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Introduction To Linear Circuit Analysis and Modelling - From DC To RF
Introduction To Linear Circuit Analysis and Modelling - From DC To RF
From DC to RF
To our families
Introduction to
Linear Circuit Analysis
and Modelling
From DC to RF
Luis Moura
University of Algarve, Portugal
Izzat Darwazeh
University College London, UK
Newnes
An imprint of Elsevier
Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP
30 Corporate Drive, Burlington, MA 01803
The right of Luis Moura and Izzat Darwazeh to be identified as the authors
of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
Preface ix
Acknowledgements xi
Index 356
Preface
The mathematical representation and analysis of circuits, signals and noise are
key tools for electronic engineers. These tools have changed dramatically in
recent years but the theoretical basis remain unchanged. Nowadays, the most
complicated circuits can be analysed quickly using computer-based simulation.
However, good appreciation of the fundamentals on which simulation tools are
based is essential to make the best use of them.
In this book we address the theoretical basis of circuit analysis across a
broad spectrum of applications encountered in today’s electronic systems, es-
pecially for communications. Throughout the book we follow a mathematical-
based approach to explain the different concepts using plenty of examples to
illustrate these concepts.
This book is aimed at engineering and sciences students and other profes-
sionals who want solid grounding in circuit analysis. The basics covered in the
first four chapters are suitable for first year undergraduates. The material cov-
ered in Chapters five and six is more specialist and provides a good background
at an intermediate level, especially for those aiming to learn about electronic
circuits and their building blocks. The last two chapters are more advanced and
require good grounding in the concepts covered earlier in the book. These two
chapters are suited to students in the final year of their engineering degree and
to post-graduates.
In the first chapter we begin by reviewing the fundamental laws and theo-
rems applicable to electrical circuits. In Chapter two we include a review of
complex numbers, crucial for dealing with AC signals and circuits.
The varied and complex nature of signals and electronic systems require a
thorough understanding of the mathematical description of signals and the cir-
cuits that process them. Frequency domain circuit and signal analysis, based on
the application of Fourier techniques, are discussed in Chapter three with spe-
cial emphasis on the use of these techniques in the context of circuits. Chapter
four then considers time domain analysis and Laplace techniques, again with
similar emphasis.
Chapter five covers the analysis techniques used in two-port circuits and
also covers various circuit representations and parameters. These techniques
are important for computer-based analysis of linear electronic circuits. In this
chapter the treatment is frequency-domain-based.
Chapter six introduces basic electronic amplifier building blocks and de-
scribes frequency-domain-based analysis techniques for common circuits and
circuit topologies. We deal with bipolar and field-effect transistor circuits as
well as operational amplifiers.
Radio-frequency and microwave circuit analysis techniques are presented
in Chapter seven where we cover transmission lines, S-parameters and the con-
cept and application of the Smith chart. Chapter eight discusses the mathemat-
ical representation of noise and its origins, analysis and effects in electronic
circuits. The analysis techniques outlined in this chapter also provide the basis
for an efficient computer-aided analysis method.
Appendix A and B provide a synopsis of frequently used mathematical
formulae and a review of matrix algebra. Appendix C gives a summary of
various two-port circuit parameters and their conversion formulae.
In writing this book we have strived to make it suitable for teaching and
self-study. Concepts are illustrated using examples and the reader’s acquired
knowledge can be tested using the problems at the end of each chapter. The
examples provided are worked in detail throughout the book and the problems
are solved in the solution manual provided as a web resource. For both exam-
ples and problems we guide the reader through the solution steps to facilitate
understanding.
Luis Moura
Izzat Darwazeh
Acknowledgements
Work on this book was carried out at the University of Algarve, in Portugal
and at University College London, in the UK. We should like to thank our
colleagues at both universities for their support and enlightening discussions.
We are particularly grateful to Dr Mike Brozel for his perceptive comments on
the content and style of the book and for his expert and patient editing of the
manuscript.
We also thank Elsevier staff for their help throughout the book writing and
production processes.
The text of the book was set using LATEX and the figures were produced
using Xfig and Octave/Gnuplot running on a Debian Linux platform. We are
grateful to the Free Software community for providing such reliable tools.
Lastly, we are indebted to our wives, Guida and Rachel for their love, pa-
tience and support to ‘keep on going’.
1 Elementary electrical circuit analysis
1.1 Introduction Analogue electronic circuits deal with signal processing techniques such as
amplification and filtering of electrical and electronic1 signals. Such signals are
voltages or currents. In order to understand how these signals can be processed
we need to appreciate the basic relationships associated with electrical currents
and voltages in each electrical component as well as in any combination that
make the complete electrical circuit. We start by defining the basic electrical
quantities – voltage and current – and by presenting the main passive electrical
devices; resistors, capacitors and inductors.
The fundamental tools for electrical circuit analysis – Kirchhoff’s laws –
are discussed in section 1.4. Then, three very important electrical network the-
orems; Thévenin’s theorem, Norton’s theorem and the superposition theorem
are presented.
The unit system used in this book is the International System of Units (SI)
[1]. The relevant units of this system will be mentioned as the physical quanti-
the terms ‘electrical’ and ‘electronic’ signals are used interchangeably to describe signals pro-
cessed by a circuit.
2 1. Elementary electrical circuit analysis
'
where i(t) represents the electrical current as a function of time represented by
() " &
t. The unit for the current is the ampere (A). q(t) represents the quantity of
&
flowing electrical charge as a function of time and its unit is the coulomb (C).
%
The elementary electrical charge is the charge of the electron which is equal to
% 1.6 × 10−19 C.
At this stage it is relevant to mention that in this chapter we represent con-
stant quantities by uppercase letters while quantities that vary with time are
+,' represented by the lower case. Hence, a constant electrical current is repre-
() *" sented by I while an electrical current varying with time is represented by i(t).
!#" $ Electrical current has a a very intuitive hydraulic analogue; water flow. Fig-
+3' ure 1.1 a) shows a voltage source which is connected to a resistance, R, creating
+,' 01 '2
$
-.$ a current flow, I, in this circuit. Figure 1.1 b) shows an hydraulic equivalent
system. The water pump together with the water reservoirs maintain a constant
water pressure across the ends of the pipe. This pressure is equivalent to the
voltage potential difference at the resistance terminals generated by the voltage
source. The water flowing through the pipe is a consequence of the pressure
+,'
(/ *" difference. It is common sense that the narrower the pipe the greater the water
resistance and the lower the water flow through it. Similarly, the larger the
electrical resistance the smaller the electrical current flowing through the resis-
Figure 1.1: a) Voltage tance. Hence, it is clear that the equivalent to the pipe water resistance is the
source driving a resistance. electrical resistance R.
b) Hydraulic equivalent The electrical current, I, is related to the potential difference, or voltage V ,
system. and to the resistance R by Ohm’s law:
V
I = (1.2)
R
8 The unit for resistance is the ohm (also represented by the Greek symbol Ω).
9<: 8 9;:
The unit for the potential difference is the volt (or simply V)2 . Ohm’s law
7 7 states that the current that flows through a resistor is inversely proportional to
the value of that resistance and directly proportional to the voltage across the
resistance. This law is of fundamental importance for electrical and electronic
465
9 circuit analysis.
9;: Now we discuss voltage and current sources. The main purpose of each of
these sources is to provide power and energy to the circuit to which the source
is connected.
characteristic like that illustrated in figure 1.2 b). From this figure we observe
that an ideal voltage source is able to maintain a constant voltage V across its
terminals regardless of the value of the current supplied to (positive current) or
the current absorbed from (negative current) an electrical circuit.
When a voltage source, such as that shown in figure 1.1 a), provides a
V constant voltage at its terminals it is called a direct current (or DC) voltage
source. No practical DC voltage source is able to maintain the same voltage
Vs
across its terminals when the current increases. A typical V –I characteristic
Vx
of a practical voltage source is as shown in figure 1.3 a). From this figure
I
we observe that as the current I increases up to a value Ix the voltage drops
0 a) Ix from Vs to Vx in a linear manner. A practical voltage source can be modelled
Rs according to the circuit of figure 1.3 b) which consists of an ideal voltage source
I and a resistance Rs whose value is given by:
+ +
V V Vs − V x
− s Rs = (1.3)
− Ix
b) This resistance is called the ‘source output resistance’. Examples of DC volt-
age sources are the batteries used in radios, in cellular phones and automobiles.
Figure 1.3: Practical volt- An alternating (AC) voltage source provides a time varying voltage at its
age source. a) V –I charac- terminals which is usually described by a sine function as follows:
teristic. b) Electrical model.
vs (t) = Vs sin(ω t) (1.4)
where Vs is the amplitude and ω is the angular frequency in radians per second.
An ideal AC voltage source has a V –I characteristic similar to that of the ideal
DC voltage source in the sense that it is able to maintain the AC voltage regard-
less of the amount of current supplied or absorbed from a circuit. In practice
AC voltage sources have a non-zero output resistance. An example of an AC
voltage source is the domestic mains supply.
———————————————————————————————
Example 1.2.1 Determine the output resistance of a voltage source with Vs =
12 V, Vx = 11.2 V and Ix = 34 A.
Solution: The output resistance is calculated according to:
Vs − V x
R =
Ix
= 0.024 Ω
= 24 mΩ
———————————————————————————————
tion, the practical operation of a current source requires an electrical path between its terminals or
the output voltage will become infinite.
4 1. Elementary electrical circuit analysis
I–V , characteristic of an ideal current source. From this figure it is clear that an
ideal current source is able to provide a given current regardless of the voltage
at its terminals. Practical current sources have an I–V characteristic like that
represented in figure 1.5 a). As the voltage across the current source increases
up to a value Vx the current tends to decrease in a linear fashion. Figure 1.5 b)
BDC shows the equivalent circuit for a practical current source including a resistance
Rs which is once again called the ‘source output resistance’. The value of this
resistance is:
@
@6A Vx
Rs = (1.5)
Is − I x
Examples of simple current sources are difficult to provide at this stage. Most
FG E current sources are implemented using active devices such as transistors. Ac-
C tive devices are studied in detail in Chapter 6 where it is shown that, for ex-
ample, the field-effect transistor, in specific configurations, displays current
source behaviour.
Figure 1.4: Ideal current ———————————————————————————————
source. a) Symbol. b) I–V
characteristic. Example 1.2.2 Determine the output resistance of a current source whose out-
I put current falls from 2 A to 1.99 A when its output voltage increases from 0
to 100 V.
Is
Ix Solution: The output resistance is calculated according to:
V
Vx
0 Vx Rs =
a) Is − I x
= 104 Ω
Is + = 10 kΩ
Rs V
− ———————————————————————————————
b)
Power supplied by a source
Figure 1.5: Practical cur- As mentioned previously, the main purpose of a voltage or current source is to
rent source. a) I–V charac- provide power to a circuit. The instantaneous power delivered by either source
teristic. b) Equivalent is given by the product of the current supplied with the voltage at its terminals,
circuit. that is,
The unit for power is the watt (W) when the voltage is expressed in volts (V)
and the current is expressed in amperes (A). If the voltage and current are
constant then eqn 1.6 can be written as:
Ps = VI (1.7)
interval T and then dividing the outcome by the time interval T . That is, PAVs
can be calculated as follows4 :
Z to +T
1
PAVs = ps (t) dt
T to
Z to +T
1
= v(t) i(t) dt (1.8)
T to
JK M#N OP Solution: The instantaneous power is calculated using eqn 1.6:
Note that the same average power will be obtained if eqn 1.8 is applied over
any time interval T as long as T is a multiple of the period of the waveform.
———————————————————————————————
1.3 Electrical The main passive electrical elements are the resistor, the capacitor and the in-
ductor. For each of these elements we study the voltage–current relationship
passive and we also present hydraulic analogies as suggested by Wilmshurst [4].
elements
1.3.1 Resistance and conductance
The resistance5 has been presented in the previous section. Ohm’s law relates
the voltage at the terminals of a resistor with the current which flows through
it according to eqn 1.2. The hydraulic analogue for a resistance has also been
presented above in figure 1.1. It is worth mentioning that if the voltage varies
4 Recallthat the integral operation is basically an addition operation.
5 Strictlyspeaking, the suffix -or designates the name of the element (like resistor) while the
suffix -ance designates the element property (like resistance). Often these two are used inter-
changeably.
6 1. Elementary electrical circuit analysis
with time then the current varies with time in exactly the same manner, as
illustrated in figure 1.7. Therefore, the resistance appears as a scaling factor
which relates the amplitude of the two electrical quantities; current and voltage.
So, we can generalise eqn 1.2 as follows:
b _]` v(t)
i(t) = (1.9)
R
] and
^_ ] ` a3b c _ ] `
v(t) = R i(t) (1.10)
Figure 1.7: Voltage and cur- Example 1.3.1 Consider a current i(t) = 0.5 sin(ωt) A flowing through a
rent in a resistance. resistor of 10 Ω. Determine an expression for the voltage across the resistor.
Solution: Using eqn 1.10 we obtain the voltage v(t) as
v(t) = R i(t)
= 5 sin(ωt) V
———————————————————————————————
Often it is useful to express Ohm’s law as follows:
I = GV (1.11)
PR = VI (1.12)
where V represents the voltage across the resistance terminals and I is the
current that flows through it. Using Ohm’s law we can express eqn 1.12 as
follows:
PR = R I2 (1.13)
V2
= (1.14)
R
These two eqns (1.13 and 1.14) appear to be contradictory in terms of the role
the resistance plays in determining the level of power dissipation. Does the
dissipated power increase with increasing the resistance (eqn 1.13) or does it
decrease (eqn 1.14)? The answer to this question relates to the way we view
the circuit and to what quantity we measure across the resistor. Let us consider
the case where a resistor is connected across the terminals of an ideal voltage
source. Here, the stimulus is the voltage that results in a current through the
resistor. In this situation the larger the resistance the smaller the current is and,
1. Elementary electrical circuit analysis 7
according to eqn 1.12, there is less power dissipation in the resistance. Note
that, in the extreme situation of R → ∞ the resistance behaves as an open
circuit (the current is zero) and there is no power dissipation. On the other
hand, if the resistance is driven by an ideal current source, then the voltage
across the resistor is the resulting effect. Hence, the larger the resistance, the
larger the voltage developed across its terminals and, according to eqn 1.12,
the power dissipation increases.
For time-varying sources the instantaneous power dissipated in a resistor
is given by:
pR (t) = v(t) i(t) (1.15)
2
= R i (t) (1.16)
v 2 (t)
= (1.17)
R
where v(t) represents the voltage across the resistance and i(t) is the current
that flows through it. The average power dissipated in a period of time T can
be expressed as follows:
Z to +T
1
PAVR = pR (t) dt (1.18)
T to
Z
R to +T 2
= i (t) dt (1.19)
T to
Z to +T
1
= v 2 (t) dt (1.20)
R T to
where to is a chosen instant of time. When the resistor is driven by a periodic
signal, T is normally chosen to be its period.
———————————————————————————————
Example 1.3.2 An AC voltage v(t) = A sin(ω t), with A = 10 V, is applied
to a resistance R = 50 Ω. Determine the average power dissipated.
Solution: According to eqn 1.20 we can write:
Z T
1
PAVR = VA2 sin2 (ω t) dt
TR 0
Z
1 VA2 T 1 − cos(2 ω t)
= dt
T R 0 2
· ¸T
VA2 1
= t− sin(2 ω t)
2T R 2ω 0
Since the period of the AC waveform is T = 2π/ω, the last eqn can be written
as:
1 VA2
PAVR = (1.21)
R 2
= 1W
———————————————————————————————
8 1. Elementary electrical circuit analysis
1.3.2 Capacitance
Figure 1.8 a) shows a capacitor connected to a voltage source. A capacitor is
usually implemented using two metal plates separated by an insulator. This
means that the capacitor does not allow the passage of direct current. How-
ever, when a voltage is applied across the terminals of an uncharged capacitor
electronic charge can be added to one of the metal plates and removed from
| z{ e y'z { e the other. This charge is proportional to the applied voltage and defines the
capacitance according to the following eqn:
{ {
y'z { e q(t) = C v(t) (1.22)
| z{ e
}~ x
v glmgs
r iwk where C is the capacitance and v(t) is the voltage applied across its terminals.
The capacitance can be seen to have the ability to accumulate charge. The unit
g e for the capacitance is the farad (F) when, in eqn 1.22, v(t) is expressed in volts
p)q gnir s.tDj
t d kgu j and q(t) is expressed in coulombs. In other words, a capacitor of one farad will
store one coulomb of charge if a potential difference of one volt exists across
its plates. From eqns 1.1 and 1.22 we can relate the current through a capacitor
with the voltage across its terminals according to the following eqn:
d v(t)
fhgijk6lmkj
nnomkj i(t) = C (1.23)
dt
dXe
Figure 1.8 b) shows a hydraulic analogue for the capacitor which is an elas-
Figure 1.8: The capacitor. tic membrane covering the section of a water pipe. In this analogy the voltage
a) In an electrical circuit. becomes the water pressure, the capacitor becomes the membrane elasticity,
b) Hydraulic analogue. and the charge becomes the water volume displaced by the membrane. Let us
consider that there is water on both sides of the elastic membrane. This mem-
brane does not allow the direct crossing of water between the two sides of the
pipe. However, if there is a pulsed increase of the water pressure in one side
of the membrane, as illustrated in fig 1.8 b), the stretching of this membrane
causes an effective travelling of the pulse from one side of the membrane to the
other (with no water passing through the membrane!). This process is concep-
tually similar to the flow of charges (current) in the metal plates of a capacitor.
Note that if there is too much pressure on the membrane it will eventually
breakdown and the same can happen to a capacitor if too much voltage is ap-
plied to it.
Integrating eqn 1.23 we obtain an expression for the voltage in terms of the
current, that is:
Z t
1
v(t) = i(t) dt + Vco (1.24)
C 0
where Vco represents the initial voltage across the terminals of the capacitor at
t = 0.
Unlike the resistor the capacitor does not dissipate any power. In fact be-
cause this circuit element is able to accumulate charge on its metal plates it
stores energy. To illustrate this we return to the hydraulic analogue; if two
shutters are inserted across each side of the pipe in order to stop the stretched
1. Elementary electrical circuit analysis 9
1.3.3 Inductance
Figure 1.9 a) shows an inductor connected to a current source. The inductor
is usually formed by a coil of a metal wire. The passage of current, i(t), in a
metal wire induces a magnetic flux which in turn (according to Faraday’s law)
results in a voltage, v(t), developing across the terminals, such that:
d i(t)
v(t) = L (1.26)
dt
where L is the inductance of the wire. The unit for the inductance is the henry
(H) when, in eqn 1.26, v(t) is expressed in volts and the current rate of change,
di(t)/dt, is expressed in amperes per second. Thus, an inductance of one henry
will have a potential difference of one volt across its terminals when the current
passing through it is changing at a rate of one ampere per second. Figure
1.9 b) shows a hydraulic analogue for the inductor which consists of paddles
connected to a flywheel. In this analogy the voltage becomes the water pressure
#
and the current becomes the rate of water flow. The inductance becomes the
flywheel moment of inertia. The flywheel requires water pressure to change
6 XD
the speed of the paddles which, in turn, change the rate of the water flow.
In figure 1.9 b) we illustrate the situation where the application of a pulse of
water pressure causes an increase in the speed of the water flow which will
be maintained constant by the flywheel inertia until a different level of water
[''
' pressure is applied. In electrical terms this means that the voltage difference at
the terminals of an inductor is proportional to the rate of variation of the current
that flows through it.
Integrating eqn 1.26 we obtain an expression for the current that flows in
Figure 1.9: The inductance. the inductor in terms of the voltage at its terminals, that is:
a) In an electrical circuit.
Z
b) Hydraulic analogue. 1 t
i(t) = v(t) dt + Ilo (1.27)
L 0
1
EL = L I 2 (joule) (1.28)
2
where I is the current through the inductor.
10 1. Elementary electrical circuit analysis
1.4 Kirchhoff’s Kirchhoff’s laws provide the basis of all circuit analysis techniques as long as
such circuits can be described by lumped elements such as resistors, capaci-
laws tors, etc. There are two Kirchhoff’s laws: the current law and the voltage law.
These two laws are quite simple in terms of concept. However, the application
§©¨)ª6« of these laws requires careful attention to the algebraic sign conventions of the
1£
current and voltage.
X¢
The current law
¤ ¥
§©¨)ª6«
# X£ The current law states that the sum of currents entering a node is equal to
the sum of the currents leaving the node. A node is a point at which two or
¡ X¢ more electrical elements have a common connection. Figure 1.10 a) shows an
¦ ¥ example of a node where the currents I1 and I2 are entering the node while the
current I3 is leaving the node. According to the current law, we can write:
·³ ¶ ³ ¬
¸ This is equivalent to reversing the direction of the current I3 , as shown in figure
1.10 b). Hence, the current law can also be stated as follows: the sum of all
currents flowing into a node, taking into account their algebraic signs, is zero.
———————————————————————————————
Example 1.4.1 Consider the circuit of figure 1.11. Determine the currents I 1 ,
I2 and I3 .
Solution: From figure 1.11 we can write the following eqns for nodes X, Y
°
and Z, respectively:
³ ²³ 6 + 7 + I1 = 3+4+5
´6³ µ
3+4 = I2
5 + I2 = I3
Solving to obtain I1 , I2 and I3 we obtain:
± I1 = −1 A
¬¯
I2 = 7 A
® I3 = 12 A
¬
Note that the current I1 is negative which means that the direction of the current
is the opposite of that shown in the figure.
———————————————————————————————
Figure 1.11: Circuit for the
application of the current The voltage law
law.
The voltage law states that the sum of all voltages around any closed electrical
loop, taking into account polarities6 , is zero. Figure 1.12 shows a circuit with
6 In this book we use curved arrows to indicate the potential difference between two points in a
Á Â
two closed loops. By applying the voltage law we can write the following
» ½¿ ¼ equations for loop 1 and loop 2, respectively:
À vR (t) + vL (t) − vs (t) = 0
vC (t) − vR (t) = 0
Á Â
» ¼ It should be noted that since the connections of the elements are assumed as
½Ã »
» ideal (zero resistance), voltage differences are observed only across the various
»
elements. Hence, for example, node z is, from an electrical point-of-view, the
½ÄÅ ÆÇ ¹ ½¾
¼ same at the low end of the voltage source and at the low-end of the inductor.
———————————————————————————————
¼ ¼
Example 1.4.2 Consider the circuit of figure 1.13. Determine the voltages V 1
º º and V2 .
Solution: From figure 1.13 and starting from point x we can apply the
Figure 1.12: Kirchhoff’s
voltage law to the upper and lower loop, respectively, as indicated below:
voltage law.
V2 + 5 − 2 = 0
2 + V1 − 6 = 0
Í È ÏÐ É È
È Solving we get:
Ì/Ë
É V2 = −3 V
È
É V1 = 4 V
Í É
È Ê/Ë É
We observe that V2 is negative meaning that the polarity of the voltage drop is
È È opposite to that chosen originally.
È
Ò/Ë ÏÑ ———————————————————————————————
É
É É
Î Î 1.4.1 Series and parallel combinations of passive elements
Two connected elements are said to be in series if the same current flows
Figure 1.13: Circuit for the through each and in parallel if they share the same voltage across their termi-
application of the voltage nals. We study now the series and parallel combinations of resistors, capacitors
law. and inductors.
Resistance
Figure 1.14 a) shows two resistors in a series connection. These two resistors
can be replaced by a resistor with an equivalent resistance, Req , as shown in
figure 1.14 b). Hence, Req must draw the same amount of current I as the
series combination. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the circuit of figure
1.14 a) we obtain:
−Vs + V1 + V2 = 0 (1.29)
that is
Vs = V1 + V2 (1.30)
12 1. Elementary electrical circuit analysis
à Ö Since the current that flows through both resistors is the same we can write the
last eqn as follows:
Ô
ß Ø<ß
Vs = R1 I + R 2 I
Ö
Ô1Õ × = (R1 + R2 ) I (1.31)
× Ö
Ý Ü therefore
Ó Req = R1 + R2 (1.33)
Ö
Ö
ÔÕ Ô1Õ Ø[Ù Ú It can be shown (see problem 1.4) that the above can be generalised for the
× series combination of N resistors as follows:
× N
X
ÛmÜ Req = Rk (1.34)
k=1
Figure 1.14: a) Series com- that is, the equivalent resistance is obtained by the addition of all resistances
bination of two resistors. that make the series connection.
b) Equivalent resistance. Figure 1.15 a) shows two resistors in a parallel connection. Each resistor
Rk can be expressed as a conductance Gk = Rk−1 . Applying Kirchhoff’s
ã áë áé current law to the circuit of figure 1.15 a) we obtain:
áâ
ä ê ë ê é Is = I1 + I2 (1.35)
çè ëæ ç è;é æ
Since the voltage across each conductance is the same we can write the last eqn
ì
as follows:
åæ Is = G1 V + G 2 V
= (G1 + G2 ) V (1.36)
ã
áâ ê<í î Applying Ohm’s law to the circuit of figure 1.15 b) we obtain:
ä çè íîæ
Is = Geq V (1.37)
ì
so that
ï æ
Geq = G1 + G2 (1.38)
Figure 1.15: a) Parallel
combination of two resis- It can be shown (see problem 1.5) that this result can be generalised for the
tors. b) Equivalent resis- parallel combination of N resistors as follows:
tance (conductance). N
X
Geq = Gk (1.39)
k=1
that is, the equivalent conductance is the addition of each conductance that
composes the parallel connection.
1. Elementary electrical circuit analysis 13
The equivalent resistance, Req , for the parallel combination of two resist-
ances can be obtained by re-writing eqn 1.38 as follows:
1 1 1
= + (1.40)
Req R1 R2
or,
R1 R2
Req = (1.41)
R1 + R 2
Solution:
ü õ ö
÷ û It should be remembered that for the series connection of resistances the equiv-
ó ù õ ö
÷ ðDù alent resistance is larger than the largest resistance in the series chain whilst for
û ú the parallel connection the equivalent resistance is smaller than the smallest re-
ó ôõ ö
÷ û
ú sistance in the connection.
ó ø õ ö
÷ ð;ø
ú
———————————————————————————————
þ÷ Capacitance
ü õ ö
÷ Figure 1.16 a) shows two capacitors in a series connection. These can be re-
û
ð;ñò
placed by a capacitor with an equivalent capacitance, Ceq , as shown in figure
û 1.16 b). Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the circuit of figure 1.16 a) we
ó ô õ ö'÷
ú ó ôõ ö
÷ obtain:
Here we assume that the initial voltage across each capacitor is zero. Applying
eqn 1.24 to the capacitor of the circuit of figure 1.16 b) we obtain:
Z t
1
vs (t) = i(t) d t (1.44)
Ceq 0
that is:
C1 C2
Ceq = (1.46)
C1 + C 2
It can be shown (see problem 1.7) that eqn 1.45 can be generalised for the
series combination of N capacitors as follows:
N
1 X 1
ÿ ÿ = (1.47)
ÿ Ceq Ck
k=1
Figure 1.17 a) shows two capacitors in a parallel connection. Applying
Kirchhoff’s current law to the circuit of figure 1.17 a) we obtain:
It can be shown (see problem 1.8) that the above eqn can be generalised for the
parallel combination of N capacitors as follows:
N
X
Ceq = Ck (1.52)
k=1
1. Elementary electrical circuit analysis 15
———————————————————————————————
Figure 1.18 a) shows two inductors7 in a series connection. These two induc-
$ !$
tors can be replaced by a single inductor with an equivalent inductance, Leq ,
as shown in figure 1.18 b). Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the circuit of
figure 1.18 a) we obtain:
#
vs (t) = v1 (t) + v2 (t) (1.53)
Since the current that flows through both inductors is the same then, according
to eqn 1.26, we can rewrite the last eqn as follows:
! "
d i(t) d i(t)
vs (t) = L1 + L2
dt dt
d i(t)
= (L1 + L2 ) (1.54)
dt
Applying eqn 1.26 to the equivalent inductor in figure 1.14 b) we obtain:
The equivalent inductance, Leq , for the parallel combination of two induc-
(*)+ ,-
4 + ,-
tances can be obtained from eqn 1.61 as follows:
1 L1 L2
Leq = (1.62)
L1 + L 2
2 -
It can be shown (see problem 1.11) that the above eqn can be generalised for
the parallel combination of N inductors as follows:
Figure 1.19: a) Parallel
N
combination of two induc- 1 X 1
= (1.63)
tors. b) Equivalent inductor. Leq Lk
k=1
———————————————————————————————
Example 1.4.5 Consider two inductances L1 = 1.5 mH and L2 = 1 mH.
1. Determine the equivalent inductance, Leq , for the series connection of
L1 and L2 .
2. Determine the equivalent capacitance, Leq , for the parallel connection of
L1 and L2 .
