thrus
462 BARLEY, RICE AND MAIZE PROCESSING | Maize: Dry Milling
One type of pin mill is an Entoleter, which comprises two
horizontal disks with two rows of pins on the rotating bottom
disk and one row of intermeshing pins on the stationary upper
disk. The maize is dropped into the center of the bottom disk
(Figure 4), where it is accelerated by centrifugal force toward
the rotating pins. The maize must pass between the three rows
of pins before being collected. Because there are a limited
number of impacts, the Entoleter recovers more whole germ
and produces a larger germ fraction with equivalent oil content
than the Beall. However, it produces more mid-size grits (4
to þ2 mm) and less flaking grits.
Multiple Impact/Shear
This is probably the most common type of degerminators
worldwide (Figure 5). Tempered or untempered maize is fed
into the annular region between two horizontal or vertical
Corn
Shell
Rotating
plate
Figure 4 Diagram of the Entoleter, a type of impact degerminator.
Corn Corn
Thrus Overs
Figure 5 Diagram of a multiple impact-/shear-type degerminator.
cylinders or near cylinders (with flat surfaces to connect impact
attachments). The maize transverses the distance of the cylin-
der being impacted by the attachments to the inner cylinder.
The impacting creates a shearing effect between the kernels as
in the Beall degerminator. Small particles pass through the
screen and large particles drop over a wire at the end of the
cylinder. The attachments vary over a wide range of types,
shapes, or angles, but all provide some degree of impact.
Some models separate the flow through the screen into two
or more sections, and there are a wide variety of outlets. The
screens can be made adjustable to increase or decrease the gap,
and some of the outer cylinder peripherals may be solid with or
without rasp bars or other attachments to increase shear. The
disadvantages of such machines, compared to the Beall, are
that the impacts sustained by the kernels result in a reduction
of flaking grits and the machines have reduced flexibility for
making adjustments in gap and tailgate back pressure. These
Corn
Endosperm
pericarp
germ
Thrus Overs
 BARLEY, RICE AND MAIZE PROCESSING | Maize: Dry Milling 463

machines are acceptable and even preferable when producing mills will forgo pressing and add the germ fraction into the
prime products other than flaking grits because of higher prime hominy feed. With pressing, oil yield is only
product yields. 14.2–23.1 kg MT1 compared to 28.5–30.2 kg MT1 for wet-
milled germ. The oil is valued at
5% more than wet-milled
oil because of lower refining losses and refining costs.
Compression (Cereal Technologies, Inc.)
Hominy feed is the lowest valued product and is used
A series of patents by Jim Giguere and owned by Cereal Enter- almost exclusively as an animal feed. In practice, hominy
prises, Inc. (now Cereal Technologies, Inc.) describes mecha- feed, the trash can of the process, comprises the pericarp,
nisms by which individual kernels are oriented and degerminator fines, cracked maize, foreign material and fines
compressed lengthwise resulting in whole germ separation removed by the cleaners, pressed germ, out of spec product,
from the endosperm. The patents describe the mode of action, and any endosperm fraction that cannot be marketed. There
but the actual design of the degerminator is guarded. Several can be considerable variability in the fat and protein contents
plants in the United States have been built using this proprie- of hominy feed depending upon each component and the
tary technology. The process provides efficient clean germ quantity added, although uniformity tends to improve as mill
recovery and high recovery of endosperm, primarily as brewer size increases.
grit size material or smaller. Good separation has been found Within each category of endosperm material (Table 1),
using tempered and untempered maize. Process yields are there are a large number of potential granulations, which can
reported to be less sensitive to maize quality or hybrid type be marketed as distinct products. Table 2 lists granulation and
than other degerminators. representative fat content of some of the common products
from a dry mill. Product specifications are usually more
detailed than what were shown (Table 2). Table 3 shows
Roller Milling
product specifications, in terms of granulation, for two differ-
A series of roller mills, each followed by sifting and aspiration, ent flaking grit products sold by one dry milling company. Also
can be used to recover a germ fraction from maize. A well- controlled (and typically specified by the customer) are the
adjusted coarse break mill can crack the kernel, compress the moisture and fat contents. One dry mill offers 38 endosperm
germ so that it pops out, and release the pericarp. Subsequent granulations and probably produces many more since most
rolls and other mill separation equipment can be used to ‘clean large customers provide their own specifications.
up’ the fractions. The use of roller mills for degermination is
common in Africa, where two to three small roller mills with
different corrugations can accomplish degermination and all
needed particle size reduction. Table 1 General product classification of endosperm material
The advantage of using a roller mill to degerminate maize is showing granulation
the availability and low cost of the roller mill since it is used in
US standard sieve size Particle diameter (mm)
all types of dry milling (wheat, oats, etc.). There are several
disadvantages of using a roller mill to degerminate. First, the Product classification Less than More than Less than More than
system is not capable of producing large flaking grits. Second,
the separation of the germ and pericarp is not as clean as with Grit 3.5 28 5660 638
other degerminators. Third, the roller mill has an adjustable Meal 28 75 638 194
fixed gap, so the efficiency of degermination is a function of the Flour 75 Pan 194 Pan
range or spread of kernel size in the sample being tested. If the
Data from Johnson (1991) and Brekke (1970).
mill is adjusted to crack the smallest kernels, the larger kernel’s
germ is often damaged. If the mill is adjusted to optimally
handle large kernels, smaller kernels will pass through unaf-
fected. A series of break rolls can be installed to handle the Table 2 Granulation for common maize dry milling endosperm
different size kernels or the maize can be presized and the mill products and associated fat content
adjusted for each size fraction. However, considering the req-
uisite aspirators and sifters, any economic advantage over a US standard Particle
dedicated degerminator is quickly lost as the system becomes sieve size diameter (mm)
more complicated. Less More Less More
Product than than than than Fat (%, db)