Solution:
1. According to eqn 1.56 the equivalent inductance is Ceq = 2.5 mH.
2. According to eqn 1.62 the equivalent inductance is Ceq = 0.6 mH.
It is interesting to note that like resistors (but unlike capacitors) the series con-
nection of inductors increases the value of the equivalent inductance while the
parallel connection decreases it.
———————————————————————————————
1. Elementary electrical circuit analysis 17
It
A A A
R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R2
+
100 Ω 100 Ω 100 Ω
It
20 Ω 20 Ω 20 Ω
R5 + R5 R5
Vt Vt
90 Ω − 90 Ω 90 Ω
R4 80 Ω R3 R4 80 Ω R3 − R4 80 Ω R3
30 Ω 30 Ω 30 Ω
B B B
a) b) c)
Figure 1.20: a) Resistive circuit. b) Calculation of the equivalent resistance, R eq , by applying a test voltage
source, Vt . c) Calculation of the equivalent resistance, Req , by applying a test current source, It .
this circuit there is not a single combination of two resistances which share the
same current through or the same voltage across their terminals and, therefore,
there is not a single parallel or series connection. This means that we cannot
directly apply the rules discussed previously, for parallel and series connections
of resistances, to determine Req . However, the calculation of the equivalent
resistance can be done by applying a test voltage source, Vt , to the terminals
of the circuit as shown in figure 1.20 b). Then, we determine the current It
supplied by this source. Finally, by calculating the ratio Vt /It we can find the
equivalent resistance, Req , effectively applying Ohm’s law. Alternatively, we
can apply a test current source, It , to the circuit as illustrated in figure 1.20 c).
It
+
Again, by calculating the ratio Vt /It we obtain Req . In general, this procedure
A +
V1 I2 V2 can be applied to any circuit.
I1
V5
———————————————————————————————
+ − + − −
Vt
− + I5 I3
+
Example 1.4.6 Determine the equivalent resistance, Req , of the circuit of fig-
It V4 I4 V3 ure 1.20 between terminals A and B.
B − −
Solution: We apply a test voltage source to the circuit as shown in figure 1.21.
Figure 1.21: Calculation of This figure also shows the definition of the voltages across and currents through
Req . each resistance. Applying Kirchhoff’s current law we can write:
It = I 1 + I 2
It = I 4 + I 3
(1.64)
I1 = I 4 + I 5
I3 = I 2 + I 5
18 1. Elementary electrical circuit analysis
Vt R2 R5 (R1 + R4 ) + R1 R2 (R3 + R4 )
=
It R2 (R5 + R3 + R4 ) + R5 (R4 + R1 + R3 ) + R1 (R3 + R4 )
R3 R4 (R2 + R5 ) + R1 R3 (R4 + R5 )
+
R2 (R5 + R3 + R4 ) + R5 (R4 + R1 + R3 ) + R1 (R3 + R4 )
= 49.5 Ω
———————————————————————————————
R3 R3
(1.6 kΩ)
I3
IA =? R2 IA = I3
(4 kΩ)
R1 R1
X Y VX VY VZ
Z
X Y Z
(100 Ω) IY I1 IY
(10 mA)
+ R5 + R4 I4
VX R4 VX R5 I5
− (1 kΩ) −
(7 V) (300 Ω)
a) b)
as indicated in figure 1.22 b). The current that flows through each resistance
< C
B C
E
can be expressed, according to Ohm’s law, as the ratio of the voltage across
< ? BDC < = that resistance and the resistance value. Figure 1.23 illustrates this procedure
A
for the current I1 that flows through R1 ; since the voltages VX and VY have
A ; A
been defined, referenced to ground, then by applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law
< CGF <>? <>=
; we can express the voltage across R1 , V1 , as the difference between VX and
<@? <>= VY . Hence we can write:
VX − V Y
I1 = (1.67)
; R1
:
Applying this technique to the remaining currents, as defined in the circuit of
figure 1.22 b), we can write:
Figure 1.23: Expressing the
current across R1 in terms VZ − V Y
I3 = (1.68)
of (VX − VY )/R1 . R3
VY
I4 = (1.69)
R4
VZ
I5 = (1.70)
R5
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to nodes Y and Z we can write:
I1 + I Y + I 3 = I4 (1.71)
IY + I 3 + I 5 = 0 (1.72)
Note that the only two unknown quantities are VY and VZ . Solving the last two
eqns in order to obtain VY and VZ we get:
R3 VX + I Y R3 R1 + V X R5
VY = R4 (1.75)
R3 R4 + R 4 R5 + R 1 R4 + R 1 R3 + R 1 R5
= 5.6 V
R4 VX − R 3 R4 I Y − I Y R3 R1
VZ = R5 (1.76)
R3 R4 + R 4 R5 + R 1 R4 + R 1 R3 + R 1 R5
= −4.0 V
Since IA = I3 , eqn 1.68 gives us IA = −6 mA.
HRN
Q L 1.4.4 Resistive voltage and current dividers
K Resistive voltage and current dividers are simple yet very important circuits
W K which allow us to obtain fractions of a source voltage or current, respectively.
Q M H I
V In addition, these circuits play a major role in the calculation of voltage and
current gains in electronic amplifier analysis.
P
S@T
Q
Resistive voltage divider
Figure 1.24 a) shows the resistive voltage divider formed by resistances R1 and
K&M
K&L R2 . For this circuit we observe that the current flowing through R1 and R2 is
HON HJI the same. Hence, we can write:
Vs − V o Vo
= (1.77)
P R1 R2
U T
Solving this eqn in order to obtain Vo we get:
R2
Figure 1.24: a) Resistive Vo = Vs (1.78)
voltage divider. b) Resistive R1 + R 2
current divider. We observe that if R1 = R2 then Vo = 0.5 Vs . Also, if R1 >> R2 then Vo
tends to zero. On the other hand, if R1 << R2 then Vo tends to Vs .
Y
Y
1.4.5 Controlled sources
Z@[ Zfehgjilk9Z [
X The voltage and the current sources presented in section 1.2 are called indepen-
X dent sources. Other types can be controlled by either a voltage or current exist-
^`_ ing elsewhere in the circuit. These controlled (or dependent) sources are often
Y
used to model the gain of transistors operating in their linear region and also to
\ e gnmEopZ@[
model the gain of linear electronic amplifiers, as will be discussed in Chapter
Z [
6. There are four types of controlled sources, drawn as diamond shapes, as
X illustrated in figure 1.25.
a _
• Voltage-controlled voltage sources: the output of the source is a voltage,
Vo , and the quantity that controls it is also a voltage, Vi . Av is the ratio
Y
\ [ Z e gnqros\ [ Vo /Vi and is called the ‘voltage gain’ of the source. Av is dimensionless;
X
V2 = R 2 I2
= R2 Is (1 + Gm R1 )
= 81 V
22 1. Elementary electrical circuit analysis
1.5 Thévenin’s Thévenin’s theorem states that any two-terminal electrical network, such as that
depicted in figure 1.27 a) consisting of resistances and independent sources
theorem (voltage or current or both) can be replaced by an equivalent ideal voltage
¥
!@
source in series with an equivalent resistance, as shown in figure 1.27 b). The
value of the equivalent voltage source, VT h , known as the Thévenin voltage,
jGh@
¤ is the open-circuit voltage at the output terminals. RT h is the Thévenin resist-
ance ‘looking into’ the terminals of the network when all independent voltage
¡£¢ sources are replaced by short-circuits and all independent current sources are
replaced by open-circuits.
§¨6©
¥ ———————————————————————————————
ª ¨6©
Example 1.5.1 Determine the Thévenin equivalent circuit for the circuit of
figure 1.28 a) where the two terminals to be considered are X and Y .
¤
¦ ¢
Solution: The calculation of the Thévenin voltage can be performed by analysis
of the circuit of figure 1.28 b). Note that VT h is equal to VA . We can write the
following set of eqns:
Figure 1.27: a) Generic
DC electrical network. b) Ir = I2 + I1
Thévenin equivalent circuit. Vs = VB − VA
I1 = I3
(30 Ω) (7 V) VC R1 R1 It RT h
(0.1 A) VA
+− +−
R1 X VB X X X
Vs I1 Vs I1 (49.5 Ω)
R2 Vt
R2 R3 I3 R3 R2 I3 + + VT h
R3
(100 Ω) (80 Ω) I I2 − −
(1.1 V)
Ir r
Y Y Y Y
0 0
a) b) c) d)
RT h , V
It
t
Figure 1.28: a) Electrical network. b) Calculation of the Thévenin voltage. c) Calculation of the Thévenin
resistance. d) Thévenin equivalent circuit.
I r R2 R3 + R 1 Vs + R 2 Vs
VB = (1.83)
R3 + R 1 + R 2
= 8.1 V
Ir R3 + V s + I r R1
VC = R2 (1.84)
R3 + R 1 + R 2
= 8.6 V
Since the Thévenin voltage is the voltage across points X and Y it is the same
as VA , that is, VT h = 1.1 V. The calculation of the Thévenin equivalent resis-
tance can be carried out by analysing the circuit of figure 1.28 c) where it can
be seen that the voltage source, Vs , has been replaced by a short-circuit and the
current source, Ir , has been replaced by an open-circuit. The calculation of the
Thévenin resistance can be calculated by applying a test voltage, Vt , between
terminals X and Y , the terminals where the resistance is to be determined. The
ratio between Vt and the current supplied by this test voltage source, It , is the
required resistance. Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to the circuit of figure
1.28 c) we can write:
It = I 1 + I 3 (1.85)
From this figure we can also observe that the voltage Vt is applied to R3 and
also to the series combination of R1 and R2 . Hence we can write:
Vt Vt
It = + (1.86)
R1 + R 2 R3
R3 (R1 + R2 )
RT h = (1.87)
R1 + R 2 + R 3
= 49.5 Ω
It should be noted that this resistance could also be calculated by close inspec-
tion of figure 1.28 c) after recognising that the resistance RT h is the parallel
combination of R3 with the series combination of R1 and R2 .
———————————————————————————————
1.6 Norton’s Norton’s theorem states that any two-terminal electrical network, such as that
depicted in figure 1.29 a) consisting of resistances and independent sources
theorem (voltage or current or both) can be replaced by an equivalent independent cur-
rent source in parallel with an equivalent resistance, as shown in figure 1.29 b).
The value of the current source is the current flowing from X to Y when X
to Y are short-circuited. The equivalent resistance (Norton resistance), RN t
is the resistance ‘looking into’ the terminals of the network when the indepen-
dent voltage sources are replaced by short-circuits and the independent cur-
rent sources are replaced by open-circuits. Norton’s theorem is the dual of
Thévenin’s since the equivalent voltage source, VT h , is replaced by an equiva-
lent current source, IN t , and the series resistance, RT h , is replaced by a parallel
resistance, RN t .
24 1. Elementary electrical circuit analysis
———————————————————————————————
¬
µ·¶*®£¸f¯>²º¹¸£»!¶ Example 1.6.1 Determine the Norton equivalent circuit for the circuit of figure
s®¯`°±³²´
1.28 a) where the two terminals to be considered are X and Y .
«
¿ºÀhÁ Â
ÀhÁ IN t = I1 (1.88)
Ir = I1 + I2 (1.89)
«
VB = Vs (1.90)
¼!½
Note that since R3 is short-circuited, the voltage across its terminals is zero
and there is no current flowing through this resistance. Eqn 1.89 can be written
Figure 1.29: a) Generic as follows:
electrical network. b) Nor-
ton equivalent circuit. VC − V B VC
Ir = + (1.91)
R1 R2
VC − V s VC
Ir = + (1.92)
R1 R2
ÇrÕ Ó>Ô R1 R2 R2
Ó@Ö
Ð VC = Ir + Vs (1.93)
Ó@ØÅÙÛÚ
R1 + R 2 R1 + R 2
à Õ
Ã]ÄÆ
= 7.7 V
Ç ×
Ã × Ç
Ü
X X X X
RT h IN t = VT h RT h = R N t
RT h RN t
+ IN t +
− VT h ⇔ ⇔ − VT h = I N t I N t
Y RN t = R T h Y Y Y
a) b) c) d)
Figure 1.31: a) Thévenin circuit. b) Equivalent Norton circuit. c) Norton circuit. d) Equivalent Thévenin
circuit.
On the other hand, if the Norton equivalent circuit is known then the Thévenin
equivalent circuit can be obtained as shown in figures 1.31 c) and 1.31 d), that
is:
VT h = I N t RN t (1.97)
RT h = RN t (1.98)
1.7 Super- The superposition theorem is of considerable importance since it can provide
useful insight into the relative contribution of a given independent source to
position the current flowing through or the voltage across a given circuit element. The
theorem superposition theorem also plays a major role in the frequency domain circuit
analysis, discussed in Chapter 3, and in the noise analysis of linear electronic
circuits presented in Chapter 8.
The superposition theorem applies to linear circuits and it can be stated
as follows: “In a network containing several current and/or voltage sources,
the voltage across (or the current flowing through) any circuit element can be
obtained from the algebraic sum of the voltages (currents) caused by each in-
dependent source considered individually with all other independent voltage
sources considered as short-circuits and all other independent current sources
considered as open-circuits”. As stated above, the superposition theorem does
not allow for the substitution of controlled voltage sources and controlled cur-
rent sources by short-circuits and open-circuits, respectively. In this respect the
superposition theorem applies only to independent sources8 .
———————————————————————————————
Example 1.7.1 Apply the superposition theorem to determine the equivalent
Thévenin voltage of the circuit of figure 1.28 a) where the two terminals to be
8 Using mathematical manipulation techniques it possible to apply the superposition theorem to
and this contribution to the Thévenin voltage, the voltage across R3 , can be
expressed as follows:
VT h b = I 1 R3
R2 R3
= Ir
R1 + R 2 + R 3
= 3.8 V
VT h = 1.1 V
1.9 Problems 1.1 A voltage v(t) = 10 sin(2 π 100 t+π/4) volts is applied across the termi-
nals of a 1 µF capacitor. Sketch the current through the capacitor as a function
of time from t = 0 to t = 20 ms.
1.3 Find the current through and the voltage across each resistance for the
circuits of figure 1.33. Take V1 = 2 V, V2 = 3 V, I1 = 0.2 A and I2 = 0.5 A.
R1 R2
c)
a) b)
R2
V2
+ − R1 R3
70 Ω 80 Ω 60 Ω
220 Ω R1 160 Ω
R2
+ R4 330 Ω R3
V1 680 Ω + I1
− V1 R2
−
90 Ω 70 Ω
180 Ω
R4
90 Ω
R1 d) R3 270 Ω
R4 V1
+ −
e) f)
1.4 Show that the equivalent resistance for the series combination of N resist-
ances is given by eqn 1.34.
28 1. Elementary electrical circuit analysis
1.5 Show that the equivalent conductance for the parallel combination of N
resistances satisfies eqn 1.39.
1.6 For each circuit of figure 1.34 determine the equivalent resistance and
conductance between points A and B.
R3 A
A R1
50 Ω 80 Ω 60 Ω
40 Ω R2
60 Ω R5
R1 R3 A 100 Ω
70 Ω R2
R2 70 Ω
B R1 160 Ω
330 Ω R3 R4
a) 90 Ω B
d)
R1 R1 100 Ω
A 270 Ω A
100 Ω R4 R5
50 Ω
40 Ω R2 B
R2
R3 R4 40 Ω
B c) 70 Ω
R3
170 Ω B
b)
170 Ω
e)
1.7 Show that the equivalent capacitance for the series combination of N
capacitances satisfies eqn 1.47.
1.8 Show that the equivalent capacitance for the parallel combination of N
capacitances satisfies eqn 1.52.
1.9 For each circuit of figure 1.35 determine the equivalent capacitance be-
tween points A and B.
1.10 Show that the equivalent inductance for the series combination of N
inductors is given by eqn 1.57.
1.11 Show that the equivalent inductance for the parallel combination of N
inductors satisfies eqn 1.63.
1. Elementary electrical circuit analysis 29
ý
ý
ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ
ÿ
ý þ
ÿ
ÿ
ÿ
ÿ
ù`ú þ
þ
û ú ü
ú
L1 L2 L3 L1
A 1 mH 7 mH 4 mH A
L4 L5 0.9 mH L2 L3
6 mH 11 mH 11 mH
L6 3 mH
L4 22 mH
12 mH B B
a)
b)
1.12 For each circuit of figure 1.36 determine the equivalent inductance be-
tween points A and B.
1.13 For each circuit of figure 1.37 determine the voltage across and the cur-
rent through Ro .
R1
0.1 A 34 Ω 140 Ω
40 Ω
+
60 Ω Ro
3V 40 Ω
−
R1 Ro
R2 R2
120 Ω
a) b)
1.14 For each circuit of figure 1.38 determine the voltage across and the cur-
rent through R1 .
1.15 For the circuits b) and c) of figure 1.38 determine the Thévenin equiva-
lent circuits at points A and B.
30 1. Elementary electrical circuit analysis
R1 A
R1 R3 R1 R5
A B
80 Ω 60 Ω
68 Ω 15 Ω 34 Ω
+ 10 V 0.1 A
5V 0.7 A R5 R2
− R2 100 Ω + R6
0.2 A 70 Ω − 45 Ω R4 60 Ω
R3 34 Ω
R4
90 Ω
a) B 10 Ω
b) c)
1.16 For the circuits b) and c) of figure 1.38 determine the Norton equivalent
circuits at points A and B.
1.17 For the circuits of figure 1.39 determine the voltage across and the cur-
rent through R3 . Use values of Ai = 12, Gm = 0.5 S, Av = 10 and
Rm = 40 Ω.
R2 Ai I R1
0.25 A 45 Ω 68 Ω +
Gm V R3
R1 R3 + R2 100 Ω
5V V
90 Ω 70 Ω − 10 Ω
I
−
a) b)
R1 Av V Rm I
+ − + −
80 Ω +
+ R2 R2 R3
R3 0.6 A
5V 90 Ω V
− 10 Ω I 18 Ω 72 Ω
R4 R1 10 V
−
+ −
c) 57 Ω 39 Ω
d)
1.18 Apply the superposition theorem to the circuits of figure 1.40 to deter-
mine the voltage across and the current through R2 . Gm = 0.9 S, Av = 10.
1. Elementary electrical circuit analysis 31
G m VC
R1 R1 R3
A v VC
+ −
120 Ω 10 Ω 10 Ω 0.1 A
0.2 A
R3 R2
90 Ω 90 Ω
+ R2 72 Ω R4
15 V R4 R5 + +
− 250 Ω 2V 0.1 A
− + − 200 Ω
V
210 Ω + R2
50 Ω R1 VC 200 Ω
R5 −
Gm V 10 V
57 Ω
12 V
−
+ −
b) c)
a)
2.1 Introduction Complex numbers play a major role in alternating current (AC) circuit analysis
through the use of the phasor concept and associated analysis. This simplifies
the analysis of circuits by representing voltage and current quantities in terms
of magnitude and phase. Phasor analysis is also the foundation of frequency
domain signal analysis and is used extensively in the remaining chapters of this
book.
Phasors are basically a convenient representation of complex numbers. In
this chapter we introduce complex numbers and the different ways of repre-
senting them. Following this introduction, we define complex numbers. In
section 2.3 we describe the elementary algebraic operations for these types of
numbers. Then, in section 2.4 we discuss the polar representation of complex
numbers and in section 2.5 we introduce the exponential representation which
is basically the phasor representation. Finally, in section 2.6, we present the
calculation of powers and roots of complex numbers.
2.2 Definition Real numbers can be integers (e.g. −1,√ 0, +2), fractional numbers (e.g. −1/2,
243 65 1/3, 5/6) and irrational numbers (e.g. 3, π). We can represent all real num-
bers on a single axis, the so-called real axis as illustrated in figure 2.1 a).
+ . + * ' : ) ' 89 , - 7
0 Complex numbers are quantities which are represented in a plane as shown
in figure 2.1 b). This plane is called the ‘complex plane’ and it is defined by two
; !#" $% orthogonal axes, X and Y ; the real axis and the imaginary axis1 , respectively.
7 &' The representation of the complex plane using two orthogonal axes is also
&* () called the Argand diagram. Every complex number, z, can be defined by a pair
of real numbers (or pair of coordinates), x and y, which identify the position
of z in the complex plane:
+
, - : . 243 65
/10 z = (x, y) (2.1)
Figure 2.1: a) The real axis. In eqn 2.1 x is called the ‘real part’ of the complex number while y is called
b) The complex plane. the ‘imaginary part’ of the complex number. In figure 2.1 b) we illustrate
√ the
representation of the complex numbers z1 = (1, 2) and z2 = (− 3, 4/3). It
should be noted that all real numbers can be represented as complex numbers
where the y coordinate is zero and they have the general form (x, 0).
H4Y S T
@#U6C V@W X%@BC D
HJIE The complex number j
The complex number j is introduced here as an ‘operator’ so that when a num-
=?>@#A1@BC D ber is multiplied by j the outcome is that number rotated by 90 degrees (π/2
F E E < radians) counter-clockwise in the complex plane. Let us consider the number
@6G 1 multiplied by j. According to the definition of j, the multiplication of 1 by
H?Y S T
@#U6C V@W X%@BC D j results in a 90 degrees counter-clockwise rotation of this number in the com-
HJIE plex plane, as shown in figure 2.2 a). If we multiply (j × 1) by j again there is
another 90 degrees counter-clockwise rotation, as shown in figure 2.2 b). From
=?>K@6A1@BC D this figure we arrive at the central definition of the complex number j:
HMLNIOEQP F E E <
R1G j2 = −1 (2.2)
√
which means that j = −1. Note that j is a complex number located on the
Figure 2.2: a) The number 1 imaginary axis, that is, its real part is zero. This is expected since real numbers
multiplied by j. b) The num- do not encompass square roots of negative numbers. Complex numbers located
ber (j × 1) multiplied by j. on the imaginary axis (with zero real part) are usually referred to as ‘imaginary
numbers’.
The introduction of the j number allows the representation of complex
numbers, which were formerly represented as z = (x, y), as shown below:
z =x+jy (2.3)
where Real (z1 ) indicates the real part of z1 and Imag (z1 ) indicates the imag-
inary part of z1 .
2.3 Elementary We discuss now the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of com-
plex numbers.
algebra
2.3.1 Addition
The addition of two complex numbers z1 = x1 + j y1 and z2 = x2 + j y2
results in a third complex number z3 = x3 + j y3 whose real part, x3 , is the
sum of the real parts of z1 and z2 and its imaginary part, y3 , is the sum of the
imaginary parts of z1 and z2 . Hence we can write:
2.3.2 Subtraction
The subtraction of two complex numbers z1 = x1 + j y1 and z2 = x2 + j y2
results in a complex number z3 = x3 + j y3 . x3 is the subtraction of the real
parts of z1 and z2 and y3 is the subtraction of the imaginary parts of z1 and z2 .
Thus, we can write:
«
¯® °±²1³ ´±aµ ¶±M·³ ¸ z3 = z1 − z2
«
¬ ¨M¹ = (x1 − x2 ) + j (y1 − y2 ) (2.8)
«Á» ¨1ª
º ¨M© « that is:
À
º »  »¯¬ ¼½ ±a¾ x3 = x1 − x2 (2.9)
º « ± ·¿³ ¸ (2.10)
¨© y3 = y1 − y2
2.3.3 Multiplication
We discuss now the multiplication of complex numbers where we distinguish
between three situations: multiplication of a complex number by a real number,
multiplication of a complex number by an imaginary number and multiplica-
tion of a complex number by another complex number.
z3 = z1 × z2
Ê%ËÍÌÎÏaÐÑ Ò]Ï1ÓÔÕÏÖ]Ñ × = (x1 x2 ) + j (y1 x2 ) (2.11)
ÊÃ ÆÉ
that is:
Ê ÆÈ
ÆaÇ Å x3 = x 1 x2 (2.12)
Ã Ä ØÏÁÖ]Ù Ñ Ï1× Ú y3 = y 1 x2 (2.13)
z3 = z1 × z2
= x 1 j y 2 + j 2 y1 y2
è
éëê ìíMîaï ðíñ òóí ôï õ
Üç = (−y1 y2 ) + j (x1 y2 ) (recall that j 2 = −1) (2.14)
èö
ßàáâ ãNä1åaæ
that is:
è
å Ü Þ
è ÜaÝ x3 = −y1 y2 (2.15)
Û y3 = x 1 y2 (2.16)
û å åø÷í ôù ï íõ ú
Figure 2.8 illustrates the multiplication of z1 = 2 + j with z2 = j 2 which is
equal to z3 = −2 + j 4. This multiplication is effectively a 90 degrees rotation
Figure 2.8: Multiplication of of the vector defined by z1 followed by a scaling of this vector by an amount
z1 = 2 + j with z2 = j 2. given by |y2 | = 2. The 90 degrees rotation of the vector defined by z1 is
counter clockwise if y2 > 0. If y2 < 0 the 90 degrees rotation of this vector is
clockwise.
36 2. Complex numbers: An introduction
z3 = z1 × z2
= (x1 + j y1 ) × (x2 + j y2 )
= x 1 x 2 + x 1 j y 2 + j y 1 x 2 + j 2 y1 y2
= (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + j (x1 y2 + y1 x2 ) (2.17)
that is
x3 = x 1 x 2 − y 1 y2 (2.18)
y3 = x 1 y2 + x 2 y1 (2.19)
z3 = (2 + j) × (2 + j 2)
= 4 + j 4 + j 2 + j2 2
= 2+j6
Complex conjugate
Two complex numbers are said to be the conjugate of each other when they
have the same real part but have imaginary parts of opposite sign. For example,
the complex conjugate
√ of z1 = √ 1 + j 2 is 1 − j 2 and the complex conjugate
of z2 = −3 − j 2 is −3 + j 2 as illustrated by figure 2.9. It is common
to represent the complex conjugate of z by z ∗ . It is interesting to note the
following results which apply to complex conjugates:
üþ
üý
! • The addition of a complex number, z, to its conjugate is a real number
equal to twice the real part of z.
ÿ
z + z∗ = (x + j y) + (x − j y)
! = 2x (2.20)
ü
üþý
• The subtraction of a complex number, z, from its conjugate is an imagi-
nary number equal to twice the imaginary part of z.
Figure 2.9: Complex num-
bers and their conjugates. z − z∗ = (x + j y) − (x − j y)
= 2j y (2.21)
part.
z × z∗ = (x + j y) × (x − j y)
= x2 − x j y + j y x + (j y)(−j y)
= x2 − j 2 y 2 (recall that j 2 = −1)
= x2 − (−y 2 )
= x2 + y 2 (2.22)
2.3.4 Division
The division of a complex number z1 = x1 + j y1 by a complex number z2 =
x2 + j y2 results in another complex number z3 = x3 + j y3 . In order to
calculate z3 we use the fact that a complex number multiplied by its conjugate
is a real number (see also eqn 2.22). z3 = z1 /z2 can then be calculated as
follows:
z1
z3 =
z2
z1 z∗
= × 2∗
z2 z2
(x1 + j y1 )(x2 − j y2 )
= (2.23)
(x2 + j y2 )(x2 − j y2 )
Using eqn 2.22 we can write eqn 2.23 as follows:
(x1 + j y1 )(x2 − j y2 )
z3 = (2.24)
x22 + y22
Expanding the numerator we obtain:
x 1 x 2 − j y 2 x 1 + j y 1 x 2 − j 2 y1 y2
z3 =
x22 + y22
x 1 x 2 + y 1 y2 y1 x 2 − y 2 x 1
= +j (2.25)
x22 + y22 x22 + y22
that is
x 1 x 2 + y 1 y2
x3 = (2.26)
x22 + y22
y1 x 2 − y 2 x 1
y3 = (2.27)
x22 + y22
For example, the division of 3 + j 4 by 1 − j 2 can be calculated as follows:
3+j4
z3 =
1−j2
3+j4 1+j2
= ×
1−j2 1+j2
3 + j 6 + j 4 + j2 8
=
1+4
= −1 + j 2
38 2. Complex numbers: An introduction
Equation 2.36 indicates that when b2 − 4 a c < 0 the two solutions for this
quadratic eqn are complex numbers. It should also be noted that these are
complex conjugates.
———————————————————————————————
Example 2.3.1 Solve the following quadratic eqns:
1. 3 z2 + z + 5 = 0
2. 3 z2 − 3 z − 6 = 0
Solution:
1. We have a = 3, b = 1, c = 5, and b2 − 4 a c = −59. Therefore the two
solutions are complex and given by eqn 2.36:
√
1 59
z1 = − + j
6 √6
1 59
z2 = − − j
6 6
2. Now we have a = 3, b = −3, c = −6, and b2 − 4 a c = 81. Therefore
the two solutions are real and given by eqn 2.34
z1 = −1
z2 = 2
———————————————————————————————
2.4 Polar repre- So far the representation of a complex number z, has used a Cartesian (or
rectangular) representation where a complex number is identified by its coor-
sentation dinates on the real and the imaginary axes using one of the following notations:
')( *,+-. /+0 1+2. 3 z = (x, y) = x + j y. This representation is illustrated again in figure 2.10. A
complex number also defines a vector represented by its length, r, and by the
angle, θ, of the vector with the real axis. When z is represented by r and θ (usu-
ally written as z = r∠θ) it is said to be represented by its ‘polar coordinates’.
" # The length of the vector, r, is often called the ‘modulus’, |z|, or magnitude
$ of the complex number z. The angle θ is usually called the ‘argument’ of z.
% When z is represented in its Cartesian form (z = x + j y) the modulus of z can
7
be determined from Pythagoras’s theorem:
& 45 +6
+2. 3 p
|z| = r = x2 + y 2 (2.37)
Note that |z| can also be obtained as follows (see also eqn 2.22);
Figure 2.10: Cartesian and √
polar representations for |z| = z × z∗ (2.38)
complex numbers.
The argument of z, θ, can be determined using the following trigonometric
relationship:
y
tan(θ) = (2.39)
x
that is:
³y´
θ = tan−1 (2.40)
x
40 2. Complex numbers: An introduction
———————————————————————————————
√
Example 2.4.1 Represent z = 5 + j 3 in polar coordinates
Solution: From eqn 2.37, r is the magnitude of z;
√ √
r = 25 + 3 = 28
x = r cos(θ) (2.41)
y = r sin(θ) (2.42)
———————————————————————————————
Example 2.4.2 Represent z = 3 ∠π/4 rad in rectangular coordinates
Solution: According to eqns 2.41 and 2.42 z can be written as:
³π´ ³π´
z = 3 cos + j 3 sin = 2.1 + j 2.1
4 4
———————————————————————————————
z3 = r1 × r2 ∠(θ1 + θ2 ) (2.43)
that is
r3 = r1 × r2 (2.44)
θ3 = θ1 + θ2 (2.45)
For example, the multiplication of z1 = 2.3 ∠2.3 rad with z2 = 4.0 ∠0.4 rad
is equal to z3 = 9.2 ∠2.7 rad.
2. Complex numbers: An introduction 41
The division of two complex numbers represented in the polar form is done
by dividing the moduli and subtracting the arguments, that is, dividing z1 =
r1 ∠θ1 by z2 = r2 ∠θ2 gives a complex number z3 = r3 ∠θ3 where:
r1
z3 = ∠(θ1 − θ2 ) (2.46)
r2
that is
r1
r3 = (2.47)
r2
θ3 = θ1 − θ2 (2.48)
For example, the division of z1 = 2.3 ∠2.3 rad by z2 = 4.0 ∠0.4 rad is equal
to z3 = 0.6 ∠1.9 rad.
It is worth mentioning that to add or subtract two complex numbers ex-
pressed in polar form it is necessary to convert them first to a Cartesian (rect-
angular) form. The addition or the subtraction can then be effected as described
in section 2.3. The result can, of course, be converted back to a polar represen-
tation.
———————————————————————————————
Example 2.4.3 Determine the result of the addition of z1 = 4.2 ∠π/9 with
z2 = 1.5 ∠ − 3π/4.
Solution: According to eqns 2.41 and 2.42 z1 and z2 can be written as follows:
z1 = 3.9 + j 1.4
z2 = −1.1 − j 1.1
Hence z1 + z2 = 2.8 + j 0.3 = 2.82 ∠0.11 rad.
———————————————————————————————
2.5 The The exponential form of a complex number is similar to the polar represen-
tation discussed above. In order to obtain this exponential form we start by
exponential expanding cos(θ) and sin(θ) in Maclaurin series (see appendix A) we have
form θ2 θ4 θ2n
cos(θ) = 1− + + . . . + (−1)n + ... (2.49)
2! 4! 2n!
θ3 θ5 θ2n+1
sin(θ) = θ− + + . . . + (−1)n + ... (2.50)
3! 5! (2n + 1)!
Now, cos(θ) + j sin(θ) can be written as
µ ¶ µ ¶
θ2 θ4 θ3 θ5
cos(θ) + j sin(θ) = 1− + + ... + j θ − + + ...
2! 4! 3! 5!
θ2 θ3 θ4 θ5
= 1+jθ− −j + +j + ... (2.51)
2! 3! 4! 5!
The series can be written as
(j θ)2 (j θ)3 (j θ)4 (j θ)5
cos(θ) + j sin(θ) = 1+jθ+ + + +j + ...
2! 3! 4! 5!
∞
X (j θ)k
= (2.52)
k!
k=0
42 2. Complex numbers: An introduction
Using eqns 2.41, 2.42 and 2.53 we can write a complex number z = r ∠θ as
z = r cos(θ) + j r sin(θ)
= r [cos(θ) + j sin(θ)]
= r ej θ (2.54)
———————————————————————————————
Solution: According to eqns 2.37, 2.40 and 2.54, z can be written as follows:
1
z =
3+j5
1
= √
+ tan−1 (5/3) 32 52 ej
1
= √
34 ej 1.03
1
= √ e−j 1.03
34
———————————————————————————————
ej θ + e−j θ = 2 cos(θ)
that is:
ej θ + e−j θ
cos(θ) = (2.59)
2
On the other hand if we subtract eqn 2.58 from eqn 2.57 we obtain:
ej θ − e−j θ = 2 j sin(θ)
that is:
ej θ − e−j θ
sin(θ) = (2.60)
2j
It is a trivial matter to show that:
1 ej θ − e−j θ
tan(θ) = (2.61)
j ej θ + e−j θ
2.6 Powers and A very useful theorem for the calculation of the powers and roots of complex
numbers is De Moivre’s theorem which states that:
roots
[cos(θ) + j sin(θ)]n = cos(n θ) + j sin(n θ) (2.62)
These eqns are valid for all real values of n. This means that De Moivre’s for-
mula allows us to calculate the powers and roots of complex numbers. How-
ever, we must bear in mind that there is usually more than one solution when
finding the roots of a complex number.
———————————————————————————————
———————————————————————————————
n roots of unity
We consider now the solution of z n = 1 which is equivalent to determining
the n-roots of the number 1 in the complex plane. Note that 1 can be seen as a
complex number with modulus one and argument zero. Other arguments with
multiples of 2π (±2π, ±4π, ±6π, etc.) are also valid since the addition (or the
subtraction) of 2π to the argument of a complex number does not change its
position in the complex plane or change its value. Therefore, z n = 1 can be
expressed as follows:
To solve this eqn we take both sides to the power of 1/n, that is:
1
>@?BA C DEF GDH I,DJF K (z n ) n = ej 2 π N/n , N ∈ {. . . , −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, . . .} (2.69)
>
8;
8=M
We can find the n different roots by setting N to 0, 1, 2, . . . , (n − 1) in the
TUWVYX last eqn. Note that other values of N result in repeated roots. To illustrate this
S
8: concept consider the example below.
L,N NOQP DR ———————————————————————————————
D=JF K
8=<
89
Example 2.6.2 Find the solutions of z 5 = 1.
L >
z = ej 2 π N/5 (2.71)
2. Complex numbers: An introduction 45
N =0 : z1 = ej 2 π 0/5 = 1
N =1 : z2 = ej 2 π 1/5 = ej 2 π /5
N =2 : z3 = ej 2 π 2/5 = ej 4 π /5
N =3 : z4 = ej 2 π 3/5 = ej 6 π /5
N =4 : z5 = ej 2 π 4/5 = ej 8 π /5
Note that, for this example there is a basic set of five roots. For values of N
greater than four we start to obtain repetitions of the roots. For example, by
setting N = 5 in eqn 2.71 we obtain z = ej 2 π = 1. Note that this is the same
root as for N = 0.
———————————————————————————————
zn = w (2.72)
w = r w ej θ w (2.73)
[d where we use the fact that the addition of a multiple of 2π to the argument of a
Z complex number does not change its value. Taking the n roots of both sides of
n ]^=_`
_ab c
eqn 2.74 we obtain
1
z = (rw ) n ej θw /n+j 2 π N/n (2.75)
[o
The n different roots are determined by setting N to 0, 1, 2, . . . , (n − 1).
———————————————————————————————
Figure 2.12: Solutions of
z 3 = 4 + j 4. Example 2.6.3 Find the solutions of z 3 = 4 + j 4.
√
Solution: First, we represent 4 + j 4 in an exponential form; 4 2 ej π/4 . Then,
z 3 = 4 + j 4 can be written as follows:
√
z 3 = 4 2 ej π/4+j 2 π N (2.76)
2.8 Problems 2.1 Represent the following complex numbers in the Argand diagram:
1. z1 = 1 + j 4
2. z2 = 1 − j 4
3. z3 = −2 + j 2.5
√
4. z4 = −π − j 3
1. (1 + j 4) + (1 − j 4)
2. (−2 + j 1) − (−2 − j 1)
3. (j 2.5) × (1 − j 4.5)
4. (2 − j 4)/(−3 − j 8)
1. z 2 + 3 z + 34 = 0
2. 4 z 2 − 2 z − 5 = 0
3. −2 z 2 + z = 5
4. z 2 + 6 z + 9 = 0
√
5. 6 z 2 + 3 7 z + 27 = 0
2. Complex numbers: An introduction 47
3. z = 2 − j 0.3
√ √
4. z = − 7 − j 3
2. z = 1.5∠ − π/3
3. z = 0.5∠6 π/4
4. z = 0.5∠ − 3 π/2
1. z 2 = 1
2. z 2 = j
3. z 3 = 1 + j 1
4. 2 ej π z 5 = 5 ej π/4
3 Frequency domain electrical signal and
circuit analysis
3.1 Introduction In this chapter we present the main electrical analysis techniques for time
varying signals. We start by discussing sinusoidal alternating current (AC)
signals1 and circuits. Phasor analysis is presented and it is shown that this
greatly simplifies this analysis since it allows the introduction of the ‘gener-
alised impedance’. The generalised impedance allows us to analyse AC cir-
cuits using all the circuit techniques and methods for DC circuits discussed in
Chapter 1. In section 3.3 we extend the phasor analysis technique to analyse
circuits driven by non-sinusoidal signals. This is done by first discussing the
Fourier series which presents periodic signals as a sum of phasors. The Fourier
series is a very important tool since it forms the basis of fundamental concepts
in signal processing such as spectra and bandwidth. Finally, we present the
Fourier transform which allows the analysis of virtually any time-varying sig-
nal (periodic and non periodic) in the frequency domain.
3.2 Sinusoidal AC sinusoidal electrical sources are time-varying voltages and currents de-
scribed by functions of the form:
AC electrical
analysis vs (t) = Vs sin(ω t) (3.1)
is (t) = Is sin(ω t) (3.2)
where Vs and Is are the peak-amplitudes of the voltage and of the current
waveforms, respectively, as illustrated in figure 3.1. ω represents the angu-
lar frequency, in radians/second, equal to 2 π/T where T is the period of the
waveform in seconds. The repetition rate of the waveform, that is the linear
frequency, is equal to 1/T in hertz. The quantity (ω t) is an angle, in radians,
usually called the instantaneous phase. Note that ω T corresponds to 2 π rad.
Here we interchangeably use the terms voltage/current sinusoidal signal or
waveform, to designate the AC sinusoidal quantities.
By definition, all transient phenomena (such as those resulting, for exam-
ple, from switching-on the circuit) have vanished in an AC circuit in its steady-
state condition. Thus, the time origin in eqns 3.1 and 3.2 can be ‘moved’ so
1 Any signal varying with time is effectively an AC signal. We limit our definition of an AC
signal here to a sinusoidal signal at specific frequency. This is particularly helpful to calculate
impedances at specific frequencies as will be seen later in this chapter.
3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis 49
sutYv=w xzy|{ While the choice of the absolute time origin is of no relevance in AC analysis,
}~ vtYrtY
{ q the relative time difference between waveforms, which can also be quantified
prq in terms of phase difference, is of vital importance. Figure 3.2 a) illustrates the
r } q ¡} } q=q constant phase difference between a voltage waveform and a current waveform
¢
}£ q at the same angular frequency ω. If any two AC electrical waveforms have
different angular frequencies, ω1 and ω2 , then the phase difference between
these two waveforms is a linear function of time; (ω1 − ω2 ) t. Assuming a time
s p t origin for the voltage waveform we can write the waveforms of figure 3.2 a)
as:
x
q
vs (t) = Vs sin(ω t) (3.5)
is (t) = Is sin(ω t − φ) (3.6)
Figure 3.1: a) AC volt-
age (current) waveform ver- where φ = π/3. In this situation it is said that the current waveform lags the
sus time. b) AC voltage voltage waveform by φ. In fact, the current waveform crosses the phase axis
(current) waveform versus (point A) later than the voltage waveform. On the other hand, if we choose
phase. the time origin for the current waveform, as illustrated in figure 3.2 b), we can
® §=¨ ©«ª write these waveforms as follows:
¦ § ¨ ©«ª
and it is said that the voltage waveform leads the current waveform.
¬ ¬
ª
® §=¨ ©«ª ¯
¦¤§=¨ ©«ª
3.2.1 Effective electrical values
By definition, the effective value of any voltage waveform is the DC voltage
²Q³
¯´µ
that, when applied to a resistance, would produce as much power dissipation
¥ ± © (heat) as that caused by that voltage waveform. Hence, if we represent the
AC voltage waveform by Vs sin(ω t) and the effective voltage by Vef f , then,
¬
ª
¬ according to eqn 1.20, we can write:
Z T 2 Z T
1 Vef f 1 vs2 (t)
Figure 3.2: Phase difference dt = dt
T 0 R T 0 R
(φ = π/3) between an AC Z T 2 Z T
1 Vef f 1 Vs2 sin2 (ω t)
voltage and an AC current. ⇔ dt = dt (3.9)
a) The current lags the volt- T 0 R T 0 R
age. b) The voltage leads the The last eqn can be written as follows:
current.
2 Z
1 Vef f 1 Vs2 T 1 − cos(2 ω t)
T = dt
T R T R 0 2
· ¸T
2 Vs2 1
⇔ Vef f = t− sin(2 ω t) (3.10)
2T 2ω 0
50 3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis
¹ ·º¼»Y½
¶¸· Since ω = 2π/T the last eqn can be written as:
¶!¾=¿¿ÁÀÃÂÄ
Å Æ
2 Vs2
Vef f = (3.11)
2
√
» or Vef f = Vs / 2 ' 0.707 Vs . Figure 3.3 illustrates the effective voltage of an
AC voltage waveform.
In a similar way it can be shown that the effective
√ value of a sinusoidal
current with peak-amplitude Is is Ief f = Is / 2. The effective value of a
sinusoidal voltage and/or current is also called the root-mean-square (RMS)
value.
Figure 3.3: Voltage AC ———————————————————————————————
waveforms and its corre-
sponding effective voltage. Example 3.2.1 Show that the effective value of a triangular voltage waveform,
√
like that shown in figure 3.4, with peak amplitude Vs is Vef f = Vs / 3.
Solution: Following the procedure described above we can write:
Z T 2 Z T 2
1 Vef f 1 vs (t)
dt = dt
T 0 R T 0 R
Looking at figure 3.3 we see that the triangular waveform is symmetrical.
Therefore, it is sufficient to consider the period of integration from t = 0 to
ÈËʼÌÍ t = T /4, giving
ÇÈ É 2 Z T /4 2 2 2
ÇÏÐÐÑÓÒÔ
Vef f 4 Vs 4 t
Õ Ö = dt
R T 0 T2 R
2 · ¸T /4
Vef f Vs2 43 t3
⇔ =
Ì R RT3 3 0
2 Vs2
⇔ Vef f = (3.12)
3
√
Î that is, Vef f = Vs / 3 ' 0.577 Vs .
———————————————————————————————
Resistance
Assuming a current, i(t) = Ix cos(ω t) passing through a resistance R, the
voltage developed across its terminals is, according to Ohm’s law:
vR (t) = R i(t)
= R Ix cos(ω t)
= Vr cos(ω t) (3.13)
3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis 51
ß ÚÛÜ
with
× ØÙÚÛ
ÜÞÝ
Vr = R I x (3.14)
√
Dividing both sides by 2 we obtain the RMS (or effective) value for the AC
ß ÚÛ
Ü
voltage as
Ix
Vref f = R√
2
Û
= R Ixef f (3.15)
where Ixef f is the RMS (or effective) value for the AC current. From eqn 3.13
ØÙÚÛÜ
and figure 3.5 we observe that the voltage and the current are in phase, that is,
the phase difference between the voltage and the current is zero.
Capacitance
Û
If a current, i(t) = Ix cos(ω t) passes through a capacitance C, the voltage
developed across its terminals is (see also eqn 1.24)
Z t
Figure 3.5: Voltage and cur- 1
rent in a resistance. vC (t) = i(t) dt + Vco (3.16)
C 0
Note that since we are assuming steady-state conditions in the AC analysis we
may set the initial condition Vco = 0, that is
Z t
1
vC (t) = Ix cos(ω t) dt (3.17)
C 0
ì é æ
ë
Performing the integration we obtain:
Ix
vC (t) = sin(ω t)
î í ωC
çèêé æ
ë ³
Ix π´
ì é æ
ë = cos ω t −
ωC ³ 2
π´
= Vc cos ω t − (3.18)
2
where
æ
Ix
Vc = (3.19)
à áãâ äå ωC
çèêé æë
In terms of RMS magnitudes we have:
Ixef f
Vcef f =
ωC
æ = XC Ixef f (3.20)
√
where Ixef f = Ix / 2. The quantity XC = (ω C)−1 is called the capacitive
reactance and is measured in ohms. It is important to note that the amplitude
Figure 3.6: Voltage and cur- of vC (t) is inversely proportional to the capacitance and the angular frequency
rent in a capacitor. of the AC current. From eqn 3.18 and figure 3.6 we observe that the voltage
waveform lags the current waveform by π/2 radians or 90 degrees.
52 3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis
Inductance
÷ óõö
Vlef f = Ixef f ω L
õ
= XL Ixef f (3.22)
√
where Ixef f = Ix / 2. The quantity XL = ω L is called the inductive react-
ance which is also measured in Ohms. Note that now the amplitude of the
Figure 3.7: Voltage and cur- voltage vL (t) is proportional to the inductance and the angular frequency of
rent in an inductor. the AC current. From eqn 3.21 and figure 3.7 we observe that the voltage
waveform leads the current waveform by π/2 radians or 90 degrees.
Figure 3.8 illustrates the ratio Vef f /Ief f versus the frequency, ω, for the three
passive elements discussed above. It is interesting to note that at DC (ω = 0)
Vef f
Ief f the capacitor behaves as an open-circuit and the inductor behaves as a short-
1 circuit. On the other hand, for very high frequencies (ω → ∞) the capacitor
ωC behaves as a short-circuit and the inductor behaves as an-open circuit.
ωL
R
A note about voltage polarity and current direction in AC circuits
0 ω
Although voltages and currents in AC circuits continuously change polarity
Figure 3.8: Vef f /Ief f ver- and direction it is important to set references for these two quantities. The
sus ω for passive elements. convention we follow in this book is illustrated above. When the current flows
from the positive to the negative terminal of a circuit element it is implied that
the current and voltage are in phase for a resistor as in figure 3.5; the current
leads the voltage by 90 degrees for a capacitor as in figure 3.6 and lags by the
same amount for an inductor as in figure 3.7.
Kirchhoff’s laws
Kirchhoff’s laws presented in Chapter 1 (see section 1.4) can be applied to de-
termine the voltage across or the current through any circuit element. However,
we must bear in mind that the voltages and the currents in AC circuits will, in
general, exhibit phase differences when capacitors or inductors are present.
3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis 53
+ + Example 3.2.2 Determine the amplitude of the current i(t) in the RL circuit
vR(t) −
+ of figure 3.9. Also, determine the phase difference between this current and the
−
(2 mH) vL(t) voltage source.
vs(t) = Vs cos(ωt)
−
Solution: Since the circuit contains an inductor we expect that the current will
Vs = 4 V exhibit a phase difference, φ, with respect to the source voltage. Hence, the
ω = 20 krad/s current i(t) can be expressed as follows:
This current flows through the resistance inducing a voltage difference at its
terminals which is in phase with i(t):
vR (t) = R i(t)
= R Is cos(ωt + φ) (3.24)
On the other hand, the flow of i(t) through the inductor causes a voltage dif-
ference across its terminals which is in quadrature with i(t), as expressed by
eqn 3.21:
³ π´
vL (t) = XL Is cos ωt + φ + (3.25)
2
with XL = ω L. According to Kirchhoff’s voltage law we can write:
The last eqn can be written as follows (see also appendix A):
q
Vs cos(ω t) = R2 + XL2 Is cos(ωt + φ + ψ) (3.27)
where
µ ¶
−1 XL
ψ = tan (3.28)
R
In order for eqn 3.27 to be an equality the amplitude and the phase of the cosine
functions on both sides of this eqn must be equal. That is:
p
Vs = R2 + XL2 Is
(3.29)
ωt = ωt+φ+ψ
54 3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis
Vs
Is = √ (3.30)
R 2 + ω 2 L2
= 37 mA
φ = −ψ (3.31)
= −0.38 rad (−21.8o )
———————————————————————————————
where we can see that the voltage expressed by eqn 3.32 is the addition of two
complex conjugated exponential functions (phasors). Note that either of these
two complex exponential functions carries all the phase information, ω t and
φ, of the voltage waveform. In fact, the simplicity of analysis using phasors
arises from each AC voltage and current being mathematically represented and
manipulated as a single complex exponential function. However, in order to
obtain the corresponding time domain waveform we must take the real part of
the complex exponential waveform. Thus, the voltage waveform of eqn 3.32
can be expressed as:
h i
Vs cos(ω t + φ) = Real Vs ej(ω t+φ) (3.33)
Resistance
The complex voltage (see also figure 3.10) across the resistance terminals is de-
termined by applying Ohm’s law to the phasors representing the voltage across
and the current flowing through the resistance, that is:
VR (j ω, t) = R I(j ω, t)
= R Ix ejω t (3.36)
þ
ÿ
Taking the real part of VR (j ω, t) we obtain the corresponding voltage wave-
form;
Figure 3.10: Complex V –I
relationship for a resistance. vR (t) = R Ix cos(ω t) (3.37)
Capacitance
Assuming a complex representation for the current flowing through a capacitor,
I(j ω, t), the complex voltage across the capacitance is given by:
Z t
1
VC (j ω, t) = I(j ω, t) dt (3.38)
C 0
1
= I x ej ω t (3.39)
jωC
1
= I(j ω, t) (3.40)
jωC
The quantity (jωC)−1 is called the capacitive (complex) impedance. This
impedance can be seen as2 (−j) times the capacitive reactance XC = (ωC)−1
discussed in section 3.2.2. Note that (−j) accounts for the −90o phase differ-
ence between the voltage and the current.
Taking the real part of VC (j ω, t) we obtain the corresponding voltage
waveform at the capacitor terminals;
· ¸
1
vC (t) = Real Ix ejω t dt
!
" jωC
· ¸
1
= Real Ix ej(ω t−π/2) dt
ωC
# $ " %
where we used the following equalities (see also section 2.5):
& 3( )*-, ./ 4 Assuming a complex representation for the current flowing through the induc-
tor, I(j ω, t), the complex voltage across the inductance is given by:
V (j ω, t)
=Z (3.46)
I(j ω, t)
• Z = R for a resistance
• Z = j ω L for an inductance
or
In order for eqn 3.51 to be an equality the amplitude and the phase of the
complex voltages on both sides of this eqn must be equal. That is:
√
Vs = R 2 + ω 2 L2 I s
(3.52)
ωt = ωt+φ+ψ
Solving, we have:
Vs
Is = √ (3.53)
R2
+ ω 2 L2
= 37 mA
φ = −ψ (3.54)
= −0.38 rad (−21.8o )
Note that these values are equal to those obtained in example 3.2.2.
———————————————————————————————
Note that this result is equivalent to those obtained in examples 3.2.2 and 3.2.3.
———————————————————————————————
For example, in the circuit of figure 3.9 we observe that the impedance of the
resistance is in a series connection with the impedance of the inductor. Hence,
an equivalent impedance for this connection can be obtained adding them:
Zeq = R+jωL (3.63)
The real part of an impedance is called the resistance while the imaginary part
of the impedance is called the reactance.
For a parallel connection of various electrical elements it is sometimes eas-
ier to work with the inverse of the complex impedance, the ‘admittance’, Y ;
1
Y = (3.64)
Z
The parallel connection of admittances Yk , k = 1, 2, . . . N , can be charac-
terised by an equivalent admittance, Yeq , which is equal to their sum:
N
X
Yeq = Yk (3.65)
k=1
L1 ZL 1
R2 (100 + j50 Ω)
ω = 5 krad/s
Vs1 = 7 V (100 Ω)
Is2 = 25 mA
a) 0
b)
where we have used the following equality: sin(ωt) = cos(ωt − π/2). The
impedances associated with the two inductances and two capacitances are cal-
culated as follows:
¯
¯
ZL1 = j ωL1 ¯¯
ω=5×103 rad/s
= j 150 Ω
¯
¯
ZL2 = j ωL2 ¯¯
ω=5×103 rad/s
= j 50 Ω
¯
1 ¯¯
Z C1 =
j ωC1 ¯ω=5×103 rad/s
= −j 66.7 Ω
¯
1 ¯¯
Z C2 =
j ωC2 ¯ω=5×103 rad/s
= −j 20 Ω
From figure 3.15 a) we observe that the impedance associated with the capaci-
tance C2 is in a parallel connection with the resistance R1 . We can determine
an equivalent impedance for this parallel connection as follows (see eqn 3.66):
Z C2 R 1
Z C2 R 1 =
Z C2 + R 1
= 3.2 − j 19.5 Ω
3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis 61
Also, we can see that R2 is in a series connection with the inductance L2 . The
equivalent impedance for this connection can be calculated as shown below:
Z R 2 L2 = R 2 + Z L2
= 100 + j 50 Ω
Figure 3.15 b) shows the reduced AC circuit with the various impedances as-
sociated with the inductances and capacitances as well as the phasor currents
and phasor voltages at each node referenced to node 0. Applying Kirchhoff’s
current law we can write:
IA + IS2 = IB
IC + I B = ID
These can be rewritten after applying Ohm’s law to the various impedances as
shown below:
VS1 − VX VX − V Y
+ IS2 =
Z C2 R 1 Z C1
VS1 − VY VX − V Y VY
+ =
Z L1 Z C1 Z R 2 L2
VY = 3.5 ej 2.3 V
VY
ID =
Z R 2 L2
= 32 × 10−3 ej 1.80 A
VR2 = R 2 ID
= 3.2 ej 1.80 V
that is, the AC voltage across the resistance R2 has a peak amplitude of 3.2 V.
The phase of this voltage is 1.80 rad (103o ).
The average power dissipated by R2 can be calculated according to eqn
1.20 (see also section 1.3):
Z to +T
1 2
PAVR2 = vR (t) dt (3.67)
R2 T to
2
62 3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis
with T = 2π/ω = 1.3 × 10−3 = 1.3 ms. to is chosen to be zero. vR2 (t) can
be obtained from its phasor value as follows:
£ ¤
vR2 (t) = Real VR2 ejωt
£ ¤
= Real 3.2 ej1.80 ejωt
= 3.2 cos(ω t + 1.80) V
3.22 1
PAVR2 =
2 R2
= 0.05 W
It is important to note that the average power dissipated in the resistance can
also be calculated directly from the phasor representation of the current flowing
through and the voltage across R2 as follows (see problem 3.2):
1 ∗ 1
PAVR2 = Real [VR2 IR ] = Real [VR∗2 IR2 ] (3.68)
2 2
2
1 |VR2 |2
= (3.69)
2 R2
1
= |IR2 |2 R2 (3.70)
2
= 0.05 W
Solution: Figure 3.17 b) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of the
open-circuit voltage between terminals X and Y . Firstly, the impedances for
3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis 63
the capacitance and inductance are calculated for ω = 104 rad/s, as shown
below:
¯
¯
ZL = j ωL¯¯
ω=104 rad/s
= j 400 Ω
¯
1 ¯¯
ZC =
j ωC ¯ω=104 rad/s
= −j 1000 Ω
ZC R
ZRC = (3.71)
ZC + R
= 400 − j 800 Ω
The voltage between terminals X and Y can be obtained from the voltage
zC} r r
r
z C ~U
r
t£-¤
p §+² z {A p ~
p ¥
t wyx
v §£P¤
q z;C ~ q
z P¨9©+ª+«¬7> q
zm ®-¨9©+ª-¯M° ±U!
s s
Figure 3.17: a) AC circuit. b) Calculation of the Thévenin voltage. c) Calculation of the Thévenin
Impedance. d) Equivalent Thévenin circuit.
64 3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis
impedance divider (see also section 1.4.4) formed by the impedances ZRC and
ZL as follows:
ZRC
VT h = VS
ZRC + ZL
= 4.7 e−j 1.0 V
Figure 3.17 c) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of the Thévenin
impedance, where the AC voltage source has been replaced by a short-circuit.