Products and Uses Flaking grits 3.5 6 5660 3360 0.6

Large grits 10 14 2000 1410 0.7
The products produced from dry milling can be simply classi- Brewers grits 12 30 1680 590 0.8
fied as grits, meal, flour, germ, and hominy feed. The germ Regular grits 14 28 1410 638 0.7
Coarse meal 28 50 638 297 1.2
fraction (
20% oil) is usually pressed to recover oil that com-
Dusted meal 50 75 297 194 1.0
mands a premium over solvent-extracted, wet-milled oil. Sol- Cones 40 80 297 177 0.6
vent extraction is not practical for most dry mills due to the Flour 75 325 194 45 2.0
economy of scale in oil extraction and the high cost of shipping
the dry-milled germ to an oil processor. In fact, some smaller Data from Johnson (1991), Watson and Ramstad (1987), and Brekke (1970).
464 BARLEY, RICE AND MAIZE PROCESSING | Maize: Dry Milling

Degermed maize endosperm products are used in many
processed foods and are processed directly into a variety of
breakfast cereals and snack products. They are used in brewing
and other fermentation industries to provide carbohydrates to
the microorganisms. Industrial uses include hand cleaners,
foundry core binders, explosives, adhesives, charcoal briquette
binder, textiles, paper, gypsum board, and insulating material.
Impact of Maize Quality and Kernel Characteristics
Probably, the single largest variable affecting product yield and
product quality is the genetics of the maize. There are consid-
erable differences in the dry milling yields between yellow dent
and hard endosperm hybrids as shown in Table 4. Desirable
genetically determined or genetically predisposed traits are a
predominance of hard endosperm, kernel density
>1.30 g ml1, test weight >0.77 kg l1, large blocky kernels,
zero or only one stress crack per kernel, being insect- and mold-
free, and being free from mycotoxins.
Even though potential for these traits is controlled by genet-
ics, some of the traits can be altered by either environment or
postharvest practices. Hot dry weather tends to increase protein
deposition in the kernels, and cool weather tends to favor
starch production. Stress cracking will increase dramatically
with forced air drying. Stress cracks are formed when the rate
of moisture removal from the surface of the kernel (external
mass transfer) exceeds the rate of moisture transport from the
Table 3 Example of detailed granulation of two different flaking grits
products
Range (% of sample)
Sieve (mm) Product 1 Product 2
On 5.6 0–2 0–5
On 5 20–55 28–32
On 4 45–80 68–72
On 3.55 0–6 0–28
Thru 3.55 0–1 0–2
kernel interior to the surface (diffusivity). This condition
causes large moisture gradients to develop in the kernel. The
drier side of this moisture gradient shrinks, while the inner
core of the kernel endosperm is still wet, and the only way that
the stresses created by the shrinking can be relieved is for the
endosperm to crack. Field dry-down or moderate to low drying
rates can cause some single stress cracks to be formed, while
higher drying rates create multiple nonintersecting cracks or
checked (multiple intersecting stress cracks) endosperm. Stress
cracks (more than one per kernel) reduce flaking grit yield and
increase flour yield. High drying temperatures (>70  C) can
cause the starch to partially gelatinize, resulting in changes in
the functional properties of the flour or other endosperm
pieces.
There are other quality factors that are primarily influenced
by environment. The production of mycotoxins in the field
depends upon microbial load and weather conditions. It is
desirable to have minimal mycotoxin levels in maize for dry
milling since the maize components are often used directly in
human food. Mold or insect damage is also primarily influ-
enced by weather or other environmental conditions. Prehar-
vest mold or insect infestation primarily affects kernel
development leading to more small kernels and yield loss.
Pericarp damage by microorganisms or insects can affect the
distribution of water during tempering, resulting in germ and
pericarp separation problems.
Meeting the criteria for quality described in the preceding
text is no guarantee that the maize will perform in the mill as
desired or that the fractions will have the traits desired by the
end users. Most mills purchase maize by measuring some
combination of the traits listed in the preceding text, although
some mills offer an ‘approved hybrid list’ to maize producers as
a means of minimizing genetic variability. The mills either pay
a direct premium to the producer or pay a hidden premium by
setting their maize purchase price based upon the mills’ need
for maize. The result is that their purchase price for maize
varies from 100% to 200% local price for US #1 Yellow, with
an average of 120% local price. In either case, laboratory
testing of each load of maize is performed prior to acceptance.
Functional quality of prime products can also vary based on
the mill streams combined to make the salable product. Func-
tional quality is defined as the thermal, rheological, and