From this figure it is clear that the impedance ZL is in a parallel connection
with ZRC . Hence ZT h can be calculated as follows:
ZRC ZL
ZT h =
ZRC + ZL
= 200 + j 600 Ω
Figure 3.17 d) shows the Thévenin equivalent circuit for the circuit of 3.17
a). The Thévenin voltage vT h (t) can be determined from its phasor, VT h , as
follows:
£ ¤
vT h (t) = Real VS ej ω t ω=104 rad/s
= 4.7 cos(104 t − 1.0) V
———————————————————————————————
³
¹
VL
IS = (3.72)
ZL + Z S
and the average power dissipated in the load, PL , is given by (see eqn 3.70):
|IS |2
PL = RL
2
Vs2 RL
= (3.73)
2 (RS + RL )2 + (XS + XL )2
3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis 65
From the last eqn we observe that the value of XL which maximises the average
power in the load is such that it minimises the denominator, that is:
XL = −XS (3.74)
Vs2 RL
PL = (3.75)
2 (RS + RL )2
In order to find the value of RL which maximises the power in the load we cal-
culate d PL /d RL and then we determine the value of RL for which d PL /d RL
is zero;
d PL Vs2 (RS + RL ) − 2 RL
= (3.76)
d RL 2 (RS + RL )3
RL = R S (3.77)
Vs2
PLmax = (3.78)
8 RL
It is clear that maximum power transfer occurs when ZL = ZS∗ .
3.3 Generalised The analysis presented in the previous sections can be considered as a particu-
lar case of frequency domain analysis of single frequency signals. As discussed
frequency previously, those single frequency signals can be expressed in terms of phasors
domain which, in turn, give rise to phasor analysis. It was seen that phasor analysis
allows the application of Ohm’s law to the generalised impedance associated
analysis with any passive element considerably simplifying electrical circuit analysis.
The analysis of circuits where the signal sources can assume other time-
varying (that is non-sinusoidal) waveforms can be a cumbersome task since
this gives rise to differential-integral equations. Therefore, it would be most
convenient to be able to apply phasor analysis to such circuits. This analy-
sis can indeed be employed using the ‘Fourier transform’ which allows us to
express almost any time varying voltage and current waveform as a ‘sum’ of
phasors.
For reasons of simplicity, before we discuss the Fourier transform we present
the Fourier series which can be seen as a special case of the Fourier transform.
The term ‘signal’ will be used to express either a voltage or a current wave-
form and we use the terms signal, waveform or function interchangeably to
designate voltage or current quantities, which vary with time.
ÐÑ Ò Ï
Ò period T , is by definition a signal which repeats its shape and amplitude every
Ó Õ Ô;Õ ÖÕ
Î
Ï T seconds, that is:
×>Ñ Ò Ï
Ò
Ó Õ ÔÕ ÖÕ x(t ± k T ) = x(t) , k = 1, 2, . . . (3.79)
ØMÑ Ò Ï ÙÏ Examples of periodic waveforms are presented in figure 3.19 where we have
Ò
Ó Õ ÔÕ ÖÕ drawn a sine wave, a periodic rectangular waveform, and a periodic triangular
Ú;Ï waveform. From this figure it is clear that the waveforms repeat their shape
and amplitude every T seconds.
Figure 3.19: Periodic wave- In order to show how the Fourier series provides representations of periodic
forms. a) Sine. b) Rectangu- waves as sums of sine or cosine waves we present, in figure 3.20 a), the first two
lar. c) Triangular. non-zero terms (sine waves) of the Fourier series for the periodic rectangular
waveform of figure 3.19 b). Figure 3.20 b) shows that the sum of these two
sine waves starts to resemble the rectangular waveform. It will be shown that
the addition of all the terms (harmonics) of a particular series converges to
the periodic rectangular waveform. In a similar way, figure 3.20 c) represents
the first two non-zero terms of the Fourier series of the triangular waveform.
Figure 3.20 d) shows that the sum of just these two sine waves produces a good
approximation to the triangular waveform.
Since sine and cosine functions can be expressed as a sum of complex
exponential functions (phasors), the Fourier series of a periodic waveform x(t)
with period T can be expressed as a weighted sum, as shown below:
∞
X n
x(t) = C n ej 2 π T t
(3.80)
n=−∞
è ä åÝ ß
è ç åÝ ß ã ä åÝ ß
ã ç åÝ ß
Ý Ý
áJß Þmß
è ä åÝ $
ß æ è ç åÝ ß ãämå Ý ß!æ ã-çå Ý ß
Ý Ý
Ü ÛJÜ Ü ÛJÜ
â ß à ß
Figure 3.20: a) The first two non-zero terms of the Fourier series for the
periodic rectangular waveform. b) The sum of first two non-zero terms of the
Fourier series as an approximation to the periodic rectangular waveform. c)
The first two non-zero terms of the Fourier series for the periodic triangular
waveform. d) The sum of first two non-zero terms of the Fourier series as an
approximation to the periodic triangular waveform.
where A is the peak amplitude. The last eqn can be written as follows:
à ¯T /2 ¯T !
1 AT n ¯ −A T n ¯
Cn = e−j 2 π T t ¯¯ + e−j 2 π T t ¯¯
T −j 2 π n 0 −j 2 π n T /2
A ³ n T
´ −A ³ n n T
´
= e−j 2 π T 2 − 1 + e−j 2 π T T − e−j 2 π T 2
−j 2 π n −j 2 π n
2A ¡ ¢
= 1 − e−j π n (3.84)
j 2πn
68 3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis
Figure 3.20 a) shows the first and the third harmonics of the rectangular signal
as:
µ ¶
4A 1 π
x1 (t) = cos 2 π t − (3.95)
π T 2
µ ¶
4A 3 π
x3 (t) = cos 2 π t − (3.96)
3π T 2
Example 3.3.1 Determine the Fourier series of the periodic triangular wave-
form, y(t), shown in figure 3.19 c).
Solution: From figure 3.19 b) we observe that the average value of this wave-
form is zero. Hence, C0 = 0. Using eqn 3.81 with to = 0 we can write:
Z T
1 n
Cn = y(t) e−j 2 π T t dt
T
Ã0Z
T /4
1 4 A t −j 2 π n t
= e T dt
T 0 T
Z 3T /4 µ ¶
4At n
+ 2A − e−j 2 π T t dt
T /4 T
Z T µ ¶ !
4At n
−j 2 π T t
+ − 4A e dt (3.97)
3T /4 T
A ³ −j π n 3n
´
Cn = 2 e 2 − 1 − 2 e−j π 2 + e−j 2 π n (3.98)
π 2 n2
Using the result of eqn 3.85 we express the coefficients Cn as follows:
2 A −j π n ¡ ¢
Cn = 2 2
e 2 1 − e−j π n (3.99)
π n
and using the result of eqn 3.86 we can write these coefficients as:
½ 4 A −j π n
π 2 n2 e
2 if |n| is odd
Cn = (3.100)
0 if |n| is even
From eqn 3.92 the Fourier series for the triangular periodic waveform can be
written as:
∞ ³ n
X 8A π n´
y(t) = 2 2
cos 2 π t − (3.101)
n=1
π n T 2
(n odd)
70 3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis
Figure 3.20 c) shows the first and the third harmonics given by
µ ¶
8A 1 π
y1 (t) = cos 2 π t − (3.102)
π2 T 2
µ ¶
8A 3 3π
y3 (t) = cos 2 π t − (3.103)
3 π2 T 2
Figure 3.20 d) clearly shows that the sum of these two harmonics, y1 (t)+y3 (t),
approximates the triangular periodic signal.
———————————————————————————————
Normalised power
———————————————————————————————
Example 3.3.2 Determine an expression for the average power associated with
the periodic rectangular waveform shown in figure 3.19 c).
Solution: The average power associated with the periodic rectangular wave-
form is the normalised average power (R = 1 Ω) which can be determined
according to eqn 3.105, that is:
ÃZ Z !
T /2 T
1 2 2
PAV = A dt + (−A) dt
T 0 T /2
= A2 (Watts) (3.106)
The proof of this theorem can be obtained as follows: The Fourier series indi-
cates that x(t) can be seen as a sum of a DC component with sinusoidal com-
ponents as indicated by eqn 3.92. Hence, the average power associated with
x(t) can be seen as the addition of the average power associated with the DC
component with the average power associated with each of these components.
It is known that the average power associated with a DC signal is the square
of the amplitude of that DC signal. Also, it is known that the average power
associated with a sinusoidal component is equal to half the square of its peak
amplitude. Since the amplitude of each Fourier component of x(t) is equal to
2 | Cn | then the average power associated with each of these AC components
is equal to:
(2| Cn |)2
PCn = , n≥1
2
2
= 2| Cn | , n≥1 (3.108)
———————————————————————————————
Time delay
If a periodic signal x(t) has a Fourier series with coefficients Cn we can obtain
the Fourier series coefficients, Cn0 , of a replica of x(t) delayed by τ seconds,
72 3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis
# $
dt = dt0
! "
t = to ; t0 = t o − τ
t = to + T ; t 0 = to − τ + T
éEê ì ë
= Cn e−j 2 π T τ
(3.111)
í
where t0o = to − τ . Note that the delay τ adds an extra linear phase to the
û Fourier series coefficients Cn .
ýü þÿ î-ï ð ëZñ
Comparing this eqn with eqn 3.56 we can identify each complex coefficient,
Cn , as the static phasor corresponding to a rotating phasor with angular fre-
quency ω = 2 π n/T . The phasor (static and rotating components), which is
shown in figure 3.21 a) can be represented in the frequency domain by asso-
ciating its amplitude, |Cn |, and its phase, ∠(Cn ), with its angular frequency
ω = 2πn/T (or with its linear frequency f = n/T ). This gives rise to the
so called line-spectrum, as illustrated in figure 3.21 b). This frequency repre-
sentation consists of two plots; amplitude versus frequency and phase versus
frequency.
Since the Fourier series expresses periodic signals as a sum of phasors we
are now in a position to represent the line spectrum of any periodic signal. As
an example, the line spectrum of the periodic square wave with period T can
be represented with Cn given by eqn 3.89. Figure 3.22 shows the line spectrum
representing the fundamental component, the third and the fifth harmonics for
this waveform. As mentioned previously, all the frequencies represented are
integer multiples of the fundamental frequency ω = 2π/T . Hence, the spec-
tral lines have a uniform spacing of 2π/T . It is also important to note that the
line spectrum of figure 3.22 has positive and negative frequencies. Negative
frequencies have no physical meaning and their appearance is a consequence
of the mathematical representation of sine and of cosine functions by complex
3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis 73
exponentials because these trigonometric functions (sine and cosine) are rep-
resented by the sum of a pair of complex conjugated phasors (see also eqns
2.59, 2.60 and 3.92). We also note that the line spectrum has been plotted as a
function of the angular frequency ω = 2πf . However, we frequently plot line
spectra versus the linear frequency f = ω/(2π).
Amplitude |Cn |
(volt)
2A 2A
π π
2A 2A
2,A 3π 3π
2A
5π 5π
S
8!9;: <;= 2π 3×2π 5×2π
D T T T
5
8!A/: <;=
:>BC= −5×2π −3×2π −2π ω
6 T T T
:>?@= (rad/s)
T
: G
E F3HJI;= :>UVF3HVW
=
L M
−π
2
(−90o )
N FPQ;
O R
K!=
8!9;: <;=
>XU
Figure 3.22: Line spectrum of the rectangular waveform.
<
T ZE T E E Z[E
Y
\ = 3.3.3 Electrical signal and circuit bandwidths
We discuss now the concepts of signal and electrical system bandwidths. In
Figure 3.23: Periodic volt- order to do so we consider the RC circuit of figure 3.23 which is driven by a
age applied to an RC circuit. square-wave voltage vs (t) as shown in figure 3.23 b). This voltage waveform
b) The periodic voltage v(t). can be expressed as:
∞ µ ¶
X t−kT
vs (t) = Va rect (3.113)
τ
k=−∞
where Va (V) is the amplitude and T is the period. τ /T is called the ‘duty-
cycle’ of the waveform and is equal to 1/2 in this case. The function rect (t/τ )
is defined as follows:
µ ¶ 1 , −1 < t < 1
t 2 τ 2
rect = (3.114)
τ
0, elsewhere
74 3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis
The Fourier coefficients for vs (t), VSn , can be obtained from eqn 3.81 where
to is chosen to be −T /2, that is:
Z T /2 µ ¶
1 t n
V Sn = Va rect e−j 2 π T t dt
T −T /2 τ
Z τ /2
1 n
= Va e−j 2 π T t dt
T −τ /2
· ¸τ /2
T Va n
= e−j 2 π T t
−j T 2 π n −τ /2
n n
Va ej π T τ − e−j π T τ
=
πn 2j
Va ³ n ´
= sin π τ (3.115)
πn T
The last eqn can be written as follows:
¡ ¢
Va τ sin π Tn τ
V Sn = π nτ (3.116)
T T
Va τ ³ nτ ´
= sinc (3.117)
T T
where the function sinc(x) is defined as follows:
sin(π x)
sinc(x) , (3.118)
πx
Since τ /T = 1/2, eqn 3.117 can be further simplified to:
Va ³n´
V Sn = sinc (3.119)
2 2
It is left to the reader to show that the DC component of vs (t), VS0 , is equal to
Va τ /T = Va /2.
The voltage signal vs (t) can be written as follows:
∞ ³n´
X Va n
vs (t) = sinc ej 2 π T t (3.120)
n=−∞
2 2
Once again, it is left to the reader to show that the periodic square waveform
of figure 3.19 b) can be seen as a particular case of the rectangular waveform
of figure 3.23 b) when τ /T = 1/2. Hint, assume that the average (or DC)
component is zero and use a delay of T /4.
The signal bandwidth is a very important characteristic of any time vary-
ing waveform since it indicates the spectral content and, of course, its mini-
mum and maximum frequency components. From eqn 3.120 we observe that
the spectrum and therefore the bandwidth of the periodic square wave is in-
finite. However, it is clear that very high order harmonics have very small
amplitudes and its impact on the series can be neglected. So a question arises;
3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis 75
° ¥¨§@©«ª °
m
Vm J
JVJ
! [ JV¡
©±§m²´³Vª
©±§m²´³Vª
,
JVJ
VV¡
Vm J
X
i
Figure 3.25: Magnitude and phase of the transfer function of the RC circuit of
figure 3.23.
frequency ranges. The first is for 2πf RC << 1, that is for f << (2πRC)−1 .
Over this frequency range we can write:
indicating that the circuit does not significantly change the amplitudes or phases
of those components of the input signal with frequencies smaller than (2πRC) −1 .
The second frequency range is identified as 2πf RC >> 1. Now we can
write:
1
H(f ) ' for f >> (2πRC)−1 (3.126)
j 2πf R C
indicating that the circuit significantly attenuates the amplitudes of those com-
ponents of the input signal with frequencies larger than (2πRC)−1 . The atten-
uation of these high frequency components means that the circuit preferentially
allows the passage of low-frequency components. Hence, this circuit is also
called a low-pass filter. The frequency fc = (2π RC)−1 is called the cut-off
frequency of the filter and it establishes its bandwidth. A more detailed discus-
sion of the definition of circuit bandwidth is presented in section 3.3.5. Note
that for frequencies f >> fc this circuit introduces a phase shift of −π/2.
We are now in a position to apply the superposition theorem in order to
obtain the output voltage. This can be effected by substituting the phasor VS in
eqn 3.124 by the sum of phasors (Fourier series) which represents the square
wave and by evaluating the circuit transfer function at each frequency f =
3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis 77
1
= n V Sn
1 + j 2π T RC
where the phasors VCn are the coefficients of the Fourier series representing the
voltage vc (t) and the phasors VSn are the coefficients representing the periodic
square voltage vs (t). The phasors VCn can be written as:
1 Va ³n´
V Cn = n sinc (V) (3.128)
1 + j 2π T RC 2 2
with
½ ¡ ¢
nπ
− π
− tan−1 2 π n
T RC for n odd
φn = 2 2 (3.131)
0 for n even
Figure 3.26 illustrates the output voltage vc (t) for the three time constants dis-
cussed above. As expected, for the two situations where 2πRC = 10 s and
78 3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis
Va Va
2 Va
2 2
2πRC = 1 s the output voltage vc (t) is very different from the input voltage
due to the filtering effect of the input signal frequency components. However,
for 2πRC = 0.1 s the output voltage is very similar to the input signal since
the main frequency components are not significantly attenuated.
It is also interesting to note that the effect of filtering all frequency com-
ponents (2π RC = 10 s) of the square voltage waveform results in a near-
triangular periodic waveform, such as that of figure 3.19 c), with an average
value (DC component) equal to the DC value of the input square wave input
voltage (see next example).
The waveforms of vc (t) illustrated in figure 3.26 can be interpreted as the
repetitive charging (towards Va ) and discharging (towards 0) of the capacitor.
At the higher cut-off frequency (2πRC = 0.1 s) the capacitor can charge and
discharge in a rapid manner almost following the input signal. However, as
the cut-off frequency (or bandwidth) of the filter is decreased the charging and
discharging of the capacitor takes more time. It is as if the output voltage is
suffering from an ‘electrical inertia’ which opposes to the time-variations of
that signal. In fact, the bandwidth of a circuit can actually be viewed as a
qualitative measure of this ‘electrical inertia’.
———————————————————————————————
Example 3.3.4 Consider the circuit of figure 3.23 a). Show that if the cut-
off frequency is such that fc << T −1 then the resulting output voltage is a
near-triangular waveform as shown in figure 3.26 a).
Solution: If (2πRC)−1 << T −1 this means that;
2πnRC
>> 1 , n≥1 (3.132)
T
and we can write the Fourier coefficients of the output voltage, expressed by
eqn 3.128, as follows:
Va
¡n¢
j 2 2 πT n R C sinc 2 if n 6= 0
V Cn ' (3.133)
Va
2 if n = 0
3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis 79
Comparing the last eqn for |n| odd with eqn 3.100 for |n| odd we observe that
they are similar in the sense that they exhibit the same behaviour as |n| in-
creases (note the existence of the term 1/n2 in both equations). The difference
lies in the amplitude and in the average value for the output triangular wave-
form which now is Va /2.
———————————————————————————————
Æ The relevant question is: what must H(f ) be in order to have such a distor-
tionless transmission? To answer this we assume that y(t) has a Fourier series
given by:
Å »¼c½[¾
∞
X
½ n
y(t) = CYn ej 2 π T t dt (3.136)
Æ ½
¿ÁÀ!ÂÃ/Ä n=−∞
From eqn 3.135 and from the time delay property of Fourier series (see eqn
3.111) we can write the Fourier coefficients of z(t) as follows:
Figure 3.27: Magnitude and
n
phase of a transfer function C Zn = A C Yn e j 2 π T td
(3.137)
of a distortionless system.
From eqn 3.127 we can determine H(f ) as follows:
C Zn
[H(f )]f = n =
T C Yn
n
= A ej 2 π T td
(3.138)
that is
H(f ) = A e j 2 π f td (3.139)
80 3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis
Figure 3.27 shows the magnitude and the phase of this transfer function. From
this figure we conclude that a distortionless system must provide the same am-
plification (or attenuation) to all frequency components of the input signal and
must provide a linear phase shift to all these components.
The application of a sequence of rectangular pulses to an RC circuit illus-
trates what can be considered as linear distortion. Now, let us consider the
transmission of those same pulses through an electrical channel which is mod-
elled as the RC circuit of figure 3.23 a). From the discussion above we saw that
if the cut-off frequency of the RC circuit is smaller than the third harmonic fre-
quency of the input signal, then the output signal is significantly different from
the input signal. Severe linear distortion occurs since the various frequency
components of the input signal are attenuated by different amounts and suf-
fer different phase shifts. However, if the cut-off frequency of the RC circuit
is larger than the third harmonic frequency then the output signal is approxi-
mately equal to the input signal, as illustrated by figure 3.26 c). This is because
the most significant frequency components of the input signal are affected by
the same (unity) gain. Note that, in this situation, the phase shift is zero indi-
cating that there is no delay between the input and output signals.
Here, |HdB (f )| and frequency are represented on logarithmic scales. The unit
of the transfer function expressed in such a logarithmic scale is the decibel
(dB).
The main advantage of this representation is that we can determine the
asymptotes of the transfer function which, in turn facilitate its graphical rep-
resentation. Note that the logarithmic operation also emphasises small differ-
ences in the transfer function which, if plotted in the linear scale, would not
be so clearly visible. In order to illustrate this we again consider the transfer
function of the RC circuit of figure 3.23, given by
1
H(f ) = (3.141)
1 + j 2πf RC
1
= 20 log10 p
1 + (2 π f R C)2
¡ ¢1
= 20 log10 ( 1 ) − 20 log10 1 + (2 π f R C)2 2
¡ ¢
= −10 log10 1 + (2 π f R C)2 (3.142)
We can now identify the two asymptotes of |HdB (f )|, noting that
∆ = −20 log10 (2π f R C)f =(2 π R C)−1 − |HdB (f )|f =(2 π R C)−1
= 0 + 10 log10 ( 2 )
' 3 dB
82 3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis
−10
10−1 −20
4 × 10−2
−30
a)
∠H(f ) (rad)
1 1 10
10×2 π R C 2πRC 2πRC f (Hz)
0
− π4
− π2
b)
Figure 3.28: Magnitude and phase of the transfer function of the RC circuit of
figure 3.23 (solid lines) and asymptotes (dashed lines).
The circuit or system bandwidth is very often defined as the range of positive
frequencies for which the magnitude of its transfer function is above the 3 dB
attenuation value.
√ This 3 dB value is equivalent to voltage or current output to
input ratio of 1/ 2 ' 71% (see figure 3.28 a)) or, alternatively, output to input
power ratio of 50%. Hence, the bandwidth for the RC circuit is from DC to
f = (2 π R C)−1 , the cut-off frequency.
Figure 3.28 b) shows the angle of the transfer function, ∠H(f ), and also its
asymptotes given by eqn 3.148. From this figure we observe that for frequen-
cies smaller than one tenth of the cut-off frequency the phase of the transfer
function is close to zero. At the cut-off frequency f = (2 π R C)−1 the phase
of the transfer function is −π/4 and for frequencies significantly greater than
this, the phase of the transfer function tends to −π/2.
|HCRdB (f )| (dB)
1 1 10
10×2 π R C 2πRC 2πRC f (Hz)
0
−3
−10
−20
−30 a)
∠HCR(f ) (rad)
π
2
π
4
f (Hz)
0
1 1 10
10×2 π R C b) 2πRC 2πRC
Figure 3.30: Magnitude and phase of the transfer function of the CR circuit of
figure 3.29 (solid lines) and asymptotes (dashed lines).
Figure 3.30 a) shows the magnitude, in dB, of this transfer function given by
eqn 3.152 and the asymptotes given by eqns 3.153 and 3.154. We observe
that this circuit attenuates frequencies smaller than the cut-off frequency, f c =
(2 π R C)−1 , while it passes the frequency components higher than fc . Hence,
this circuit is called a high-pass filter. Note that, in theory, the bandwidth of this
filter is infinity, although in practice unwanted circuit elements set a maximum
operating frequency to this circuit.
Figure 3.30 b) shows the phase of the transfer function. The three asymp-
totes for this phase given by eqn 3.156 are also shown. At frequencies smaller
than f = (2 π R C 10)−1 the circuit imposes a phase of π/2 while at frequen-
cies higher than f = 10 (2 π R C)−1 the circuit does not change the phase.
3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis 85
that is:
jωL
ZLC = (3.160)
1 − ω2 L C
From figure 3.31 b) we observe that ZLC and the resistor form an impedance
voltage divider. Thus the voltage VO can be expressed as follows:
ZLC
VO = VS
ZLC + R
jωL
1−ω 2 L C
= jωL
1−ω 2 L C + R
jωL
= 2
VS (3.161)
R(1 − ω L C) + j ω L
The transfer function is, therefore,
jωL
HRLC (ω) = (3.162)
R(1 − ω 2 L C) + j ω L
Clearly, this can also be written as
j 2πf L
HRLC (f ) = (3.163)
R(1 + (j 2 π f )2 L C) + j 2 π f L
86 3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis
Ù
ÚÜÛ
Ù
Ú¯Ý
Ù
ÚÞ
Ù
Úàß
Ù
Úâá Óiòôó ñ
éê ÓÕÔcÖ×iØ
ã@õ÷ö
Û
Ùã Ù Ò ÙXä
Û Û
ÎCñ ÎÒ Î,Ï
ÐÑ ÐÑ ÐVÑ
Figure 3.32: Magnitude of the transfer function of the RLC circuit of figure
3.31.
where the phasors VOn are the coefficients of the Fourier series representing
vo (t) and the phasors VSn are the coefficients of the Fourier series representing
vs (t). Clearly, VSn coincide with Cn given by eqn 3.87. However, the units
for these coefficients are volts. The phasors VOn can be written as:
n
j 2π L
2A T
j π n (V) for | n | odd
n2 n 2
V On = R(1 − 4 π 2 L C) + j 2 π L
T T
0 for | n | even
(3.170)
Figures 3.33 a) and 3.33 b) show the magnitude and the phase of the spectral
components of vs (t), respectively, while figures 3.33 c) and 3.33 d) show the
magnitude and the phase of the components of vo (t), respectively. It is clear
that the fundamental component (at f = 1/T ) is present in the output voltage
but that higher order harmonics are severely attenuated4 . Comparing figures
3.33 b) and 3.33 d) it is also clear that the circuit changes the phase of the
higher order harmonics of the input signal.
4 These harmonics appear to be zero given the resolution of figure 3.33 c).
88 3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis
ø ø
ø ø
ú ú
ø ø
ÿ ÿ
ø ø
ü þ ü ý ü û ø û ý ü þ
ü ý ü û ø
ü
û
ü
ý
þü
ü ü þü
" "
! !
ú ú
ÿ ÿ
ø ø
ùÿ ùÿ
ùJú ü þ
ü ý ü û ø
ü
û
ü
ý
þü
ùJú ü þ
ü ý ü û
ü
û
ü
ý
þü
The voltage vo (t) can now be written using eqn 3.92 as:
∞ ³ ´
X n
vo (t) = 2 |VOn | cos 2 π t + angle(VOn ) (3.171)
n=1
T
(n odd)
Since the harmonics, at frequencies higher than the fundamental, are strongly
attenuated, we can write vo (t) as
µ ¶
1
vo (t) ' 2 |VO1 | cos 2 π t + angle (VO1 )
T
µ ¶
4 1 π
#%*'& () = cos 2 π t − (3.172)
3+ #%$'& (')
π T 2
2
01 5
-. / Finally figure 3.34 shows vs (t) and vo (t) given by eqn 3.171. From this figure
+, it is clear that the output voltage is a sine wave corresponding to the fundamen-
(& 78)
5 9 tal component of the input periodic voltage signal vs (t).
465
3.3.6 The Fourier transform
In the previous section we have seen that the Fourier series is a very powerful
Figure 3.34: vs (t) and vo (t). signal analysis tool since it allows us to decompose periodic signals into a sum
3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis 89
since the power of the signal decreases. If we let the period tend to infinity
this is equivalent to having a non-periodic signal, that is, we have a situation
where the signal v(t) is just a single rectangular pulse. In this situation the sig-
nal spectrum is no longer discrete and no longer constituted by equally spaced
discrete phasors. Instead the spectrum becomes continuous. In this situation
the spectrum is often referred to as having a continuous spectral density.
The procedure described above, where the period T is increased, can be
written, in mathematical terms, as follows:
∞
X ³n´ n
v(t) = lim Vn ej 2 π T t
(3.173)
T →∞
n=−∞
T
The discrete frequencies are described by the discrete variable, n/T . This
variable tends to a continuous variable, f , describing a continuous frequency
when T → ∞. V (f ), the (continuous) spectrum or the spectral density of v(t),
can be calculated as follows:
³n´
V (f ) = lim T Vn (3.176)
T →∞ T
Z T /2
n
= lim v(t) e−j 2 π T t dt (3.177)
T →∞ −T /2
Where we chose to = −T /2. Finally, the last eqn can be written as:
Z ∞
V (f ) = v(t) e−j 2 πf t dt (3.178)
−∞
A sufficient condition (but not strictly necessary) for the existence of the Fourier
transform of a signal x(t) is that the integral expressed by eqn 3.178 has a finite
value for every value of f .
———————————————————————————————
Example 3.3.5 Consider the single square voltage pulse shown in figure 3.36.
Show that the Fourier transform of this pulse is the same as that obtained from
eqn 3.176, which is derived from the Fourier series of a periodic sequence of
rectangular pulses (see eqn 3.117), when T → ∞.
Solution: Using eqn 3.178 we can write
Z ∞ µ ¶
t
V (f ) = Va rect e−j 2 π f t dt
−∞ τ
Z τ /2
= Va e−j 2 πf t dt
−τ /2
Va ej π f τ − e−j π f τ
=
−j 2 π f 2j
= Va τ sinc (f τ ) (3.179)
From eqn 3.176 we can write :
³n´
V (f ) = lim T Vn
T →∞ T
Va τ ³ nτ ´
= lim T sinc
T →∞ T T
= Va τ sinc (f τ ) (3.180)
5 Recall that
b
X Z b
lim f (xi ) ∆x = f (x) dx
∆x→0 a
i=a
3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis 91
where n/T → f as T → ∞.
———————————————————————————————
From the above it should be clear that the Fourier transform, V (f ), repre-
sents a density of phasors which completely characterise v(t) in the frequency
domain. Such a representation is similar to the Fourier series coefficients in the
context of periodic signals. However, it is important to note that whilst the unit
of the voltage phasors (Fourier coefficients), Vn is the volt, the unit of the spec-
tral density, V (f ), is volt/hertz (or volt×second). v(t) and V (f ), as given by
eqns 3.175 and 3.178 respectively, form the so-called Fourier transform pair:
F
v(t) V (f ) (3.181)
⇐⇒
where F denotes the Fourier integral operation.
Linearity
The Fourier transform is a linear operator. Given two distinct signals x1 (t) and
x2 (t) with Fourier transforms X1 (f ) and X2 (f ), respectively, then the Fourier
transform of y(t) = a x1 (t) + b x2 (t) is given by;
Z ∞
V (f ) = [a x1 (t) + b x2 (t)] e−j 2 π f t dt
−∞
= a X1 (f ) + b X2 (f ) (3.182)
Duality
Another important property of Fourier transform pairs is the so-called duality.
Let us consider a signal x(t) with a Fourier transform represented by X(f ). If
there is a signal y(t) = X(t) then its Fourier transform is given by
Z ∞
Y (f ) = X(t) e−j 2 π f t dt
−∞
Z ∞
= X(t) ej 2 π (−f ) t dt (3.183)
−∞
Y (f ) = x(−f ) (3.184)
that is
F
X(t) x(−f ) (3.185)
⇐⇒
———————————————————————————————
Example 3.3.6 Use the duality property of Fourier transform pairs to calculate
the Fourier transform of y(t) = A sinc(t η).
92 3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis
Solution: From eqn 3.179 and from eqn 3.185 we can write:
µ ¶
A f
Y (f ) = rect (3.186)
η η
Time delay
If a function x(t) has a Fourier transform X(f ) then the Fourier transform of
a delayed replica of x(t) by a time τ , x(t − τ ), is given by:
Z ∞
F[x(t − τ )] = x(t − τ ) e−j 2 πf t dt (3.187)
−∞
dt = dt0
t → −∞ ; t0 → −∞
t→∞ ; t0 → ∞
τ −1
τ −1
τ t τ t τ t t
a) b) c) d)
increases in order to preserve unity area. When we let τ tend to zero we obtain
the Dirac delta function;
µ ¶
1 t
δ(t) = lim rect (3.190)
τ →0 τ τ
which is depicted in figure 3.37 d). Note that
yz y Z ∞
δ(t) dt = 1 (3.191)
−∞
The area is represented by the bold value next to the arrow representing the
delta function. An important property of the Dirac delta function is called the
sampling property which states that the multiplication of this function, centred
y
at to , by a signal v(t) results in a Dirac delta function centred in to with an area
yz
given by the value of v(t) at t = to , that is:
v(t) × δ(t − to ) = v(to ) × δ(t − to ) (3.192)
{}|~
D We emphasise that the area of v(t) × δ(t − to ) is equal to v(to ), that is:
Z ∞
v(t) × δ(t − to ) = v(to ) (3.193)
−∞
Figure 3.38 illustrates this last property expressed by eqns 3.192 and 3.193.
However, the definite integral cannot be determined because it does not con-
verge for any value of f . Hence, the calculation of this Fourier transform
requires the following mathematical manipulation. We express the DC value
as follows:
w(t) = lim A sinc(t η) (3.195)
η→0
> Figure 3.39 a) illustrates eqn 3.195 where we observe that as η → 0, w(t) →
A. Taking the Fourier transform of w(t), expressed by eqn 3.195, we obtain
Z ∞
6
W (f ) = lim A sinc(t η) e−j 2 π f t dt (3.196)
−∞ η→0
Since the integrand is a continuous function we can change the order of the
limit and the integral, that is
Z ∞
W (f ) = lim A sinc(t η) e−j 2 π f t dt (3.197)
η→0 −∞
This eqn is, by definition (see eqn 3.190), the Dirac delta function multiplied
by A (see also figure 3.39 b)), that is:
This function can also be seen as the addition of a DC value of 1/2 with the
signum function multiplied by a factor 1/2, as illustrated by figure 3.40, and
can be written as
1 1
u(t) = + sign(t) (3.201)
2 2
where the signum function, sign(t), is defined as:
1 if t ≥ 0
sign(t) = (3.202)
−1 if t < 0
3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis 95
1
u(t) The Fourier transform of u(t) is the addition of the Fourier transform of a
DC value (discussed above in detail) with the Fourier transform of the signum
function. We need a mathematical manipulation so that the calculation of the
transform of the signum function converges to its correct value. Figure 3.41
t shows that sign(t) can also be written as follows:
= ³ ´
t
1 − e −α
e−α t if t ≥ 0
1
2 sign(t) = lim ³ t ´ (3.203)
α→0
αt
if t < 0
e −1 e
α
t
with α > 0. Figure 3.41 shows eqn 3.203 for α = 0.5, 0.1 and 0.02. From this
+ figure it is clear that as α tends to zero eqn 3.203 tends to eqn 3.202.
1
2 sign(t) The Fourier transform of the signum function can now be calculated as
1
follows:
2
Z 0 ³ ´
t
Sign(f ) = lim e α − 1 eα t e−j 2 π f t dt
t α→0 −∞
− 21 Z ∞³ ´
t
+ lim 1 − e− α e−α t e−j 2 π f t dt
α→0 0
Figure 3.40: Unit-step func- "Ã t
! #0
tion as the addition of a con- −1 α eα α t−j 2 π f t
= lim + 2 e
stant value with the signum α→0 α − 2j πf α − 2j πf α + 1
−∞
function. "Ã t
! #∞
−α
αe 1
+ lim − e−α t−j 2 π f t
w α→0 α2 + 2 j π f α + 1 α + 2 j π f )
0
¡ 1
= (3.204)
jπf
where we have used the following equalities:
t
lim e α = 0 for t < 0 , (α > 0)
α→0
−t
Figure 3.41: The signum lim e α = 0 for t > 0 , (α > 0)
α→0
function obtained from
eqn 3.203. α = 0.5, 0.1 and Using eqns 3.201, 3.199 and 3.204, we can write the Fourier transform of the
0.02. unit step function as follows:
1 1
U (f ) = δ(f ) + Sign(f )
2 2
1 1
= δ(f ) + (3.205)
2 j 2πf
———————————————————————————————
The generalised Fourier transform also allows us to perform the calculation of
the Fourier transforms of periodic functions. Let us consider, for example, a
periodic voltage signal, v(t) with period T which has a Fourier series such that:
∞
X n
v(t) = V n ej 2 π T t
(3.206)
n=−∞
96 3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis
The Fourier transform of v(t), V (f ), can be related to its Fourier series coeffi-
cients, Vn , as follows:
Z ∞
V (f ) = v(t) e−j 2 π f t dt
−∞
Z ∞ ∞
X n
= Vn ej 2 π T t e−j 2 π f t dt
−∞ n=−∞
∞
X Z ∞
n
= Vn ej 2 π T t e−j 2 π f t dt
n=−∞ −∞
X∞ Z ∞
e−j 2 π (f − T ) t dt
n
= Vn (3.207)
n=−∞ −∞
———————————————————————————————
Example 3.3.9 Determine the energy of the causal6 exponential, w(t) shown
in figure 3.42, using Rayleigh’s energy theorem. Then, show that this result is
the same as that obtained from the integration of w 2 (t).
¤¥ £ ¦
Solution: The causal exponential w(t) of figure 3.42 can be written as:
−σ t
e for t ≥ 0
w(t) = (3.213)
elsewhere
0
¢ £
where σ > 0. Hence, the spectrum of w(t) can be calculated as
Z
Figure 3.42: Causal expo- ∞
nential. W (f ) = w(t)e−j 2 π f t dt
−∞
Z ∞
= e−σ t e−j 2 π f t dt
·0 ¸∞
1
= e−j 2 π f t
−σ − j 2 π f 0
1
= (3.214)
σ + j 2πf
• Voltage transfer function: In this situation both input and output pha-
sors are voltages. The transfer function represents a voltage gain (or
voltage attenuation if this gain is less than one) versus the frequency.
This transfer function is dimensionless.
• Current transfer function: Both input and output phasors are currents.
Hence, the transfer function represents a current gain (or current atten-
uation if this gain is less than one) versus the frequency. This transfer
function is also dimensionless.
From the discussion about the Fourier series we have concluded that knowledge
of the transfer function of a circuit allows the calculation of the spectrum of the
output signal for a given periodic input signal, using eqn 3.127. In similar way,
the spectrum of the output signal, Xo (f ), for a given input signal with Xi (f )
can be calculated as
Xo (f ) = H(f ) × Xi (f ) (3.217)
Solution: The impulse response can be obtained calculating the inverse Fourier
Figure 3.43: Impulse re- transform of the transfer function H(f ) which is given by eqn 3.124:
sponse of an RC circuit.
1
H(f ) = (3.218)
1 + j 2πf RC
3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis 99
Taking the inverse Fourier transform the output signal is xo (t) ' A τ h(t).
———————————————————————————————
Since the input signal, in the time domain, is represented by xi (t), this can be
written as:
Z ∞ Z ∞
xo (t) = H(f ) xi (λ) ej 2 π f λ dλ ej 2 π f t df (3.226)
−∞ −∞
| {z }
Xi (f )
Ç Because H(f ) has an inverse Fourier transform represented by h(t), then xo (t)
can be calculated as:
Ù
Z ∞
ÀÁ%Â\ÃVÄ ÅÆ
È xo (t) = xi (λ) h(t − λ) dλ (3.228)
Â%Ú'Ä ÅÆ −∞
Õ
This represents the convolution operation between x(t) and h(t). This opera-
Ð Ç ÈÊÉÌËUÍ ÎÏ tion is also represented as follows:
Æ Ä Æ
Â\×B
Ã Ä ÉB
ÅÆ ÒDØ xo (t) = xi (t) ∗ h(t) (3.229)
with ∗ indicating the convolution operation. It can be shown (see problem 3.10)
ÉBÒÏ that
ÄÑ Æ
xi (t) ∗ h(t) = h(t) ∗ xi (t) (3.230)
Õ ÓÔ ÓÔ
Ö Å
Æ In order to understand the convolution operation we consider the RC circuit
of figure 3.45 where now a single square voltage pulse, vi (t), is applied to its
Figure 3.45: Square voltage input. The output voltage vo (t) can be determined according to eqn 3.228.
pulse, vi (t), is applied to an However, we shall evaluate vo (t) by first approximating the input square pulse
RC circuit. by a sum of (N + 1) Dirac delta functions, as illustrated in figure 3.46. Now
7 This change of the order of integration is possible whenever the functions are absolutely in-
tegrable. The variety of signals of interest and their corresponding spectra obey this requirement.
See [2] for more details.
3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis 101
vi(t) (V)
vo(t) (V)
(N + 1)−1
N +1=6
a)
vi(t) (V)
vo(t) (V)
(N + 1)−1
N + 1 = 21
b)
1
N →∞ 1
c)
Figure 3.46: Illustration of the convolution operation with the input voltage
signal in the circuit of figure 3.45 being approximated as a sum of (N + 1)
Dirac delta functions. a) N + 1 = 6, b) N + 1 = 21, c) N → ∞.
102 3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis
Note that the sum of the areas of the (N +1) delta functions is equal to the area
of the rectangular pulse, Aτ = 1. Using eqn 3.228 the voltage at the output of
the RC circuit, vo (t) is given by
Z ∞
vo (t) = vi (λ) h(t − λ) dλ (3.232)
−∞
N Z ∞ µ ¶
1 X N − 2k
= δ λ+ h(t − λ) dλ (3.233)
N +1 −∞ 2N
k=0
where h(t) is given by eqn 3.222 with RC = 0.2 s. From eqn 3.193 we can
write this as,
N µ ¶
5 X N −2 k N − 2k
vo (t) = e−5(t+ 2 N ) u t + (3.234)
N +1 2N
k=0
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Figures 3.47 c), d) and e) illustrate the calculation of eqn 3.237 for t = −0.25,
t = 0 and t = 0.25, respectively. For t ≥ 0.5 the output voltage can be
obtained from the expression indicated below (see figures 3.47 f) and 3.47 g)):
Z 0.5
vo (t) = 5 e−5(t−λ) dλ , t ≥ 0.5
−0.5
· ¸0.5
1 −5(t−λ)
= 5 e , t ≥ 0.5
5 −0.5
= e−5(t−0.5) − e −5(t+0.5)
, t ≥ 0.5 (3.239)
x1 (λ) = (3.241)
elsewhere
0,
that is −1 1
1, 2 <λ< 2
x1 (λ) = (3.242)
elsewhere
0,
and x2 (t − λ) can be written as
−1 t−λ 1
A, 2 < T < 2
x2 (t − λ) = (3.243)
elsewhere
0,
3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis 105
For t ≥ 1 there is no overlap between x1 (λ) and x2 (−1 − λ) and y(t) is again
t (s) zero. From the above we can write y(t) as
−2 −1 0 1 2
f)
0 if t ≤ −1
1 + t if − 1 < t ≤ 0
Figure 3.48: Convolution y(t) = (3.248)
of two identical rectangular
1 − t if 0 < t < 1
if t ≥ 1
waveforms. 0
Figure 3.48 f) shows that y(t) represents a triangle. In fact eqn. 3.248 defines
the triangular function, triang(t).
———————————————————————————————
The discussion presented above reveals, once again, the advantage of anal-
ysing circuits and signals in the frequency domain. While time domain anal-
ysis involves the calculation of convolution integrals using the circuit impulse
response and the time domain signal, the frequency domain involves the mul-
tiplication of the circuit transfer functions with the signal spectrum (or signal
Fourier transform) which is, by far, a more simple mathematical operation.
106 3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis
F
x(t) ∗ y(t) X(f ) × Y (f ) (3.249)
⇐⇒
F
x(t) × y(t) X(f ) ∗ Y (f ) (3.250)
⇐⇒
These two theorems state that the convolution of two functions in the time
domain corresponds to multiplication of its Fourier transforms in the frequency
domain while multiplication of two functions in the time domain corresponds
to convolution of its Fourier transforms in the frequency domain.
3.4 Bibliography 1. K.C.A. Smith and R.E. Alley, Electrical Circuits, an Introduction, 1992
(Cambridge University Press).
2. A.V. Oppenheim and A.S. Willsky, Signals and Systems, 1996 (Prentice
Hall Signal Processing Series), 2nd edition.
3.5 Problems 3.1 Determine the effective (or RMS) value of each periodic waveform shown
in figure 3.49. Consider VA = VB = VC = 2 V and T = 1 ms. Figures a) and
c) represent sections of sinusoidal waves.
ò
ó ò ò
ñ
ó ò
ó ò ò ñ ó ò ò ñ
ó ò ò
ÿø ø äø
3.3 Using phasor analysis, calculate all voltages across and currents through
each passive element of the circuit of figure 3.50. v(t) = 10 cos(ω t + π/4) V
and i(t) = 0.15 cos(ω t + π/3) A. The angular frequency ω is 30 krad/s.
$ .
/
0(
$ # $ '"
'$$
)$$
%& ) /
'"
(& !"
*
-
+
,
3.4 For the circuit of figure 3.51 find the load ZL for which maximum power
transfer occurs at f = 35 kHz.
3.5 Consider again the waveforms of figure 3.49. Determine the Fourier series
of each waveform and sketch the correspondent line spectrum.
3.6 Show that the transfer function, H(f ) = Vo /Vs , of the circuit of figure
3.29 can be expressed by eqn 3.151.
3.7 Determine the output voltage, vo (t), for the circuits of figure 3.52. vs (t)
is the periodic sequence of triangular pulses as shown in figure 3.49. Consider
T = 0.1 ms and VB = 2.5 V.
3.8 Determine the transfer functions, H(f ), and the 3 dB bandwidth of the
circuits of figure 3.53. For the circuit of figure 3.53 a) determine the quality
factor.
3.9 Determine the Fourier transforms of the signals shown in figure 3.54.
108 3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis
+ +
100 Ω
1.4 µF
+ +
vs(t) vo(t) vs(t) 14 mH vo(t)
− −
100 Ω
− −
a) b)
+ + IO
1 mH 410 Ω 0.1 mH
IS 7 µF
+
+
VO − VS VO
− VS
1.1 µF 0.21 µF
230 Ω 160 Ω
950 Ω 2 mH
− −
a) b) c)
v2(t) v3(t)
v1(t)
2V
1.5 V
1V 1V
0.7 mH +
3.10 Show that the mathematical convolution satisfies the commutative prop-
+
30 Ω
erty expressed by eqn 3.230.
vs(t)
− vo(t)
1.5 µF
3.11 Find the impulse response of the circuit of figure 3.55.
−
Figure 3.55: Circuit of prob- 3.12 Consider the circuit of problem 3.11 driven by a rectangular pulse; vi =
lem 3.11. Va rect(t/Ta − 1/2). Va = 2 V, Ta = 0.5 ms. Determine the output voltage
using the convolution operation.
4 Natural and forced responses circuit
analysis
4.1 Introduction In this chapter we discuss the natural and the forced responses of passive elec-
trical circuits. The natural response of a circuit is its response when the circuit
is not been driven by any signal source and it usually describes how the ener-
gies stored in the capacitors and inductors are transferred and finally dissipated
in resistive elements.
The forced response of an electrical circuit is the combination of the steady-
state response, studied in detail in the last chapter, with the transient response
and is a consequence of the application of a voltage or current signal to a circuit.
The time domain expressions for the voltages or currents in the circuit can
be derived by using Fourier transform techniques, discussed in the last chapter,
or by using the Laplace transform.
We start by presenting the analysis of a circuit with non-zero initial con-
ditions driven by a signal source which is switched-on at a specific instant of
time (usually t = 0). Then we show that this analysis can be effected using
Fourier transform techniques. In section 4.4 we present the Laplace transform
and in section 4.5 we use this tool to analyse the natural response and the step
forced responses of RC, RL, LC and RLC circuits.
4.2 Time In the last chapter we saw that the choice of the time origin is not relevant
for the study of the steady-state behaviour of electrical circuits. However, to
domain address both the natural and the transient responses, the definition of a time
analysis origin, usually associated with the start of an event such as the switching-on of
a circuit, is obviously of fundamental importance. Signals which have a time
origin, that is, they are zero for t < 0, are called causal signals since they have
a physical origin or cause. Figure 4.1 shows two examples of causal voltage
signals which can be expressed as follows:
Vs
vS1 (t) = [1 − cos(ω t)] u(t) (4.1)
2
∞ · µ ¶¸
X T
vS2 (t) = Vs u(t − k T ) − u t − k T − (4.2)
2
k=0
where Vs represents the amplitude of the signal and ω = 2π/T is the angular
frequency where T is the period. u(t) is the unit-step function as described in
the last chapter (eqn 3.200). The multiplication by u(t) in eqn 4.1 guarantees
110 4. Natural and forced responses circuit analysis
vS1 (t) causality. The mathematical representation of the causal signal of figure 4.1 b)
Vs
and expressed by eqn 4.2 is based on the expression of the rectangular function
as the difference of two unit-step functions (as illustrated in figure 4.2) that is
à !
t t − T4
µ
T
¶
T 2T rect T
= u(t) − u t −
a) 2
2
vS2 (t)
Vs Circuits with non-zero initial conditions
In section 3.3.7, we presented the concept of the impulse response of a circuit.
t This, together with the convolution operation, allows us to obtain the output
T 2T response of a circuit in the time domain when a particular input signal is driving
b) the circuit. However, it is important to note that this type of analysis assumed
that no capacitors or inductors were storing energy prior to the application
Figure 4.1: Causal signals. of the input signal. That is, this type of analysis is valid when all the initial
Examples. conditions associated with the capacitors and inductors are zero.
MNPO&QSR T UVWX In order to address analysis with non-zero initial conditions driven by causal
L V"W.Y[Z signal sources we consider the circuit of figure 4.3 driven by the voltage source
I described by eqn 4.1. We want to determine the voltage across the capacitor,
` V vC (t), in the time domain. This circuit incorporates a switch which is open for
Y
FHG IKJ t < 0. We assume that for t < 0 the capacitor has a voltage across its terminals
L equal to Vco 1 . The switch is closed at t = 0 applying vS1 (t) to the RC circuit.
I
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to the RC circuit of figure 4.3 we can write,
a for t ≥ 0, the following eqn:
\ F^]I \ V I
Y(_
V vS1 (t) − vC (t) dvC (t)
Y = C (4.3)
\ L R dt
This can also be written as
Figure 4.2: Rectangular sig- dvC (t)
nal as the sum to two unit- vS1 (t) = vC (t) + R C
dt
step functions.
or
Vs dvC (t)
[1 − cos(ω t)] u(t) = vC (t) + τ (4.4)
2 dt
where τ = R C. The differential equation defined by 4.4 has a general solution,
(t = 0) R for t ≥ 0, which can be written as follows:
µ ·
+ Vs Vs ω 2 τ 2 − t Vs 1
vS1 (t) C vC (t) = − e τ − cos(ω t)
+ vC (t) 2 2 1 + ω2 τ 2 2 1 + ω2 τ 2
− | {z }
1st term
−
¸¶
Figure 4.3: RC circuit. ωτ t
+ sin(ω t) u(t) + Vco e− τ u(t) (4.5)
1 + ω2 τ 2 | {z }
2nd term
| {z }
1st term (cont.)
We observe that the first term is related to the application of the input signal
vS1 (t) to the RC circuit. In fact, it can be shown that this first term can be
obtained from the convolution operation between the input voltage vS1 (t) and
the circuit impulse response (see example 4.2.1). However, the second term of
eqn 4.5 depends only on the initial voltage of the capacitor, Vco .
vC (t) Transient Steady-state
response response
By using trigonometric identities (appendix A) and taking into consider-
Vs ation the initial condition (t < 0) eqn 4.5 can be written, for all time t, as
2
follows
t µ · µ ¶¸¶
Vs 1 1
0 3T 6T 9T vC (t) = 1− √ sin ω t + tan−1 u(t)
2 1 + ω2τ 2 ωτ
| {z }
− V2s Contribution by the steady-state response (Fig. 4.4 b)
a)
−Vs ω 2 τ 2 t
Vs + 2 2
e− τ u(t)
2 2 1+ω τ
Contribution by the | {z }
Steady-state response
Contribution by the transient response (Fig. 4.4 c)
t t
0 3T 6T 9T + Vco e− τ u(t) + Vco u(−t) (4.6)
| {z } | {z }
Natural response (Fig. 4.4 d) Initial condition (Fig. 4.4 d)
− V2s
b)
where we can identify all the different contributions to vC (t). The steady-
Vs
2 Contribution by the state response represents the voltage vC (t) when all transient phenomena of
Transient response the circuit have vanished, as extensively discussed in the previous chapter.
0 3T 6T 9T
To illustrate the different contributions we plot vC (t) and its constituent
t parts in figure 4.4. Figure 4.4 a) shows vC (t), given by eqn 4.6, assuming
τ = 10/ω and Vco = Vs /6. Figures 4.4 b) and 4.4 c) show the contributions
− V2s by the steady-state and transient regimes, respectively. Figure 4.4 d) shows the
c) initial condition and the natural response associated with vC (t). The transient
Vs response corresponds to the response of the circuit between the time when the
2
Initial Natural response signal is applied to the circuit and the time where the circuit is considered to be
Condition
Vco in steady-state. The combination of the steady-state response with the transient
t
response is called the ‘forced response’ since it is caused by the forcing signal
0 3T 6T 9T
source applied to the circuit. The natural response associated with vC (t) cor-
responds to the voltage across the capacitor, for t ≥ 0, that would be obtained
− V2s d) if the voltage source vS1 (t) was replaced by a short-circuit at t = 0. In fact,
this natural response can be seen as the contribution of the voltage Vco to the
Figure 4.4: a) Time domain overall voltage across the capacitor for t ≥ 0. It is interesting to note that this
voltage across the capaci- contribution can also be obtained by applying the superposition theorem to the
tor of figure 4.3. b) Con- circuit of figure 4.3 resulting in the circuit of figure 4.5. For this circuit we can
tribution by the steady-state write
regime. c) Contribution by
the transient response. d) dvC (t) vC (t)
C + =0 (4.7)
Natural response. dt R
Since vC (t) is also the voltage across the resistance R we can obtain the current
i(t) as
Vco − t
e τ (4.9)
i(t) =
R
———————————————————————————————
Example 4.2.1 Consider the RC circuit of figure 4.3 driven by the voltage
b
source described by eqn 4.1. Determine the voltage vC (t) obtained by cal-
k g hi j d ePfg hi culating the convolution between vS1 (t) and the circuit impulse response and
show that this result is equal to the first term of eqn 4.5.
c
Solution: The RC circuit impulse response, h(t), was derived in Chapter 3
and is given by eqn 3.222. The convolution between vS1 (t) and h(t) can be
Figure 4.5: Equivalent cir- determined as
cuit for the calculation of the Z ∞
natural response (t ≥ 0) of vC (t) = vS1 (λ) h(t − λ) dλ
−∞
the RC circuit of figure 4.3. Z ∞
Vs t−λ
= [1 − cos(ω λ)] u(λ) e− τ u(t − λ) dλ
−∞ 2
Z t
Vs t−λ
= [1 − cos(ω λ)] e− τ dλ
0 2
¯t
Vs − t−λ 1 + ω 2 τ 2 − cos(ωλ) − ωτ sin(ωλ) ¯¯
= e τ
2 1 + ω2 τ 2 ¯
0
µ
Vs 1 ωτ
= 1− cos(ωt) − sin(ωt)
2 1 + ω2 τ 2 1 + ω2 τ 2
¶
ω2 τ 2 − t
− e τ , (t ≥ 0) (4.10)
1 + ω2 τ 2
Comparing this eqn with the first term of eqn 4.5 we observe that they are
identical.
———————————————————————————————
Example 4.2.2 Consider again the RC circuit of figure 4.3 but now driven by
the voltage source described by eqn 4.2. This voltage source corresponds to
lmon pq the periodic sequence of square pulses, as illustrated in figure 4.1 b). Consider
a period T equal to τ /3 (τ = RC). Determine the voltage vC (t).
r"s z5u v
Solution: According to eqn 4.4, and for t ≥ 0, the voltage vC (t) satisfies the
r s xyuwv following eqn:
∞ · µ ¶¸
r"s tHuwv X T dvC (t)
Vs u(t − k T ) − u t − k T − = vC (t) + τ (4.11)
pn Kq 2 dt
k=0
r {}| z}| ~|
This differential equation has a general solution which can be written as fol-
lows:
Figure 4.6: The voltage X∞ ³ ´
t t−k T
across the capacitor given vC (t) = Vco e− τ u(t) + Vs 1 − e− τ u(t − k T )
by eqn 4.12. Vco = 0 V. k=0
∞ ³ ´ µ ¶
X
−
t−n T −T /2 T
− Vs 1−e τ u t − nT − (4.12)
n=0
2
4. Natural and forced responses circuit analysis 113
where the first term represents the natural response and the last two terms rep-
resent the forced response (given by the sum of the transient and steady-state
responses). Figure 4.6 shows vC (t) given by eqn 4.12 where we assume that
Vco is zero. Note the similarity between this waveform, when is in its steady-
state condition, and that shown in figure 3.26 a) of section 3.3.3. In both situ-
ations the cut-off frequency, fc = (2πτ )−1 , of the RC circuit is smaller than
1/T causing the output signal, vC (t), to approximate a triangular waveform as
discussed in example 3.3.4.