Table 4 Dry milling yields of nine commercial hard endosperm corn hybrids and two yellow dent samples using a Beall No. ‘0’ degerminator

Hybrid

Fraction H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 H8 H9 Y1 Y2

þ5.6 mm 0 0 0 0 0 9 5 3 0 3 n.a.
5.66 to þ4 mm 29 26 17 33 39 47 49 52 38 18 6
4 to þ2 mm 27 26 36 33 23 15 16 17 20 38 10
2 to þ520 mm 5 9 12 4 5 5 3 3 4 11 19
520 mm to þPan 16 14 15 12 12 13 13 11 17 10 23
Total endosperm 77 75 80 82 79 80 81 83 79 77 58
Pericarp 9 9 7 7 8 6 7 6 8 9 14
Germ 13 15 12 10 11 6 7 8 13 12 28
Oil in flaking grits (%) 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 n.a. n.a.

n.a., not available.

Data from Mehra (1996).
 BARLEY, RICE AND MAIZE PROCESSING | Maize: Dry Milling
organoleptic characteristics of the product. For example,
coarse meal can be produced using a Beall-type degerminator
from four streams or combinations thereof: (1) sifted from
the tail fraction, (2) sifted from the thru fraction, (3) pro-
duced from flaking grits or other grits in the tail fraction, and
(4) produced from larger grits sifted from the thru fraction.
Each of these methods of producing coarse meal potentially
can meet the desired product granulation, fat, and moisture
specifications. However, the functional characteristics of the
meal are likely to be different for each method of production.
Even when the hybrid variability is controlled, variability can
exist due to selection of process streams and related ‘mill
balance’ issues.
Future Trends
1. Dry milling industry has the fastest potential growth in develop-
ing countries. The dry milling industry is a slow-growing
industry in the United States, with a growth rate of
2%
per year, and is most likely related to population growth. It
is a mature industry in most industrialized countries, and
potential for growth beyond this level appears dim. Growth
potential appears to be in less developed countries where
maize products can be inexpensive ingredients for use in an
expanding processed food industry. Dry-milled maize
products can also be used to make ready-to-eat cereals and
nutritious snacks.
2. Aging infrastructure in developed countries will lead to a shift in
milling location and scale. A major proportion of the US
degerminating dry mill capacity is over 50 years old. The
basic infrastructure is expensive to maintain or restore. The
industry may shift away from large centralized plants to
smaller plants collocated by major end users. Collocation
allows for sharing of utilities and infrastructure, minimizes
bagged transportation of products, and maximizes techni-
cal communication between plants. The milling process can
be designed to maximize the production of desired prime
products and minimize capital costs.
3. Hybrid(s)-specific processing will become the norm. The pres-
sure to make traceable quality products for the food indus-
try will continue to mount as consumers become more
concerned about food security and food safety. Hybrid-
specific processing is one way to ensure that no undesirable
maize enters the processing system. Hybrid-specific proces-
sing limits the acceptable maize hybrids, and identity pre-
serves them through the market channel. The millers can
contract directly with the producers or work through vari-
ous specialty maize merchandisers. This procedure is gain-
ing in popularity and importance.
Exercises for Revision
• What are the main processing steps in the maize dry milling
process?
• For the unit operations of degermination, aspiration, and
gravity separation, which physical properties are used for
separations?
465
• What are the objectives of the tempering step?
• What are the main commercial coproducts that result from
maize dry milling? Discuss how these coproducts vary from
the milling process used to produce wheat flour.
• Discuss the differences between tempering maize for dry
milling and tempering wheat for flour production.
• Discuss the primary differences among processes of wet
milling, dry milling, and dry grind.
Exercises for Readers to Explore the Topic Further
• Although biotechnology and genetic modification offer
many positives to the grain production and food industries,