———————————————————————————————
4.3 Transient The Fourier transform, studied in detail in the previous chapter, can also be
analysis used to analyse the application of causal signals to electrical circuits. In order
to demonstrate this application we introduce two important theorems which
using allow us to take into account the initial conditions of electrical circuits; the dif-
Fourier ferentiation and the integration theorems for causal signals.
transforms 4.3.1 Differentiation theorem
This theorem states that if a causal signal x(t) has a Fourier transform X(f )
then the Fourier transform of the time derivative of x(t) is given by:
· ¸
d x(t)
F = j 2π f X(f ) − x(0) (4.13)
dt
where F[·] designates the Fourier transform operation defined by eqn 3.178. In
order to prove this theorem we consider the Fourier transform of x(t);
Z ∞
X(f ) = x(t) e−j 2 π f t dt
−∞
Since x(t) is a causal signal the last eqn can be written as:
Z ∞
X(f ) = x(t) e−j 2 π f t dt (4.14)
0
This eqn can be evaluated by integrating (by parts) using the following equality:
Z Z
w dz = w z − z dw
with
w = x(t)
dz = e−j 2 π f t dt
Thus, we have
d x(t)
dw = dt
dt
−1 −j 2 π f t
z = e
j 2πf
114 4. Natural and forced responses circuit analysis
Hence, from eqn 3.249, we can write (see also eqn 3.205)
·Z t ¸
F x(λ) dλ = X(f ) U (f )
0
1 X(f )
= X(f ) + δ(f ) (4.17)
j 2πf 2
signals. Recall that for those electrical components capable of storing energy
the I–V relationships for causal voltage and current signals accommodate the
I(f ) R initial conditions. Thus, there will be a voltage associated with the energy
stored in a capacitor and a current associated with the energy stored in an in-
+ V (f ) − ductor.
a)
I(f ) C Resistance
For resistances the I–V characteristic obeys the linear relationship between
V (f ) and I(f )
+ V (f ) −
b)
V (f ) = R I(f ) (4.18)
where V (f ) and I(f ) are the Fourier transforms of the causal voltage and
I(f ) L
current applied to the resistance as indicated in figure 4.7 a).
+ V (f )
Capacitance
−
c)
The current through a capacitor can be related to the voltage across its terminals
Figure 4.7: I–V charac- according to the following eqn:
teristics for a) resistances,
b) capacitances, c) induc- d v(t)
i(t) = C (4.19)
tances. dt
Applying the Fourier transform to this eqn we obtain (see also eqn 4.13)
I(f ) v(0)
V (f ) = +
j 2πf C j 2πf
v(0)
= I(f ) ZC (f ) + (4.21)
j 2πf
with
1
ZC (f ) =
j 2πf C
Note that ZC (f ) represents the complex impedance associated with the capa-
citor C as discussed in the last chapter.
Inductance
The voltage across an inductor can be related to the current flowing through it
according to the following eqn:
d i(t)
v(t) = L (4.22)
dt
116 4. Natural and forced responses circuit analysis
Applying the Fourier transform to this eqn we obtain (see also eqn 4.13)
V (f ) = j 2 π f L I(f ) − L i(0) (4.23)
where i(0) is the current flowing through the inductor at t = 0. V (f ) and I(f )
represent the Fourier transforms of the voltage across and the current through
the inductor, respectively. Eqn 4.23 can also be written as:
V (f ) = ZL (f ) I(f ) − L i(0) (4.24)
with
ZL (f ) = j 2πf L
where ZL (f ) is the complex impedance of the inductor L.
Solving to obtain I(f ) we get
V (f ) i(0)
+ (4.25)
I(f ) =
j 2πf L j 2πf
———————————————————————————————
Example 4.3.1 Use the Fourier transform method to determine the voltage
across the capacitor of the RC circuit of figure 4.3 when driven by the volt-
age source described by eqn 4.2.
Solution: Figure 4.8 shows the equivalent circuit for t ≥ 0. Since I(f ) flows
through both the resistor and the capacitor we can write (see also eqns 4.18 and
4.20):
VS2 (f ) − VC (f )
= j 2 π f C VC (f ) − C Vco
R
R where VS2 (f ) is the Fourier transform of vS2 (t). Solving this to obtain VC (f )
+ we have:
VS2 (f ) C VS2 (f ) τ Vco
+ VC (f ) VC (f ) = + (4.26)
− 1 + j 2πf τ 1 + j 2πf τ
VS2 (f ) can be obtained, according to eqns 3.188 and 3.205, as follows:
−
∞ ³ ´
Figure 4.8: RC equivalent X
VS2 (f ) = e−j 2 π f k T − e−j 2 π f (k T +T /2)
circuit in the frequency
k=−∞
domain. µ ¶
1 1
× δ(f ) +
2 j 2πf
Now, eqn 4.26 can be written as
∞ ³ ´
τ Vco X
VC (f ) = + e−j 2 π f k T − e−j 2 π f (k T +T /2)
1 + j 2πf τ
k=−∞
µ ¶
1 1 1
× δ(f ) + (4.27)
1 + j 2 π fτ 2 (1 + j 2 π f τ )j 2 π f
| {z }
H(f ) 1
δ(f ) + H(f )
2 j 2πf
4. Natural and forced responses circuit analysis 117
where
1
H(f ) =
1 + j 2 π fτ
Taking into account eqns 3.214, 4.16 and 3.188, the inverse Fourier transform
of eqn 4.27, vC (t), for t ≥ 0, can be calculated as
∞
ÃZ
t−k T
− τt
X 1 −λ
vC (t) = Vco e u(t) + e τ u(λ) dλ
0 τ
k=−∞
Z t−k T −T /2 !
1 −λ
− e τ u(λ) dλ (4.28)
0 τ
Note that this expression for vC (t) is the same as that obtained in example
4.2.2 and is shown in figure 4.6 for T = τ /3.
———————————————————————————————
4.4 The Laplace We have shown above that the Fourier transform can be used to analyse the
transient behaviour of electrical circuits. Here we introduce the Laplace trans-
transform form which is highly suited for the analysis of circuits driven by causal signals.
Definition
The unilateral Laplace transform of a causal signal, x(t) is defined as2 :
Z ∞
X(s) = x(t) e−s t dt (4.30)
0
form has special applications and is not used here. In this book when we refer to the Laplace
transform we always mean the unilateral one.
118 4. Natural and forced responses circuit analysis
1³ ´
= 1 − lim e−s t (4.31)
s t→∞
1
= for Real (s) > 0 (4.32)
Imag (s) s
We emphasise that the Laplace transform of the unit-step function exists only
Region of
convergence for values of s such that their real part is greater than zero, otherwise the limit
in eqn 4.31 does not converge. The range of allowed values for s defines the
0 Real (s) so-called Region Of Convergence (ROC) of the Laplace transform. For the
unit-step the ROC is indicated in figure 4.9.
———————————————————————————————
Figure 4.9: Region of con- Example 4.4.1 Find the Laplace transform of the following functions
vergence of the Laplace 1. x1 (t) = e−t/τ u(t)
transform of the unit-step.
2. x2 (t) = e−j α t u(t)
3. x3 (t) = e−γ t u(t)
4. x4 (t) = cos(2 π fo t) u(t)
where τ , α and fo are positive real numbers and γ is a complex number.
Solution:
1. The Laplace transform of the causal, real exponential is
Z ∞
X1 (s) = e−t/τ u(t) e−s t dt
0
¯∞
τ −t 1+s τ ¯
= − e τ ¯
sτ + 1 ¯
0
³ 1+s τ
´
= 1 − lim e−t τ
t→∞
τ
= for Real (s) > −1/τ (4.33)
sτ + 1
———————————————————————————————
where c is a real number which sets the path of integration in the complex
domain. This path of integration must be defined within the ROC of X(s).
The solution of this type of integral is out of the scope of this book and is not
discussed further3 . In practice, eqn 4.37 is rarely used and we use instead the
method of partial fractions. In addition, Laplace transform tables like those
presented in appendix A are also used.
Linearity
Let us consider two causal signals x1 (t) and x2 (t) with Laplace transforms
given by X1 (s) and X2 (s), respectively. If z(t) = α1 x1 (t) + α2 x2 (t), where
α1 and α2 are real constants, then its Laplace transform can be written as:
Time delay
If z(t) = x(t − τ ) where τ represents a positive time delay then the Laplace
transform of z(t) is given by:
Time differentiation
If z(t) is a signal resulting from the time differentiation of a causal signal x(t),
such that
d
z(t) = x(t) (4.40)
dt
then the Laplace transform of z(t) is given by:
The proof of this theorem is similar to that presented in the context of Fourier
transforms in section 4.3.1.
———————————————————————————————
−1 d
sin(2 π fo t) u(t) = cos(2 π fo t) u(t) (4.42)
2 π fo dt
then using eqns 4.38, 4.36 and 4.41 we have
µ ¶
−1 s
H(s) = s −1
2 π fo (2 π fo )2 + s2
2 π fo
= (4.43)
(2 π fo )2 + s2
———————————————————————————————
Time integration
If z(t) is a signal resulting from the time integration of a causal signal x(t),
such that
Z t
z(t) = x(λ) dλ (4.44)
0
X(s)
Z(s) = (4.45)
s
The proof of this theorem is similar to that presented in the context of Fourier
transforms in section 4.3.2.
———————————————————————————————
X(s)
Z(s) = (4.46)
s
with
1
X(s) = (4.47)
1 + sτ
The inverse Laplace transform of X(s) is, according to eqn 4.33, equal to
1 −t/τ
x(t) = e u(t) (4.48)
τ
Now, using eqn 4.44 we have
Z t
1 −t/τ
z(t) = e u(t) dτ
0 τ
¯t
−e−t/τ u(t)¯
¯
=
³ ´0
−t/τ
= 1−e u(t) (4.49)
———————————————————————————————
Time scaling
If z(t) = x(α t) then the Laplace transform of z(t) is given by:
1 ³s´
Z(s) = X (4.50)
α α
Convolution
If z(t) results from the convolution of x(t) with y(t) then the Laplace transform
of z(t) is given by:
then
z(t) = (−1)n tn x(t) (4.54)
———————————————————————————————
Example 4.4.4 Find the inverse Laplace transform of
1
G(s) = (4.55)
(s + a)n+1
where n = 0, 1, 2, . . ..
Solution: Since,
1 (−1)n dn 1
= (4.56)
(s + a)n+1 n
n! ds s + a
then, by using eqn 4.33, with a = 1/τ , together with eqn 4.54 we can write
tn −t a
e u(t) (4.57)
g(t) =
n!
———————————————————————————————
x(t)
Time periodicity
t
0
Let us consider x(t) to be a causal periodic waveform with period T as illus-
T 2T 3T
a) trated in figure 4.10. This can be written as
xT (t) ∞
X
x(t) = xT (t − k T ) (4.58)
t
k=0
0 T
b) where xT (t) is zero outside the time interval [0, T ]. The Laplace transform of
x(t) is given by:
Figure 4.10: Periodic wave- 1
form. a) x(t). b) xT (t). X(s) = XT (s) (4.59)
1 − e−s T
with
Z ∞
XT (s) = xT (t) e−s t dt (4.60)
0
———————————————————————————————
Example 4.4.5 Find the Laplace transform of the waveform of figure 4.1 b).
Solution: According to eqn 4.60 we can write:
Z T /2
VST (s) = Vs e−s t dt
0
Vs ³ ´
= 1 − e−s T /2 (4.61)
s
Using eqn 4.59 we have
Vs 1 − e−s T /2
(4.62)
VS2 (s) =
s 1 − e−s T
———————————————————————————————
4. Natural and forced responses circuit analysis 123
———————————————————————————————
Example 4.4.6 Determine the inverse Laplace transform of the following func-
tion which occurs in the analysis of a damped simple harmonic oscillator.
ωn2
Y (s) = (4.68)
s2 + 2η ωn s + ωn2
ωn is called the natural frequency while η is called the damping factor. Con-
sider the following situations: η < 1, η = 1 and η > 1.
Solution:
1. η < 1. First we express the denominator of Y (s) as a product of the two
poles which can be obtained solving the following quadratic eqn
s2 + 2 η ωn s + ωn2 = 0 (4.69)
ωn2
Y (s) = p p
(s + η ωn + j ωn 1 − η 2 )(s + η ωn − j ωn 1 − η2)
K0 K1
Y (s) = p + p
s + η ω n + j ωn 1 − η2 s + η ω n − j ωn 1 − η2
It is left to the reader to show that the last eqn can be written as
ωn ³ p ´
y(t) = p sin ωn 1 − η 2 t e−t η wn u(t) (4.72)
1 − η2
ωn2
Y (s) =
(s + ωn )2
K0 K1
Y (s) = p + p
s + η ω n + ωn η2 − 1 s + η ω n − ωn η2 − 1
The application of this analysis to RLC circuits is discussed later in this chapter.
———————————————————————————————
The discussion presented above applies to s-functions without repeated poles.
In practice this is the most frequently encountered situation. However, let us
consider an s-function which has n + 1 poles including n identical ones as
shown below:
1
W (s) = (4.77)
(s + p1 )n (s + p0 )
This function can be written in a partial-fraction form as follows:
K 1n K1n−1 K 12 K 11
W (s) = n
+ + ... + +
(s + p1 ) (s + p1 )n−1 (s + p1 )2 s + p1
K0
+ (4.78)
s + p0
Now, applying a procedure similar to that described above we can determine
the coefficients K1n−k and K0 . Using eqns 4.35 and 4.57 the inverse Laplace
transform of W (s) can be obtained as
n
X K1k tk−1 −t p1
w(t) = e u(t) + K0 e−t p0 u(t) (4.79)
(k − 1)!
k=1
XF (f ) = XL (s) (4.80)
with s replaced by j 2 π f .
4. Natural and forced responses circuit analysis 127
———————————————————————————————
Note that this result is the same as that given by eqn 3.214 replacing σ by 1/τ .
———————————————————————————————
4.5 Analysis We are now in position to employ the Laplace transform to analyse the natural
and forced responses of electrical circuits. Again we use the circuit of figure
using 4.3 driven by the periodic sequence of square pulses of figure 4.1 b) to illustrate
Laplace this procedure.
transforms
4.5.1 Solving differential equations
The differential equation expressed by eqn 4.11 can be solved in the Laplace
domain, taking into account the time differentiation theorem expressed by
eqn 4.41, as follows:
VS2 (s) and VC (s) are the Laplace transforms of vS2 (t) and vC (t), respectively.
Equation 4.83 can be solved to obtain VC (s) as follows:
The solution of the differential equation expressed by eqn 4.11 can now be
obtained after calculating the inverse Laplace transform of VC (s) given by the
last eqn. From eqn 4.33 we have
Vco τ L
⇐⇒ Vco −t/τ u(t)
1 + sτ
128 4. Natural and forced responses circuit analysis
where L
⇐⇒ denotes a Laplace transform pair. From eqn 4.49 we have
Vs ³ ´
L −t/τ
V s 1 − e u(t)
s (1 + s τ ) ⇐⇒
Using eqn 4.39 we have
Vs ³ ´ ³ ´
1 − e−s T /2 L
⇐⇒ Vs 1 − e−t/τ u(t)
s (1 + s τ )
³ ´ µ ¶
−(t−T /2)/τ T
−Vs 1 − e u t−
2
Finally, from eqn 4.59 we get
∞ h³
Vs 1 − e−s T /2 X t−k T
´
L
⇐⇒ Vs 1 − e− τ u(t)
s (1 + s τ ) 1 − e−s T
k=0
³ ´ µ ¶¸
−
t−k T −T /2 T
− 1−e τ u t−kT −
2
From the above we can write vC (t), for t ≥ 0, as
X∞ ³ ´
t t−k T
vC (t) = Vco e− τ u(t) + Vs 1 − e− τ u(t − k T )
k=0
∞ ³ ´ µ ¶
X
−
t−n T −T /2 T
− Vs 1−e τ u t − nT − (4.86)
n=0
2
which is the same expression as that obtained in examples 3.3.4 and 4.2.2.
Capacitance
Applying Laplace transforms to eqn 4.19 we obtain (see also eqn 4.41)
where v(0) is the voltage across the capacitor terminals at t = 0. V (s) and I(s)
represent the Laplace transforms of the voltage across and the current through
the capacitor, respectively. Solving eqn 4.88 in order to obtain V (s) we get
I(s) v(0)
V (s) = + (4.89)
sC s
v(0)
= I(s) ZC (s) + (4.90)
s
with
1
ZC (s) =
sC
where ZC (s) represents the complex impedance, in the Laplace domain, asso-
ciated with the capacitor C. Note that eqn 4.89 can also be obtained by finding
the Laplace transform of v(t) in eqn 1.24.
Inductance
Applying Laplace transforms to eqn 4.22 we obtain (see also eqn 4.41)
where i(0) is the current flowing through the inductor at t = 0. V (s) and I(s)
represent the Laplace transforms of the voltage across and the current through
the inductor, respectively. Eqn 4.91 can also be written as:
with
ZL (s) = sL
V (s) i(0)
I(s) = + (4.93)
sL s
Note that this last eqn can also be obtained by applying Laplace transforms to
eqn 1.27.
130 4. Natural and forced responses circuit analysis
Note that these relationships are consistent with the relationship between the
Laplace and Fourier transforms (see eqn 4.80).
Circuit analysis
Figure 4.12 is used to illustrate a partial analysis of the RC circuit in the
R Laplace domain. Applying Kirchhoff’s current law we can write (see also
eqn 4.88):
+
VS2 (s) C VS2 (s) − VC (s)
+ VC (s) = s C V (s) − C vco (4.94)
− R
Solving this eqn in order to obtain VC (s) we can write
−
V
Ilo =
R2
H}
the inductor, when the switch is closed at t = 0, is Ilo . Figure 4.13 c) shows
B the equivalent circuit for t ≥ 0 (the switch is open). Now the energy stored by
the inductor will be dissipated by the resistance R1 and we can write
VL (s) = VR (s)
}o5 Using the expressions for VL (s) and VR1 (s), given by eqns 4.91 and 4.87,
respectively,
B
s L I(s) − L Ilo = −R1 I(s)
Solving the last eqn in order to obtain I(s) we have
τ Ilo
}5} I(s) =
1 + sτ
P
P " P
with τ = L/R1 . Finally, using eqn 4.33 we obtain
Figure 4.14: i(t) normalised Example 4.5.1 Consider the circuit shown in figure 4.16 a). Determine the
to Ilo versus the time nor- voltage across the capacitor and the current flowing through R3 for t ≥ 0.
malised to τ . Solution: The equivalent circuit for t < 0 is shown in figure 4.16 b). In this
situation the capacitor is not conducting and the voltage drop across R2 is zero.
This means that the voltage across the capacitor terminals is equal to VA where:
R0
VA = V (4.96)
R0 + R4
with R0 = R3 ||R1 . The capacitor stores energy equal to C VA2 /2 and the initial
condition is Vco being equal to VA .
132 4. Natural and forced responses circuit analysis
Figure 4.16 c) shows the equivalent circuit for t ≥ 0, that is when the
switch is closed. For this situation, the energy stored by the capacitor will be
dissipated by the resistances R1 , R2 and R3 .
¸Ãº à For this circuit we can write after applying Kirchhoff’s current law, the
ÀÁ&Â Â Ä=ÅKÆÇ È
following eqns:
³H´ ´ µ ¶ ·¹¸$º»
(t = 0) 0
vC (t) = Vco e−t/τ u(t) (4.100)
R4 R1 R2
+
−
V R3 where τ 0 = C (R0 + R2 ). Note the similarity of the expression for the natural
i3(t) +
response given by the last eqn and that obtained for the circuit of figure 4.3
vC (t)
− (see also eqns 4.6 and 4.8). The effective resistance seen across the capacitor
a) terminals is given by R2 + R0 = R2 + (R1||R3 ) as shown in figure 4.16 d).
For t < 0
VA In order to obtain the current flowing through R3 , I3 (s), we consider again
R4 R2 eqn 4.98 from which we can write
+
V 0
− R1||R3
R0
VA (s) = VC (s)
R2 + R 0
0
b)
C R0 Vco
For t ≥ 0
VA(s) = (4.101)
R2
1 + s C (R0 + R2 )
R1
R3
+
and the current flowing through R3 is
I3(s)
VC (s)
0
−
VA (s)
For t ≥ 0
c) I3 (s) =
R3
+
C R0 Vco
VC (s) R2 + (R1||R3) = (4.102)
R3 [1 + s C (R0 + R2 )]
−
LC circuits
Let us consider now the LC circuit of figure 4.17 a). For t < 0 the switch S1
Ë ÌyÍÏÎ Ð Ê is closed while the switch S2 is open. Hence, the DC voltage applied to the
Þoà
capacitor, Vco , is V . There is no voltage across the inductor. Hence, for t < 0
Õ Þ=ß the capacitor stores energy while the inductor is not storing any energy.
á Ë ÌÑÍÒÎÓ Ê At t = 0 the switch S1 is opened and the switch S2 is closed. Figure 4.17
Ô b) shows the equivalent circuit for t ≥ 0. Now the voltage across the capacitor
is the same as the voltage across the inductor; VLC . Hence, we can write
É(Ê
Ù(ÚÛ ÌBÜÝÎ I(s) Vco
s L I(s) = − +
Õ sC s
Ö Ë × Ê
that is
áwâwã Ë× Ê
C Vco
I(s) =
Ô s2 LC + 1
Ø Ê
The voltage can be determined as
These two last equations indicate that the current flows in a sinusoidal manner
between the capacitor and the inductor, with the electrical energy being trans-
ferred periodically between electrostatic energy in the capacitor to magnetic
energy in√the inductor. The frequency of this energy transfer (oscillation) is
f = (2π LC)−1 . This LC circuit has a simple hydraulic analogue where a
water pipe, with its section covered by an elastic membrane, is connected to
a flywheel forming a closed circuit as shown in figure 4.18 (see also section
1.3). We assume that this circuit is completely filled with water. If we rotate
the fly-wheel manually the membrane will be stretched due to the water pres-
sure created in one of its sides. This procedure is ‘equivalent’ to storing energy
in the capacitor of the LC circuit. If we release the flywheel there will be an
oscillatory motion of water flow. If we assume that there are no losses in this
circuit this oscillation will carry on indefinitely. We note that LC circuits form
the basis of analogue oscillators used in various telecommunication circuits.
across the capacitor, Vco , is equal to the DC source voltage V . Figure 4.19 b)
shows the equivalent circuit for t ≥ 0. From this circuit we can write the
following eqn
that is:
For values of η > 1, the transient behaviour of the circuit is dominated by the
combination of the resistance with the capacitance. In fact, if η > 2 then the
current i(t), given by eqn 4.106, can first be approximated as follows:
t ωn t ωn
ω n 2 η e− 2η − e 2η −2 η ωn t
i(t) ' C Vco u(t)
2 η2 − 1 2
2η 2 −1
−tωn
ωn 1 − e
ωn 2 η − t2η η
= C Vco e u(t) (4.107)
2 η2 − 1 2
where we use the following approximation:
p 1
η2 − 1 ' η − if η > 2
2η
However, eqn 4.107 can be further simplified as
ωn − t2η ωn
i(t) ' C Vco e u(t)
2η
Vco − t
= e RC u(t) (4.108)
R
after assuming that
2 η2 >> 1
and
e−2 ωn η t << 1
Equation 4.108 is equal to eqn 4.9 regarding the natural response associated
ÿ øù úüû with the current of the RC circuit of figure 4.5. Note that increasing η is equiv-
û alent to increasing the value of R, assuming that ωn is kept constant. The hy-
draulic equivalent for this circuit is similar to that shown in figure 4.18 where
þÿ
ý now we consider losses in the hydraulic pipes. These losses attenuate the os-
ý cillatory movement of the the water flow. If the resistance to water flow is very
û high (very thin pipes) then there will be no oscillatory water movement at all
(η > 1).
ÿ
———————————————————————————————
Example 4.5.2 Consider the RLC circuit of figure 4.21 a). For t < 0 the
ý
switch is closed. Determine the voltage v(t).
Solution: Since the DC voltage source has been applied to the inductor for
Figure 4.21: a) RLC. b) a long time (t < 0) the voltage v(t) is zero. Therefore, Vs appears across R1 .
Equivalent circuit for t ≥ 0. The current flowing through this resistance, R1 , also flows through the inductor
and it is given by
Vs
Ilo =
R1
Note that the voltage across the capacitor is zero. For t ≥ 0 the switch is open,
resulting in the equivalent circuit shown in 4.21 b) for which we can write:
V (s) V (s) Ilo
+ s C V (s) + + = 0
R sL s
136 4. Natural and forced responses circuit analysis
−L Ilo
V (s) =
s2 L C + s L/R + 1
This can also be written in terms of its natural frequency ωn and damping
factor, η, as follows:
ωn2
V (s) = −L Ilo
s2 + 2 η ωn + ωn2
with
1
ωn = √ (4.109)
LC
and
r
1 1 L
η = (4.110)
2 R C
Again, by using eqns 4.72, 4.73, 4.76 we can obtain the voltage v(t), for t ≥ 0,
as follows:
³ p ´
√ωn 2 sin ωn 1 − η 2 t e−t η wn u(t) if η < 1
1−η
v(t) = −L Ilo × ωn2 t e−ωn t u(t) if η = 1
R
³ ´
p
+ √ωn sinh ωn η 2 − 1 t e−t η ωn u(t) if η > 1
+ i(t) (I(s)) C 2
η −1
vS (t) vC (t) (4.111)
(VS (s) = Vs/s) (VC (s))
− Note the similarity of the natural response for the voltage v(t) for this circuit
−
and the natural response of the current, i(t) of the previous RLC shown in
Vs
vS (t) figure 4.19 a). However, it should be noted that now the resistance R plays an
t opposite role to that played by the resistance of the circuit of figure 4.19. Now,
0 if we want to decrease the damping factor, η, we have to increase the value of
R. This is reasonable since, as the resistance R tends to infinity (open circuit),
Figure 4.22: RC driven by a the circuit of figure 4.19 tends to the lossless circuit of figure 4.17.
step voltage source. ———————————————————————————————
RC circuits
Figure 4.22 shows the RC circuit driven by a step voltage source. Assuming
that the capacitor is discharged at t = 0 we can write the following eqns for
4. Natural and forced responses circuit analysis 137
To find the delay time we solve eqn 4.117 for vC (td ) = Vs /2. This gives
C
+ 0.11
+ td = 0.7 τ =
vS (t) R vR(t) BW
(VS (s) = Vs/s) (VR(s)) = 15.7 µs
−
−
———————————————————————————————
Figure 4.24: CR circuit Example 4.5.4 Consider the CR circuit of figure 4.24. Determine the output
driven by a step voltage voltage vR (t).
source. Solution: We can write the following eqn
VR (s)
sC[VS (s) − VR (s)] − C Vco = (4.119)
R
Assuming that the initial charge on the capacitor is zero (Vco = 0) we have:
τs
VR (s) = VS (s)
1+τs
τ
vR(t)/Vs = Vs (4.120)
1+τs
1
0.4
vR (t) = Vs e− τ u(t) (4.121)
0.2
t/τ
Figure 4.25 shows the voltage vR (t) normalised to Vs versus the time nor-
1 2 3 4 5
malised to τ . From this figure we observe the fast rise of the voltage to its peak
0.1 2.3 and then its exponential decay to zero. Note that the time taken for the voltage
to fall from 90% to 10% of its peak value (fall-time) is about 2.2 τ .
Figure 4.25: v R (t) given by ———————————————————————————————
eqn 4.121 normalised to Vs
versus the time normalised RL circuits
to τ
Figure 4.26 shows an RL circuit driven by a step voltage source. For this circuit
we can write:
VS (s) − VL (s) VL (s) Ilo
= + (4.122)
R sL s
Assuming that the initial condition of the inductor is zero (Ilo = 0) we can
+
solve this eqn in order to obtain VL (s) as
+ R
vS (t) L vL(t) sτ τ
(VS (s) = Vs/s) VL (s) = VS (s) = Vs
(VL(s)) sτ + 1 sτ + 1
−
−
where τ = L/R. Using eqn 4.33 we can write
t
Figure 4.26: RL circuit vL (t) = Vs e− τ u(t) (4.123)
driven by a step voltage
source. Note the similarity between this last eqn and eqn 4.121. In fact, the time (and
frequency) domain behaviour of this circuit is similar to the CR circuit shown
in figure 4.24.
4. Natural and forced responses circuit analysis 139
———————————————————————————————
Example 4.5.5 Consider the LR circuit of figure 4.27 a). Determine the output
voltage vR (t). Assume Ilo = 0.
RLC circuits
i(t)
Figure 4.28 shows an RLC circuit driven by a step-function voltage source.
(I(s)) L + Assuming that all initial conditions of the circuit are zero we can write:
+ C
vS (t) vC (t)
(VS (s) = Vs/s) (VC (s)) VS (s)
− I(s) = (4.127)
− Zeq (s)
R with Zeq (s) representing the equivalent impedance of the series combination
of the inductor, resistance and capacitance. Zeq (s) is given by
Figure 4.28: RLC circuit
driven by a step voltage 1
Zeq (s) = R + sL +
source. sC
and 1/Zeq (s) can be written as
1 s ωn2
= C (4.128)
Zeq s2 + 2 η ωn + ωn2
where ωn and η are given by eqns 4.104 and 4.105 respectively. Hence, the
current I(s) is given by:
s C ωn2
I(s) = VS (s)
s2 + 2 η ωn + ωn2
ωn2
= Vs C 2 (4.129)
s + 2 η ωn + ωn2
140 4. Natural and forced responses circuit analysis
Again we use eqns 4.72, 4.73, 4.76 to obtain the current of the circuit in the
time domain, for t ≥ 0, as follows:
³ p ´
√ωn 2 sin ωn 1 − η 2 t e−t η wn u(t) if η < 1
1−η
i(t) = C Vs × ωn2 t e−ωn t u(t) if η = 1
³ ´
p
√ωn sinh ωn η 2 − 1 t e−t η ωn u(t)
if η > 1
2
η −1
(4.130)
The voltage across the capacitor terminals, vC (t), can be obtained from eqn
1.24, that is
· ³p ´¸
−t η wn
e√
u(t) if η < 1
2ω t + φ
1 − sin 1 − η n
1−η 2
· ¸
1 − (t ωn + 1) e−t wn u(t) if η = 1
vC (t) = Vs ×
µ
h ³ p ´
−t η wn 2 − 1t
1 − e cosh ω n η
³ p ´¸ ¶
+ √ η2 sinh ωn η 2 − 1 t if η > 1
u(t)
η −1
(4.131)
with
Ãp !