it also creates some concerns. Recent developments of
maize hybrids that contain endogenous, safe enzymes that
break down starch granules have created concern in the dry
milling industry. Although the enzymes do not become
active until elevated moistures and temperatures are
reached, there are limited situations where the enzymes
could be activated and result in undesirable food product
textures. Research is needed to verify biotech traits in
coproducts that result from processing unique maize
hybrids.
• Additional understanding is needed regarding variability of
maize hybrids in a commercial setting. These have been
documented in the laboratory, but an understanding of
coproduct properties at the milling facility would aid pro-
cessors in evaluating how much variation affects their effi-
ciency and profitability.
• Naturally occurring phytochemicals that occur in the germ
and pericarp could provide products with high value for the
dry miller. It may be possible, through breeding, to have
these phytochemicals present in endosperm products,
which are typically used in human foods. These com-
pounds could provide health benefits to consuming cereal
grain products.
See also: Agronomy of Grain Growing: Lupin: Agronomy;
Barley, Rice and Maize Processing: Maize: Wet Milling;
Breeding of Grains: Maize: Breeding; Genetics of Grains: Maize:
Quality Protein Maize; Non-wheat Foods: Maize: Foods from Maize;
Wheat Processing: Wheat: Dry Milling.
Further Reading
Brekke OL (1970) Corn dry milling industry. In: Inglett WJ (ed.) Corn Culture,
Processing, Products, pp. 262–291. Westport, CT: AVI Publishing.
Duensing WJ, Roskens AB, and Alexander RJ (2004) Corn dry milling: Processes,
products and applications. In: White PJ and Johnson SR (eds.) Corn: Chemistry and
Technology, 2nd edn. Eagan, MN: AACC Press.
Eckhoff SR, Paulsen MR, and Yang Ping LA (2003) Maize. In: Caballero B, Trugo KJ,
and Fingla P (eds.) Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition, vol. 4,
pp. 3647–3653. London: Elsevier Science.
Giguere JR (1980) Method of Degerminating a Kernel of Grain by Simultaneously
Compressing the Edges of the Kernel. U.S. Patent 4,189,503.
Giguere JR (1981) Method and Apparatus for Degerminating a Grain Kernel by
Impelling the Kernels Along a Guide Vane into an Impact Surface. U.S. Patent
4,301,183.
466 BARLEY, RICE AND MAIZE PROCESSING | Maize: Dry Milling
Giguere JR (1982) Apparatus for Degerminating a Kernel by Compressing the Edges of
the Kernel. U.S. Patent 4,365,546.
Giguere JR (1993) Grain Milling and Degermination Process. U.S. Patent 5,250,313.
Johnson LA (1991) Corn: Production, processing and utilization. In: Lorenz KJ and
Kulp K (eds.) Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology, pp. 55–132. New York:
Marcel Dekker.
Johnson LA (1999) Corn: Production, processing and utilization. In: Kulp SA and
Ponte Jr. JP (eds.) Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology, 2nd edn.,
pp. 31–80. New York: Marcel Dekker.
Lee KM, Herrman TJ, Rooney L, et al. (2007) Corroborative study on maize quality, dry-
milling and wet-milling properties of selected maize hybrids. Journal of Agricultural
and Food Chemistry 55: 10751–10763.
Mehra SK (1996) Factors Influencing Beall Degermination of Corn for Dry Milling, 317
pp. PhD Thesis, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL.
Mehra SK and Eckhoff SR (1997) Single-stage short-duration tempering of corn for dry-
milling. Cereal Chemistry 74: 484–488.
Mehra SK and Eckhoff SR (2001) Influence of temper duration and weight distance on
system output in the corn dry-milling process. Cereal Chemistry 78: 222–225.
Rausch KD, Pruiett LE, Wang P, Xu L, Belyea RL, and Tumbleson ME (2009)
Laboratory measurement of yield and composition of dry-milled corn fractions
using a shortened, single-stage tempering procedure. Cereal Chemistry
86: 434–438.
Relevant Websites
http://www.grains.org– US Grains Council website with information on the various
types of value enhanced corn, their growing location and the market channel
contacts.
http://www.namamillers.org– North American Millers’ Association site with information
on the products produced by corn dry milling.