−1 1 − η2
φ = tan (4.132)
η
Figure 4.29 a) shows the current i(t), given by eqn 4.130, normalised to C Vs ωn
versus the time normalised to ωn−1 considering η = 0.1, 0.3, 0.7, 1 and 3. From
this figure we observe that, regardless of the value of η, the current in the RLC
circuit eventually tends, as expected, to zero. As with the natural response we
observe that for values of η < 1 (underdamped circuit) the current exhibits
oscillations and its transient behaviour is dominated by the LC combination.
On the other hand, for η ≥ 1 (critically damped and overdamped circuit) there
is no oscillatory behaviour. Figure 4.29 b) shows the voltage across the ca-
pacitor terminals vC (t), given by eqn 4.131, normalised to Vs versus the time
normalised to ωn−1 . We observe that for all values of η the voltage across the
capacitor terminals tends to Vs ; the voltage of the DC source. Very much like
the current, we observe that for values of η < 1 the voltage overshoots its final
value exhibiting an oscillatory behaviour. From this figure it is clear that the
amount of overshoot depends on the value of η; the smaller the value of η the
greater the amount of overshoot. The first overshoot is called the peak over-
shoot and can be determined by differentiating eqn 4.131 (η < 1) with respect
to the time and by setting this derivative to zero, that is
d vC (t) η wn e−t η wn ³p ´
= Vs p sin 1 − η 2 ωn t + φ
dt 1 − η2
4. Natural and forced responses circuit analysis 141
8 .9: 2 3
!
+/, #) '
+/, # )0 +-, #.) '
#.) & +/, #) 1
+/, #) 0
#.) % +/, ' ' )*
+/, 0 +/, #) 1
#.) $
5 #) $
243
5 #) % # " $ % & ' # ' " ' $
67 (
Figure 4.29: a) i(t), given by eqn 4.130, normalised to C Vs ωn versus the time normalised to ωn−1 . b)
vC (t) given by eqn 4.131, normalised to Vs versus the time normalised to ωn−1 .
³p ´
vCov /Vs − Vs wn e−t η wn cos 1 − η 2 ωn t + φ = 0 (4.133)
2.0
1.8 p
The last eqn is zero for ( 1 − η 2 ωn t) = 0, π, 2π, 3π, . . ..
1.6 The peak overshoot occurs at
1.4
π
1.2 tov = p (4.134)
1.0 η
ωn 1 − η 2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 Note that this value applies only for zero initial conditions. Using this value
of tov in eqn 4.131 (η < 1) we obtain the value of the peak overshoot of
Figure 4.30: Peak overshoot " Ã !#
normalised to Vs versus η. −π η
vCov = Vs 1 + exp p (4.135)
1 − η2
Figure 4.30 shows the peak overshoot normalised to Vs versus the damping
ts ω n factor η.
The settling time, tS , is defined as the time that a waveform takes to attain
8
(and to stay within the limits of) a percentage of its final value. This percentage
6
(±2%) is usually taken as 2% or 5%. It is interesting to note that for values of η < 1
(±5%) the rise time of the waveform is relatively fast but the settling time can be quite
4 large. Figure 4.31 shows the settling time of vC (t) (normalised to ωn−1 ) versus
η with the percentage of the final value being ±2% and ±5%. From this figure
η it can be seen that for ±2% the value of η which minimises tS is η = 0.78.
2
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 For this situation the minimum settling time is tS = 3.6/ωn . If the percentage
which defines tS is ±5%, the value of η which minimises tS is η = 0.69 and
Figure 4.31: Settling time, the minimum settling time is tS = 2.9/ωn .
normalised to ωn−1 , versus η. The rise, fall and settling time values and the overshoot characteristics are
used to describe the transient behaviour of different passive and active circuits
142 4. Natural and forced responses circuit analysis
+
IS (s) = and are of great importance, for example, in filter design.
Is/s L
R
C V (s) ———————————————————————————————
Example 4.5.6 Consider the RLC circuit of figure 4.32. Determine
p the current
− in L. Assume that all initial conditions are zero and that R > L/(4 C).
| {z }
Zeq (s)
Solution: Since all the initial conditions of the circuit are zero we can determine
iS (t)
the voltage V (s) across the circuit elements as follows:
Is
t
0
V (s) = IS (s) Zeq (s) (4.136)
where Zeq (s) is the equivalent impedance corresponding to the parallel com-
Figure 4.32: RLC circuit bination of R with s L and with (s C)−1 , that is
driven by a step current
source. sLR
Zeq (s) = (4.137)
s2 R L C + sL + R
Now eqn 4.136 can be written as
Is 1
V (s) = (4.138)
C s2 + 2 η ωn s + ωn2
with p
η and ωn given by eqns 4.110 and 4.109, respectively. Since R is greater
than L/(4 C) we have η < 1. Using eqn 4.72 we can write
iL(t)/Is ³ p ´
η = 0.1 Is 1
v(t) = p sin ωn 1 − η 2 t e−t η wn u(t) (4.139)
1.5 η = 0.4 C ωn 1 − η 2
η = 0.7
1.0
The current in the inductor iL (t) can be obtained from eqn 1.27, that is
· ´¸
e−t η wn ³p
0.5 η = 0.9 iL (t) = Is 1 − p sin 2
1 − η ωn t + φ u(t) (4.140)
t ωn 1 − η2
0 4 8 12 with φ given by eqn 4.132. Figure 4.33 shows the current given by eqn 4.140,
normalised to Is , versus the time normalised to ωn−1 with η = 0.1, 0.4, 0.7
Figure 4.33: i L (t) given by and 0.9. For large values of t the current source behaves as a DC source.
eqn 4.140, normalised to Is , Since the inductor behaves as a short-circuit for DC sources then, for large t,
versus the time normalised the voltage across the resistor and across the capacitor tends to zero and the
to ωn . inductor conducts Is .
———————————————————————————————
Example 4.5.7 Consider the RLC circuit of figure 4.34. Determine the voltage
across C for all time t. Take VS1 = 3 V and VS2 = 7 V.
Solution: Figure 4.35 a) shows the equivalent circuit for t < 0. Note that for
t < 0 the inductor behaves as a short-circuit while the capacitor behaves as an
open-circuit. The voltage across the terminals of the capacitor is the voltage
across R1 which can be calculated as
Vco = V R1
R1
= −VS2
R1 + R 3
= −3.5 V
4. Natural and forced responses circuit analysis 143
t = 0.25 ms 10 Ω 10 Ω 10 Ω t=0
S1 S2
+ R2 R1 R3 −
L VS2
VS1 C
− 0.7 mH 1.4 µF +
Ilo
The current flowing through the inductor also flows through R1 and R3 . This
+ current can be expressed as
R3 −
Vco VS2 −VS2
R1
+ Ilo =
− R1 + R 3
a) = −0.35 A
VR1 (s)
At t = 0 the switch S2 is open and S1 remains open. Figure 4.35 b) shows the
+
−
equivalent circuit for 0 ≤ t < 0.25 ms. For this circuit we can write:
+ +
VC (s) = VR1 (s) + VL (s)
VL(s) VC (s)
IL(s)
−
that is:
−
b) IL (s) Vco
− + = R1 IL (s) + s L IL (s) − L Ilo
sC s
Figure 4.35: Equivalent cir- where Vco and Ilo are the initial conditions (at t = 0) associated with the
cuit for; a) t < 0; capacitor and inductor, respectively. Solving this last eqn in order to obtain
b) 0 ≤ t < 0.25 ms. IL (s) we get:
ωn2
IL (s) = C Vco
s2 + 2 η ωn s + ωn2
s
+ Ilo 2
s + 2 η ωn s + ωn2
with
1
ωn = √
LC
= 32 krad/s
r
1 C
η = R1
2 L
= 0.22
Taking the inverse Laplace transform (η < 1) we obtain the current flowing
through the inductor, iL (t) for the time interval 0 ≤ t < 0.25 ms, that is,
ωn ³ p ´
iL (t) = C Vco p sin ωn 1 − η 2 t e−t η ωn
1 − η2
| {z }
Contribution from Vco
144 4. Natural and forced responses circuit analysis
1 ³ p ´
+ Ilo p cos ωn 1 − η 2 t + φ e−t η ωn
1 − η2
| {z }
Contribution from Ilo
with
à !
η
φ = tan−1 p (4.141)
1 − η2
The voltage across the capacitor, for 0 ≤ t < 0.25 ms, is given by:
IL (s) Vco
VC (s) = − +
sC s
ωn2
= −Vco
s (s2
+ 2 η ωn s + ωn2 )
Ilo 1 Vco
− 2 2
+
C s + 2 η ωn s + ωn s
taking the inverse Laplace transform we obtain
Vco ³ p ´
vC (t) = p cos ωn 1 − η 2 t − φ e−t η ωn
1 − η2
| {z }
Contribution from Vco
Ilo 1 ³ p ´
− p sin ωn 1 − η 2 t e−t η ωn
C ωn 1 − η 2
| {z }
Contribution from Ilo
Figure 4.36 a) shows the voltage across the capacitor while figure 4.36 b) shows
the current through the inductor. From these figures we observe that at t = 0.25
ms the voltage across the capacitor is 1.17 V while the current through the
inductor is −17.8 mA. These values are the initial conditions associated with
the capacitor and inductor when the switch S1 is closed at t = 0.25 ms, that is,
Vco0 = 1.17 V and Ilo0 = −17.8 mA.
Figure 4.37 shows the equivalent circuit for t ≥ 0.25 ms. Note that when
the switch S1 is closed at t = 0.25 ms VS1 is applied to the circuit as a step-
forcing voltage, that is, vS1 (t) = 3 u(t − to ) V with to = 0.25 ms. Using nodal
analysis we can write the following eqns:
IR2 (s) = IL (s) + IR1 (s)
(4.142)
IR1 (s) = IC (s)
that is:
V (s) − V (s) V (s) V (s) − V (s)
S1 R L = sL L + Ilo −s to
+ L R C
0
s e
2 1
(4.143)
VL (s) − VC (s) = s C V (s) − C V 0 e−s to
R1 C co
4. Natural and forced responses circuit analysis 145
4 0.2
0.1
2 t (s)
t (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 ×10−4
0 −0.1
1 2 3 4 5 ×10−4
−0.2
−2
−0.3
Figure 4.36: a) Voltage across the capacitor. b) Current through the inductor.
R2 R1
VS1 (s) VL(s) VC (s)
with
Vs −s to
VS1 (s) = e
s
Vs = 3 V. Solving eqn 4.143 to obtain VC (s) we get:
s L ωn02
VC (s) = VS1 (s)
R2 ( s2 + 2 η 0 ωn0 s + ωn02 )
s + R1 C ωn02
+ Vco0 e−s to 2
s + 2 η 0 ωn0 s + ωn02
L ωn02
− Ilo0 e−s to 2
s + 2 η 0 ωn0 s + ωn02
with
r
R2 1
ωn0 =
R1 + R 2 L C
= 22.6 krad/s
r
1 R2 C
η0 = R1
2 R1 + R 2 L
= 0.16
146 4. Natural and forced responses circuit analysis
taking the inverse Laplace transform (η < 1) we obtain the voltage across the
capacitor for t > 0.25 ms, that is,
Vs L ω0 ³ p ´ 0 0
VC (t) = p n sin ωn0 1 − η 02 (t − to ) e−(t−to ) η ωn
R2 1−η 02
| {z }
Contribution from vS1 (t)
ω0 ³ p ´ 0 0
+ Vco0 R1 C p n sin ωn0 1 − η 02 (t − to ) e−(t−to ) η ωn
1−η 02
| {z }
Contribution from Vco0
V 0 ³ p ´ 0 0
+ p co cos ωn0 1 − η 02 (t − to ) + φ0 e−(t−to ) η ωn
1−η 02
| {z }
Contribution from Vco0
ω0 ³ p ´ 0 0
− Ilo0 L p n sin ωn0 1 − η 02 (t − to ) e−(t−to ) η ωn
1−η 02
| {z }
Contribution from Ilo0
with φ0 given by
à !
η0
φ0 = tan−1 p
1 − η 02
Figure 4.38 shows the voltage across the capacitor for 0 < t < 1 ms.
vC (t) (V)
0 t (s)
0 2 4 ×10−4
6 8 10
−2
4.6 Bibliography 1. C.R. Wylie and L.C. Barrett, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 1995
(McGraw-Hill International Editions), 6th edition.
2. C. Chen, System and Signal Analysis, 1994 (Saunders College Publish-
ing), 2nd edition.
3. J.J. D’Azzo and C.H. Houpis, Linear Control System, Analysis and De-
sign, 1995 (McGraw-Hill International Editions), 4th edition.
4. M.J. Roberts, Signals and Systems: Analysis using Transform Methods
and Matlab°R , 2003 (McGraw-Hill International Editions).
4.7 Problems 4.1 Consider example 4.2.2. Plot vC (t) when the period T is longer than τ
(for example T = 3τ ). Draw comments in relation to the time taken to reach
steady-state.
4.2 Consider the causal signals of figure 4.39. Determine their Laplace trans-
forms and indicate their ROC.
4.3 Using the partial fraction expansion method determine the inverse Laplace
transform of the following s functions:
1
X1 (s) =
(s − a)2 + b2
s
X2 (s) =
(s + a) (s + b)2
2
a
X3 (s) =
s − a2
2
s
X4 (s) =
s2 − a 2
4.4 Consider the circuits of figure 4.40. Using first Fourier transforms cal-
culate the voltage across R1 for all time t. Then use Laplace transforms to
determine the same voltage. Draw conclusions.
4.5 Consider the circuits of figure 4.41. Determine the current through the
inductor for all time t.
148 4. Natural and forced responses circuit analysis
; <>=@?BA ] ?? R
G4H
G M GNM
X
PQSR F YNZ\[ T QSR
DE
G4K GLK
F P_ ]` ; <I=J?BA
C PQSR
^ O PQSR
Zba
P P4UWV
c A d A
(t = 0) R2 1 mH
R3 L
420 Ω
R1 120 Ω
Is R1 10 Ω
+ 320 Ω
1 kΩ R2
Vs 2V (t = 0)
−
2 mA (t = 0)
C L 2 mH
0.2 µF C
5 µF
a) b)
4.6 Consider the circuits of figure 4.42. Determine the voltage across the
capacitor C1 for all time t. Take vS (t) = 3 u(t) volts. Assume zero initial
conditions.
C2
1 kΩ 1 µF
+ R2 C1 + R2 0.2 µF
0.2 kΩ
vS (t) R1 vS (t)
0.1 µF R1 C1
− 1 kΩ −
1 kΩ
a) b)
4.7 Consider the circuits of figure 4.43. Determine the current through the in-
ductor for all time t. Take vS (t) = 4 u(t) volts. Assume zero initial conditions.
4. Natural and forced responses circuit analysis 149
L 0.02 mH
200 Ω 500 Ω
+ R2 + R2
L
vS (t) R1 vS (t) R1
0.1 mH
− 150 Ω − 600 Ω
a) b)
4.8 Consider the circuit of figure 4.44. Determine the current through the
resistance, the capacitor and the inductor for all time t. Take iS (t) = u(t) mA.
Take R = 20 Ω. Assume zero initial conditions.
iS (t)
L
C R
0.3 mH 0.8 µF
4.9 Consider the circuit of figure 4.44. Determine the value of the resistance
such that the damping factor is 1.
5 Electrical two-port network analysis
5.1 Introduction Two-port circuit techniques are usually employed to analyse and characterise
linear electrical and electronic circuits. As its name suggests, a two-port circuit
h g hj or network is a circuit with an input port and an output port, as shown in figure
i l\monqpsrInktvu i 5.1. Hence, two-port circuit analysis techniques can be used to analyse and
fg fkj characterise circuits ranging from a simple resistive voltage divider to very
wNxumonkty
e e complex electronic amplifiers.
k } {q|~}| z{q|}k{q|~}| The theory of two-port circuits relates the voltage and the current variables
|4 B|~B
at the ports. Depending upon which two of these four variables (V1 , V2 , I1 , or
I2 ) are chosen as the independent variables a different set of parameters can
Figure 5.1: Electrical two- be defined each of which completely characterises the network. Each set of
port network. parameters is defined here as an electrical representation. In this chapter we
consider the impedance, admittance and chain (or ABCD) representations 1 .
The electrical representations (or parameters) are obtained in the frequency
domain by means of phasor analysis. In section 5.3 we show how these electri-
cal representations are suited for computer-based electrical analysis by means
of a systematic analysis approach.
5.2 Electrical As mentioned previously a two-port network can be characterised by a set of
parameters which relates current and voltage values at the ports. Figure 5.1
representa- shows the convention for the voltages across each port as well as the direction
tions of the current that might be present at each port.
with
I1
[I ] = (5.4)
I2
q V1
ª.¦.§«¬§¨ ¥ [V ] = (5.5)
£.¤¥ ¦.§¨¢© V2
s s 7 Z11 Z12
.¢
¡ [Z] = (5.6)
S Z21 Z22
ª.¦.§«¬§¨ ¥
£ ¤¥ ¦.§¨¢©
. The matrix [Z] is called here the ‘electrical impedance representation’ of the
two-port network. The evaluation of the coefficients Zij , which have dimen-
sv s 7
v v 7v sions of impedance, can be effected by performing measurements at the two-
port circuit terminals as illustrated in figure 5.2. Figure 5.2 a) shows the set-up
for the measurements of Z11 and of Z21 . In this situation the output port is
Figure 5.2: Set-up for an open-circuit so that I2 = 0 and a current source I1 drives the input port.
the measurement of the Measuring the voltages V1 and V2 we can determine Z11 and Z21 as follows:
Z-parameters. a) Z11 and ¯ ¯
Z21 . b) Z12 and Z22 . V1 ¯¯ V2 ¯¯
Z11 = Z21 = (5.7)
I1 ¯I2 =0 I1 ¯I2 =0
Z11 is the input impedance (see also section 1.4.2) while Z21 is called the
forward transimpedance gain. It is clear that Z11 and Z21 can be calculated
from eqns 5.1 and 5.2 by setting I2 = 0. Figure 5.2 b) shows the set-up for the
measurements of Z12 and of Z22 . Now the input port is an open-circuit so that
I1 = 0 and a current source I2 excites the circuit in port 2. Measuring again
the voltages V1 and V2 we can determine Z12 and Z22 as follows:
¯ ¯
V1 ¯¯ V2 ¯¯
Z12 = Z 22 = (5.8)
I2 ¯I1 =0 I2 ¯I1 =0
Y = R−1
(2 mS) Z22 is the output impedance while Z12 is called the reverse transimpedance
gain. Note that Z12 and Z22 can be calculated from eqns 5.1 and 5.2 by setting
I1 = 0.
a) It is important to note that Z21 and Z12 also represent impedance transfer
I2 = 0
functions (see section 3.3.7).
+ + ———————————————————————————————
I1
V1 Y = R−1 V2
Example 5.2.1 Determine the Z-parameters of the shunt admittance of figure
5.3 a).
Solution: Figure 5.3 b) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of Z11
− −
b) and of Z21 . Since I1 flows through Y we have
V1
Figure 5.3: a) Shunt admit- Z11 =
tance. b) Calculation of Z11 I1
and of Z21 . 1
=
Y
= R
= 500 Ω
152 5. Electrical two-port network analysis
Since V2 = V1 we have
V2
Z21 =
I1
= Z11 = R
Z12 = Z11 = R
Z22 = Z11 = R
———————————————————————————————
Example 5.2.2 Determine the Z-parameters of the T-network of figure 5.4 a).
Solution: Figure 5.4 b) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of Z11
¶ ³ µ ¶ µ
° and Z21 . Since I1 flows through Z1 and Z3 we can write:
· ½¾¿ ¹ · µ Àk¾¿
µ · ÁÂvÃ
»
Z11 = Z1 + Z3
µ µ ® °BÄÅ 1
®³ ¶ ³ ³
·¸
¶
°µ S· ¸S° = j ω L1 +
²³ ¹ ²° jω C
µ · ¸Sº ±
± 1 − ω 2 L1 C
¼ =
® ³ Ä4Å µ µ
jωC
¶ ³ ¶ 1 − ω 2 6 × 10−15
·¸ ³ ° · ¸B° ¯® °
²³ ¹µ ²° = Ω
j ω 3 × 10−9
± ´µ ·¸ º ±
Z21 is calculated as follows:
Z22 = Z2 + Z3
1 − ω 2 L2 C
=
jωC
1 − ω 2 3 × 10−15
= Ω
j ω 3 × 10−9
Z12 is calculated as follows:
Z12 = Z3
1
= Ω
j ω 3 × 10−9
———————————————————————————————
5. Electrical two-port network analysis 153
Series connection
Let us consider the interconnection of a two-port network, characterised by an
ÒsØ × ÒsÓ ×
Ô Ô impedance representation [Z 0 ], with another two-port network, characterised
ÖWØ × Æ ÇNÈ É ÖÓ ×
ÒØ ÒÓ by an impedance representation [Z 00 ], as illustrated in figure 5.5 a). Such an
Õ Õ
Ô Ô interconnection is called a series connection as the two networks share the same
Ö Ø Ö Ó
Õ Ò Ø× × Ò Ó× × Õ
input current and the same output current2 .
Ì Ô The equivalent two-port network resulting from this interconnection can be
ÎqÐ Ï Ï ÆÇ ÈÈÉ ÎÑ Ï Ï
Í Õ characterised by an equivalent impedance representation, [Zeq ], which can be
ÛÚ determined according to eqns 5.7 and 5.8, that is;
ÒØ ÒÓ ¯
Ô Ô V1 ¯¯
Ö Ø Æ ÇNÈ É.ÊËÆ ÇNÈ È É ÖÓ Zeq11 = (5.9)
Õ Õ
I1 ¯I2 =0
ÙÚ
Since port 2 is an open-circuit then I2 = I20 = I200 = 0 and I1 = I10 = I100 . In
addition, V1 = V10 + V100 . Therefore, we can write the last eqn as follows:
Figure 5.5: a) Series con- ¯ ¯
nection of two-port net- V10 ¯¯ V100 ¯¯
Zeq11 = +
works. b) Equivalent two- I10 ¯I 0 =0 I100 ¯I 00 =0
2 2
port network. = 0
Z11 00
+ Z11 (5.10)
Similarly, it can be shown (see problem 5.2) that:
0 00
Zeq12 = Z12 + Z12 (5.11)
0 00
Zeq21 = Z21 + Z21 (5.12)
0 00
Zeq22 = Z22 + Z22 (5.13)
that is
[Zeq ] = [Z 0 ] + [Z 00 ] (5.14)
áâ áé
êWëWìíîkìïð The matrix [Y ] is the electrical admittance representation (or the admittance
äå
ãâ ñòð ëWìï¢ó ãé æè parameters) of the two-port network.
ô õö÷øùöúvû ø ÷ø ö÷øöúvû ø
We can interpret the coefficients Yij , all of which have dimensions of ad-
ü ý úvû ø.þÿ
ÿ
ü ý úvû
ø vÿ mittance, in terms of measurements effected at the two-port circuit terminals
Ü â ÞÝ
áÞÝ Ü ÞÜ ß áàÝ
àÝ ß é àß
as illustrated in figure 5.6. Figure 5.6 a) shows the set-up for the measurements
êWëWìíîkìïð
of Y11 and of Y21 . In this situation the output port is short-circuited so that
äå
ã âçæÝè ñòð ëWìï¢ó ãé V2 = 0 and a voltage source V1 drives the input port. Measuring the currents
I1 and I2 gives Y11 and Y21 as follows:
ô õö÷øùöúvû ø ÷ø ö÷øöúvû ø
ü ý úvû ø.þÿ ü ý úvû
ø vÿ ¯ ¯
ÿ I1 ¯¯ I2 ¯¯
Y11 = Y 21 = (5.19)
V1 ¯V2 =0 V1 ¯V2 =0
Figure 5.6: Set-up for the Y -
Y11 is the input admittance while Y21 is the forward transconductance gain.
parameters measurement.
Figure 5.6 b) shows the set-up for the measurements of Y12 and Y22 . Now the
a) Y11 and Y21 . b) Y12 and
input port is short-circuited so that V1 = 0 and a voltage source V2 excites the
Y22 .
circuit in port 2. Measuring again the currents I1 and I2 we can determine Y12
and Y22 as:
¯ ¯
I1 ¯¯ I2 ¯¯
Y12 = Y22 = (5.20)
V2 ¯V1 =0 V2 ¯V1 =0
Y22 is the output admittance while Y12 is the reverse transconductance gain.
Again, we note that Y21 and Y12 also represent admittance transfer func-
" %'&
tions (see section 3.3.7).
———————————————————————————————
Example 5.2.3 Determine the admittance representation of the Π-network of
figure 5.7 a).
" $#
Solution: Figure 5.7 b) shows the circuit for the calculation of Y11 and Y21 .
The admittances associated with C1 , C2 and L can be written as:
Y1 = j ω C1
Y2 = j ω C2
! 1
Y3 =
jωL
Since Y2 is short-circuited we observe that Y1 is in parallel with Y3 . Since V1
is applied to the admittance resulting from the parallel connection of Y1 with
Figure 5.7: a) Π-network. b) Y3 , we can write:
Calculation of Y11 and Y21 .
c) Calculation of Y12 and I1 = V1 (Y1 + Y3 )
Y22 . that is
I1
Y11 =
V1
= Y1 + Y3
1 − ω 2 L C1
=
jωL
1 − ω 2 3 × 10−15
= S
j ω 10−6
5. Electrical two-port network analysis 155
Figure 5.8: a) Two-port cir- Example 5.2.4 The circuit in figure 5.8 a) describes a basic representation of
cuit. b) Calculation of Y11 an electronic amplifier. This amplifier has an input resistance Ri = 2.5 kΩ and
and of Y21 . c) Calculation an output resistance Ro = 5 kΩ. The gain of the amplifier is modelled by the
of Y12 and of Y22 . transconductance gm = 50 mS. Determine its Y -parameters.
Solution: Figure 5.8 b) shows the circuit for the calculation of Y11 and Y21 .
Since V1 is the voltage across Ri we can write:
I1
Y11 =
V1
1
=
Ri
= 0.4 mS
156 5. Electrical two-port network analysis
+ + = 0
Y11 00
+ Y11 (5.22)
;:
Similarly, it can be shown (see problem 5.4) that:
0 00
Figure 5.9: a) Parallel Yeq12 = Y12 + Y12 (5.23)
0 00
connection of two-port net- Yeq21 = Y21 + Y21 (5.24)
works. b) Equivalent two- Yeq22 = 0 00
Y22 + Y22 (5.25)
port network.
that is
[Yeq ] = [Y 0 ] + [Y 00 ] (5.26)
3 Once again, the parallel connection of two-port networks should not be confused with the
Note that A11 and A22 are dimensionless whilst A12 and A21 have dimensions
of impedance and admittance, respectively.
———————————————————————————————
Example 5.2.5 Determine the chain-parameters of the two-port network of
figure 5.11 a) which represents a simplified model of an electronic amplifier.
Ri = 10 kΩ, Ro = 1 kΩ and gm = 40 mS.
Solution: Figure 5.11 b) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of A 11 .
From eqn 5.31 we can write:
+ g m Vi
Vi
Vi Ro A11 =
Ri −gm Vi Ro
− = −(gm Ro )−1
a)
= −(40)−1
+ g m Vi +
V1
+ A−1
11 is the voltage gain of the amplifier and is equal to −40.
Vi V2
− Figure 5.11 c) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of A12 . From
Ri Ro eqn 5.32 we can write:
− −
b) −I2 Vi
+ g m Vi A12 =
V1 −gm Vi
+
−
Vi Ro = −(gm )−1
Ri
− = −(40 × 10−3 )−1 Ω
c)
+ and the transconductance gain of the amplifier is A−1
12 = −40 mS.
I1 g m Vi +
Figure 5.11 d) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of A21 . From
Vi V2 eqn 5.33 we can write:
Ri Ro
− − Vi
d) A21 =
−I2 −gm Vi Ro Ri
+ = −(gm Ro Ri )−1
I1 g m Vi
Vi Ro = −(400 × 103 )−1 S
Ri
− Hence, the transimpedance gain is A−1
21 = −400 kΩ.
e) Figure 5.11 e) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of A22 . From
eqn 5.34 we can write:
Figure 5.11: Calculation of
the chain parameters of a Vi
A22 =
two-port network (electronic −gm Vi Ri
amplifier model). = −(gm Ri )−1
= −(400)−1
Chain/Cascade connection
Let us consider the connection of a two-port network, characterised by a chain
representation [A0 ], with another two-port network, characterised by a chain
5. Electrical two-port network analysis 159
Figure 5.12: a) Chain con- Aeq11 = A011 A0011 + A012 A0021 (5.38)
nection of two-port net-
works. b) Equivalent two- Similarly, it can be shown (see problem 5.6):
port network.
Aeq12 = A011 A0012 + A012 A0022 (5.39)
Aeq21 = A021 A0011 + A022 A0021 (5.40)
Aeq22 = A021 A0012 + A022 A0022 (5.41)
[I] = [Y ] [V ] (5.43)
with [I] and [V ] described as in eqns 5.4 and 5.5, respectively. [Y ] is the
electrical admittance representation, as in eqn 5.18. Using elementary matrix
algebra we can solve eqn 5.43 to obtain [V ]
Comparing this with eqn 5.3 it is clear that [Z] = [Y ]−1 , that is;
Y22 −Y12
|Y | |Y |
(5.45)
[Z] =
−Y21 Y11
|Y | |Y |
In order to prove this theorem we consider that the two-port circuit a can
Yf be characterised by an admittance representation such that4 :
+ + Ya11 0
V1 [Ya] V2 [Ya ] = (5.56)
− − Ya21 Ya22
c) Since Ya12 = 0 the circuit is called unilateral, in the sense that the output
voltage and current are influenced by but do not influence the input voltage
Figure 5.13: a) Parallel and current. The series admittance Yf of figure 5.13 a) can be considered
connection of the two-port as the single element two-port network of figure 5.13 c) with the admittance
network (a) with a series representation given below (see problem 5.8):
admittance Yf . b) Appli-
cation of Miller’s theorem. Yf −Yf
c) Equivalent circuit for the [Yf ] = (5.57)
parallel connection of a two- −Yf Yf
port network with a series
admittance. Since these two-port networks are in parallel then, from eqn 5.26, the circuit
of figure 5.13 c) can be characterised by an impedance representation [YM ]
given by:
Ya11 + Yf −Yf
[YM ] = (5.58)
Ya21 − Yf Ya22 + Yf
The forward voltage gain, Av , the input impedance, Zin , and the output imped-
ance, Zout , can be determined from eqn 5.58 as follows (see also eqns 5.15 and
5.16):
¯
V2 ¯¯
Av =
V1 ¯I2 =0
4 For clarity of derivation we take Y
a12 to be zero. In other words, the reverse transconductance
gain is determined by Yf alone.
162 5. Electrical two-port network analysis
Ya21 − Yf
= − (5.59)
Ya22 + Yf
¯
V1 ¯¯
Zin =
I1 ¯I2 =0
· µ ¶¸−1
Ya21 − Yf
= Ya11 + Yf 1 +
Ya22 + Yf
−1
= [Ya11 + Yf (1 − Av )] (5.60)
¯
V2 ¯¯
Zout =
I2 ¯I1 =0
· µ ¶¸−1
Ya21 − Yf
= Ya22 + Yf 1 + (5.61)
Ya11 + Yf
On the other hand it is possible to show (see problem 5.9) that the £circuit¤
of figure 5.13 b) can be characterised by an admittance representation YM 0
given by:
Ya11 + Yf (1 − Av ) 0
£ ¤
0
YM = (5.62)
Yf
Ya21 Ya22 + Yf − Av
with Av given by eqn 5.59. The forward voltage gain, Av , the input impedance,
Zin , and the output impedance, Zout , can be determined from eqn 5.62 as
follows:
¯
V2 ¯¯
Av =
V1 ¯I2 =0
Ya − Y f
= − 21 (5.63)
Ya22 + Yf
¯
V1 ¯¯
Zin =
I1 ¯ I2 =0
−1
= [Ya11 + Yf (1 − Av )] (5.64)
¯
V2 ¯¯
Zout =
I2 ¯I1 =0
· µ ¶¸−1
1
= Ya22 + Yf 1 −
Av
· µ ¶¸−1
Ya22 + Yf
= Ya22 + Yf 1 − (5.65)
Ya21 − Yf
Comparing eqn 5.59 with eqn 5.63, and eqn 5.60 with eqn 5.64 we recognise
that the admittance representation resulting from Miller’s theorem provides the
same forward voltage gain and the same input impedance as those obtained
from applying the standard circuit theory. However, comparing eqn 5.61 with
eqn 5.65 we observe that the output impedance provided by Miller’s theorem
is not the same as that provided by the circuit theory analysis. Hence, this
5. Electrical two-port network analysis 163
The voltage gain given by the last equation is the voltage gain of the two-port
w
q network a (without the series admittance Yf ). This approximation turns out to
q q be one of the most attractive advantages of the use of Miller’s theorem (see [2]
p qs for a more detailed discussion). Miller’s theorem is a very important analysis
x
tool which is used in Chapter 6 to analyse and to discuss the high-frequency
zL{ | }J~T{ _
response of electronic amplifiers.
q ———————————————————————————————
tvu w
q q
t$y Example 5.2.8 Apply Miller’s theorem to the circuit shown in figure 5.14 a)
prq s in order to obtain the input impedance, Zin . gm = 50 mA/V, Rf = 20 kΩ,
x
Ri = 2.5 kΩ, and RL = 5 kΩ.
Solution: The Y -parameters of circuit a are calculated in example 5.2.4. Yf =
Figure 5.14: Application of 1/RF = 50 µS. Since |Ya22 | >> |Yf | and |Ya21 | >> |Yf | we can write:
Miller’s theorem: example.
Ya21
Av ' −
Ya22
= −gm RL
= −250
The input impedance Zin is given by the parallel connection of Ri with Y1−1 =
[Yf (1 − Av )]−1 (see also fig. 5.14 b). That is, the input impedance can be
calculated as follows:
Note that Miller’s theorem indicates that Rf is reflected to the input of the cir-
cuit reduced by a factor which is (approximately) the voltage gain. This, in
turn, significantly reduces the input impedance.
———————————————————————————————
5.3 Computer- In this section we describe a matrix-based method for the computation of the
electrical response of linear electronic circuits. This method is based on the
aided representation of any complex two-port circuit as an interconnection of ele-
electrical mentary two-port circuits such as admittances, impedances and voltage- and
current-controlled sources. The electrical response of such elementary sub-
analysis circuits can be characterised by one of the electrical representations discussed
164 5. Electrical two-port network analysis
previously. Starting from these basic two-port circuits the electrical analysis
is performed by interconnecting these elementary circuits in order to obtain
the electrical characterisation of the whole circuit. As discussed in the previ-
ous section the types of connection are series, parallel and chain (or cascade).
Depending on the type of connection appropriate electrical representations are
adopted for the two-port sub-circuits in question.
The matrix-based analysis method can be stated as follows:
1. Decompose the circuit to be analysed into its elementary two-port
sub-circuits such as series impedances, shunt admittances, voltage
and current controlled sources, etc.
2. Identify the type of connections between the various elementary two-
port networks mentioned above (parallel, series, chain).
3. Characterise the electrical response of each of the elementary two-
port sub-circuits according to the relevant two-port electrical rep-
resentation (admittance, impedance or chain). Whenever possible
use an electrical representation for the elementary two-port network
taking into account the type of connection with the other elementary
two-port networks:
(a) If the two-port elementary circuits are interconnected in paral-
lel use admittance representations for both elementary circuits;
(b) If the two-port elementary circuits are interconnected in series
use impedance representations for both elementary circuits;
(c) If the two-port elementary circuits are interconnected in chain
use chain representations for both elementary circuits.
4. According to the connections between the various elementary two-
port circuits, reconstruct the overall two-port circuit. Whenever ap-
propriate use the electrical transformation matrices shown in tables
C.1 and C.2 (see appendix C) to obtain the appropriate electrical
representations.
The next example illustrates the application of these steps.
———————————————————————————————
Example 5.3.1 Consider the circuit of figure 5.15 a) which is the equivalent
circuit of an electronic amplifier. Determine the transimpedance, the voltage
and the current gains of this circuit.
Solution: Figure 5.15 b) shows that the amplifier can be decomposed into a
connection of elementary two-port sub-circuits. The two-port circuit composed
by the voltage-controlled current source and Ri is in parallel with the series
impedance R1 . The two-port circuit resulting from this connection is in series
with the shunt admittance R2 . Finally, the two-port circuit resulting from this
connection is in chain with the shunt admittance represented by R3 .
We start by characterising the two-port circuit constituted by the voltage-
controlled current source and Ri in its admittance representation. From exam-
ple 5.2.4 we know that the admittance representation for this sub-circuit can be
5. Electrical two-port network analysis 165
8
O N
¢¡
§k¨X©«ª_¬
¥'¦ £_¤
£_¤
®¤ ¥'¦ £_¤
£ ¶
§k¨º¹ ± ª_¬ ®¤ £ ¤
£¸
£¶ £¸
§ ± ª_¬
§ v©'©'¬
¥ ¦°± ©N²O³®´Hµ ¯ ·
Figure 5.15: Electronic amplifier. a) Equivalent model. b) Decomposition in terms of elementary two-port
circuits.
written as follows:
Ri−1 0
[YV CCS ] = (5.67)
gm 0
According to eqn 5.57 we can write the admittance representation for R1 as
follows:
R1−1 −R1−1
[YR1 ] = (5.68)
−1 −1
−R1 R1
The two-port network resulting from the parallel connection of [YV CCS ] with
[YR1 ] can be written, according to eqn 5.26, as follows:
−1
Ri + R1−1 −R1−1
[YV CCS+R1 ] = (5.69)
−1 −1
gm − R 1 R1
Since [YV CCS+R1 ] is in series with the shunt admittance, R2 , it is appro-
priate to characterise these two sub-circuits according to impedance represen-
tations. From the example 5.2.1 we can write:
R2 R2
[ZR2 ] = (5.70)
R2 R2
166 5. Electrical two-port network analysis
From eqn 5.45 we can write the impedance representation for V CCS + R1
as follows:
Ri Ri
1+gm Ri 1+gm Ri
(5.71)
[ZV CCS+R1 ] =
Ri (1−gm R1 ) Ri +R1
1+gm Ri 1+gm Ri
Using eqn 5.14, the impedance representation for the two-port sub-circuit re-
sulting from the series connection of V CCS + R1 with R2 can be expressed
as follows:
Ri Ri
1+gm Ri + R2 1+gm Ri + R2
(5.72)
[ZV CCS+R1 +R2 ] =
Ri (1−gm R1 ) Ri +R1
1+gm Ri + R2 1+gm Ri + R2
It is left to the reader to show that the transimpedance gain, Rm , the voltage
gain, Av , and the current gain, Ai , are
¡ ¢−1
Rm = Aeq21 (5.76)
= −17.8 kΩ
¡ ¢−1
Av = Aeq11 (5.77)
= −12.2
¡ ¢−1
Ai = Aeq22 (5.78)
= −40.8
———————————————————————————————
5. Electrical two-port network analysis 167
5.4 Bibliography 1. W.H. Hayt, J.E. Kemmerly, Engineering Circuit Analysis, 2001 (McGraw-
Hill) 6th edition.
2. L. Moura, Error Analysis in Miller’s Theorems, IEEE Trans. on Circuits
and Systems-I: Fundamental Theory and Applications, Vol. 48, No. 2,
Feb. 2001, pp. 241–249.
5.5 Problems 5.1 For the two-port networks of figure 5.16 determine the Z-parameters.
½nÃ
ÇvÅ Æ Å ÄTÅ
ÈTÉ Ê É
5.2 Show that the series electrical representation of a two-port network which
results from the series connection of two two-port networks characterised by
impedance representations [Z0 ] and [Z00 ] can be expressed as the sum of [Z0 ]
with [Z00 ] (refer to fig. 5.5).
5.3 For the two-port networks of figure 5.16 determine the Y -parameters.
5.5 For the two-port networks of figure 5.16 determine the chain parameters.
5.6 Show that the chain electrical representation of a two-port network which
results from the chain connection of two two-port networks characterised by
chain representations [A0 ] and [A00 ] can be expressed as the product of [A0 ]
with [A00 ] (refer to fig. 5.12).
168 5. Electrical two-port network analysis
5.7 Show that the admittance representation, [Y], can be obtained from the
impedance representation, [Z], according to the following expression: [Y] =
[Z]−1 . [Y] and [Z] are given by eqns 5.18 and 5.6, respectively.
5.8 Show that the series admittance Yf of figure 5.13 a) can be characterised
by an admittance representation expressed by eqn 5.57.
5.9 Show that the two-port network of figure 5.13 b) can be characterised by
an admittance representation expressed by eqn 5.62.
5.10 Derive expressions which allow for the conversion of chain to admittance
parameters.
5.11 Consider the two-port networks of figure 5.17 with Ri = 2.5 kΩ, Ro =
10 kΩ and gm = 40 mS. For each circuit determine
1. the input impedance (Io = 0)
2. the output impedance (Vs = 0)
3. the voltage gain Vo /Vs (Io = 0)
4. the current gain Io /Is (Vo = 0)
5. the transimpedance gain Vo /Is (Io = 0)
6. the transconductance gain Io /Vs (Vo = 0)
ä ä ä ä á ä ä ä
ë ê éê í ê
5.12 Consider the two-port network of figure 5.18. Apply Miller’s theorem to
î î î
ï'÷
ñhòºó
ô
the resistance Rf and then obtain an estimate for the circuit input impedance
ï'ð
ó÷ ï ô óô óð and voltage gain Vo /Vs . Assume Ri = 2 kΩ, Ro = 5 kΩ and gm = 40 mS,
Rs = 100 Ω and Rf = 47 kΩ.
õ õ õ
Figure 5.18: Two-port net- 5.13 Consider again the two-port network of figure 5.18 (see also problem
work. 5.12). Apply the computer-aided electrical analysis method described in sec-
tion 5.3 to solve this circuit. Then determine the input impedance and voltage
gain Vo /Vs and compare these values with those obtained applying Miller’s
theorem. Draw conclusions.
6 Basic electronic amplifier building
blocks
6.1 Introduction Linear electronic amplification is one of the most important and fundamental
operations applied to electrical signals. By electrical signals we mean time
varying voltage, current or power signals which represent some information
such as an audio signal. In this chapter we present an introduction to vari-
ous basic electronic amplifier structures. The next section addresses important
amplifier ‘figures of merit’ such as gain, bandwidth and how to model them.
Section 6.3 deals with operational amplifiers, an important integrated-circuit
general purpose amplifier, which can be used for a large variety of applications
ranging from signal (audio and video) amplification to analogue signal pro-
cessing such as filtering. In section 6.4 we present other active devices which
provide amplification. Some amplifier circuit topologies are also analysed in
detail in terms of gain and bandwidth.
6.2 Modelling The basic role of an electronic amplifier is intuitive: it magnifies the amplitude
of the electrical signals mentioned above. Hence we can identify the three main
the types of electronic amplification: voltage amplification, current amplification
amplification and power (voltage and current) amplification. An amplifier is characterised in
terms of figures of merit. Examples of figures of merit are the gain, the band-
process width and noise figure. The first two of these are defined below while the noise
figure is discussed in Chapter 8.
deal with the analysis of amplifiers. Therefore, and unless stated otherwise,
the analysis of amplifiers presented here is carried out using phasor analysis.
ù.ú
Signal notation
ûú
The notation used here is as shown in figure 6.1. The time varying component,
that is, the phasor component, is expressed by a lower case with a lower case
ùü ùú subscript, e.g. ia , vb . The DC component is expressed by an uppercase symbol
with uppercase subscript, e.g IA , VB . The total instantaneous quantity, that
is, the signal plus DC component, is expressed by an uppercase letter with a
ø
lowercase subscript, e.g. Ia , Vb .
When a voltage is indicated at a given node, as illustrated in figure 6.2 a),
Figure 6.1: Notation em- this means that the voltage is referenced to the ground terminal (or node 0) as
ployed to describe DC and indicated in figure 6.2 b) (see also section 1.4.3). The symbol which represents
AC signals. the ground terminal is shown in figure 6.2 a).
357 6 53 7 3 4 354 3 4 3 4
V2KM
_ÿ®þ ÿWT 6 V2KM
_ÿ®þ ÿWT 6
X ; Y ;
Figure 6.3: Typical transfer functions of electronic amplifiers. a) With AC coupling capacitors. b) Without
AC coupling capacitors.
\ b ^5_ `q `
r r
iin v Z iin
\(]
w sMx d \ e r` s
( \po
`] l
Za`Nb ^giu] t>v c d(e]fhgiiNj gmEn
k
[ m>n
s
[ t
yNzN{E|8}~ zN C~5
~| zN
———————————————————————————————
Example 6.2.1 Consider a voltage amplifier modelled by a voltage-controlled
voltage source, an input resistance Ri , a parasitic capacitance Ci and an output
resistance Ro , as shown in figure 6.4. This amplifier is driven by a voltage
signal source vs with an output resistance Rs . CB is a DC blocking capacitor.
The amplifier drives a load RL .
1. Determine the transfer function of the circuit, Avs = vo /vs .
2. Show that for the frequency range 10 fL ≤ f ≤ fH /10 (that is, the cen-
tre of the mid-band) the voltage gain AvM can be determined assuming
that the blocking capacitor CB is a short-circuit and that the capacitor Ci
is an open-circuit.
Solution:
1. The transfer function for the amplifier Avs = vo /vs can be written in
terms of the product of partial voltage gains as follows:
vo vo0 vi
Avs = 0
× × (6.3)
vo vi vs
From figure 6.4 it can be seen that vo is related to vo0 by a resistive voltage
divider expression, such that;
RL
vo = v0 (6.4)
Ri + R L o
vi is, in turn, related to vs according to the following equation:
Ri
vi =
Ri + R s
j ω CB (Ri + Rs )
× vs
1 + jωCB (Ri + Rs ) + jωCi Ri − ω 2 Ci CB Ri Rs
(6.5)
In practical circuits where CB is orders of magnitude larger than Ci (as
in this example) vi can be expressed by the eqn below:
Ri j ω CB (Ri + Rs ) 1
vi = × × Ri Rs
vs (6.6)
Ri + R s 1 + jωCB (Ri + Rs ) 1 + jωCi Ri +Rs
6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks 173
This equation shows a wide separation between the low and the high
frequency poles.
1
High-frequency pole: Ri Rs
Ci Ri +Rs
1
Low-frequency pole:
CB (Ri + Rs )
From the above, the voltage transfer function Avs can be expressed in
the format of eqn 6.1, that is,
j ω CB (Ri + Rs ) Ri RL
Avs = × Av
1 + jωCB (Ri + Rs ) Ri + R s RL + R o
| {z } | {z }
Low-frequency response Mid-frequency range gain
1
× (6.7)
1 + jωCi RRii+R
Rs
s
| {z }
High-frequency response
From this eqn we can identify fL and fH as:
1
fL = (6.8)
2 π CB (Ri + Rs )
= 122.4 Hz
1
fH = (6.9)
2 π Ci (Ri ||Rs )
= 34.5 MHz
Figure 6.5 a) shows the three constituent parts of the voltage transfer
function of eqn 6.7 where Low f , M id f and High f refer to the low-
frequency, mid-frequency and high-frequency constituent parts of the
voltage transfer function, respectively. The product of these three parts
is the overall transfer function as shown in figure 6.5 b).
2. In order to show that in the centre of the mid-band (10 fL ≤ f ≤ fH /10)
we can consider the blocking capacitor CB as short-circuit and the ca-
pacitor Ci as an open-circuit we consider the impedance voltage dividers
shown in figure 6.6. For the impedance voltage divider of figure 6.6 a)
we can write:
vi R i Z Ci
= (6.11)
vs R i Z Ci + R s Z Ci + R i R s
1
Z Ci =
jω Ci
174 6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks
¬5N® ¡ u
NE
¡P¢p£
N N N N N NE
¯°¨C± ¡
NE
NE
E
E ¡P¢u£
N N N N N
§©¨8ª« ¡
¡P¢u£ ¡P¢u£
N N N N N N N> N N N N N NE N N
¦ ¥ ¤¥
Figure 6.5: a) The three constituent parts of the voltage transfer function of the amplifier of figure 6.4. b)
Voltage transfer function.
´ ¶p· ´Nµ
·
Equation 6.11 can be written as follows:
µ
¶
µ vi Ri 1
² = × (6.12)
vs R +R Rs ||Ri
| s {z i} 1+ ZC i
º ¹
Resistive loss | {z }
´ ²5³ ´µ Additional loss(ZCi )
¶ ·
· Rs Ri
Rs ||Ri =
Rs + R i
µ
¶
For the impedance voltage divider of figure 6.6 b) we can write:
vi Ri
¸>¹ = (6.13)
vs R i + R s + Z CB
1
Figure 6.6: Impedance volt- Z CB = (6.14)
jω CB
age dividers.
Equation 6.13 can be written as follows:
vi Ri 1
= × Z
(6.15)
vs Rs + R i 1 + R C+RB
| {z }
| {zs i}
Resistive loss
Additional loss(ZCB )
(6.16)
The plots of figure 6.7 a) and b) show the additional loss caused by ZCi
and by ZCB , respectively, for the two impedance voltage dividers il-
lustrated in figure 6.6. From figure 6.7 a) it is clear that for |ZCi | ≥
6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks 175
10 (Ri ||Rs ) the additional loss caused by the capacitance is very small,
that is, for |ZCi | ≥ 10 (Ri ||Rs ) the electrical response of the impedance
voltage divider of figure 6.6 a) is approximately the same as that obtained
if the capacitor Ci was replaced by an open-circuit. On the other hand,
from figure 6.7 b) it can be observed that for |ZCB | ≤ 10 (Ri + Rs )
the electrical response of the impedance voltage divider of figure 6.6 b)
is approximately the same as that obtained if the capacitor CB was re-
placed by a short-circuit. For the frequency range located between 10 fL
1 1
Rs||R Z CB
i
1+ 1+
Ri + R s
Z Ci
1 1
0.9 0.9
Rs Rs CB
vs vi vs vi
Ri
0.8 Ci 0.8 Ri
|ZCi | |ZCB |
Rs||Ri Rs + R i
0.7 0.7
100 101 102 10−2 10−1 100
a) b)
Figure 6.7: a) Additional loss caused by ZCi . b) Additional loss caused by ZCB .
and fH /10, that is, between 1.2 kHz and 3.5 MHz we can calculate the
Á ¾ Á ¼
»E¼Í »¼ following:
½
½ ÁÄÃ
½ Á À »NÀ  ËÄÌ »À 2.3 kΩ ≤ |ZCi | ≤ 6.5 MΩ , 1.2 kHz ≤ f ≤ 3.5 MHz
 »¾
Å ÆÇ>ÈCÉÊ
¿
Î ÆÏNÐ 46 mΩ ≤ |ZCB | ≤ 130 Ω , 1.2 kHz ≤ f ≤ 3.5 MHz
Ñ ÆÒ ÓCÏÔÊpÕpÖ×>Ò Ø ÙEÊÈ
Since (Ri ||Rs ) = 230 Ω and (Ri + Rs ) = 1300 Ω then, from the last
two eqns, we conclude that, for this frequency range, we have
Figure 6.8: Equivalent
circuit of the amplifier of |ZCi | ≥ 10 (Ri ||Rs ) and |ZCB | ≤ 10 (Ri + Rs ) (6.17)
figure 6.4 valid for the mid- Therefore, the effects of Ci and CB can be neglected for the calculation
frequency range. of AvM , that is, we can consider the DC blocking capacitor CB as a
short-circuit and the capacitor Ci as an open-circuit. Figure 6.8 shows
the equivalent circuit of the amplifier in this frequency range.
———————————————————————————————
âá
impedance and a resistive output impedance. The gain is modelled by a voltage-
Þ Þ or current-controlled current or voltage source depending on the type of ampli-
à á
Þ fier. This results in the four different configurations shown in figure 6.9.
Ü Ý à Ý Ü á
ß éëê For the voltage amplifier it is desirable for the input impedance, Ri , to be as
ÜÝ
ß ß
ãä
high as possible while the output impedance, Ro , should be as low as possible.
âá In order to understand why this is so, we consider again the equivalent circuit
à á Þ of the voltage amplifier shown in figure 6.8 which is driven by a voltage source,
âÝ vs , with an associated output resistance, Rs . The amplifier drives a resistive
à Ý Üá
load RL . The voltage gain Avs = vo /vs can be calculated as follows:
é Ý âÝ ß
vo
ÚÛ âá Avs = (6.18)
vs
à á Þ vo v0 vi
Þ = × o × (6.19)
âÝ à Ý Üá
0
vo vi vs
ß à è â
Ý
ß From figure 6.8 it can be seen that vo is related to vo0 by a voltage divider as
å>ä
âá
RL
à á Þ vo = v0 (6.20)
Þ Ri + R L o
ÜÝ à Ý Üá Also, vi is related to vs by a similar voltage divider,
ß çHè ÜÝ ß
æ ä
Ri
vi = vs (6.21)
Ri + R s
Figure 6.9: Small-signal Therefore, the overall voltage gain Avs can be expressed as:
models for the mid- Ri RL
frequency range. a) Voltage Avs = × Av × (6.22)
Ri + R s Ri + R L
amplifier. b) Current am-
plifier. c) Transimpedance We see that Rs and RL cause resistive loading effects at the input and output
amplifier. d) Transconduc- of the amplifier which, in turn, cause a decrease of the overall gain of the
tance amplifier. amplifier. For example, let us assume that the amplifier has an intrinsic voltage
gain Av = 100, an input impedance Ri = 5 kΩ and an output impedance
Ro = 1 kΩ. If Rs = Ri and if RL = Ro the voltage gain Avs is 25, that is,
there is a 75 % reduction of the overall gain due to these loading effects! On
the other hand if Ri = 5 MΩ, Ro = 50 Ω, Rs = 5 kΩ and RL = 1 kΩ, the
overall gain is Avs ' Av = 100. It follows that an ideal voltage amplifier has
a gain that does not depend on Rs or RL . This means that this (ideal) amplifier
has an input impedance which behaves as an open-circuit, Ri → ∞, and a zero
output impedance, Ro = 0.
ìð ì8íî ìî ———————————————————————————————
ïÄð ü ð ìð
ìñ
ïòñ ï î Example 6.2.2 Show that an ideal current amplifier has a zero input impedance,
ï2ý Ri = 0, and an output impedance, Ro that is infinite.
óEô õöC÷ø ùô úû
þ5õMöö%øÿ
>øö Solution: Let us consider the equivalent circuit for a current amplifier shown in
figure 6.10. The amplifier is driven by a current source with output impedance,
Rs . The amplifier drives a resistive load RL . The overall current gain, Ais can
Figure 6.10: Equivalent cir- be written as follows:
cuit for a current amplifier.
io
Ais =
is
6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks 177
io i0 ii
= 0
× o ×
io ii is
Rs Ro
= × Ai × (6.23)
Rs + R i Ro + R L
If we let Ri → 0 and Ro → ∞ we obtain
Rs Ro
lim Ais = lim × Ai ×
Ri →0
Ro →∞
Ri →0
Ro →∞
Rs + R i Ro + R L
= Ai (6.24)
2
− − does not draw any current from the input source by its input terminals. On
Ri → ∞ the other hand the output impedance of the amplifier is zero. The differential
Av → ∞ voltage gain is infinity. Note that the ideal op-amp amplifies only the voltage
Ro → 0 difference between the input terminals. The last ideal characteristic considered
b) for the ideal op-amp is infinite bandwidth. As will be shown shortly, these
four ideal characteristics make the analysis (and the design) of circuits with
Figure 6.11: Operational op-amps quite simple.
amplifier. a) Circuit symbol.
b) Equivalent circuit.
6.3.1 Open-loop and feedback concepts
The practical op-amp is rarely used as an open-loop amplifier. One of the
main reasons for this being its extremely high voltage gain (typically 105 –106 )
that easily results in output voltage saturation. Rather the op-amp is employed
using feedback. It is the use of feedback which allows the implementation of
a broad variety of circuits using op-amps and some of them are presented in
section 6.3.2.
178 6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks
, 3#/
%#4 '+* 1+2 % *
%* %#: %*
% 4
,.-0/
%#:
'<;
';
' (
%#& ')(
!#"$
/ /
there is no current flowing through the op-amp input terminals (due to its infi-
nite input impedance), vf can be related to vo using the resistive voltage divider
expression:
R2
vf = vo (6.27)
R2 + R 1
R2
β = (6.28)
R2 + R 1
β represents the fraction of the output voltage which is fed back to the input of
the circuit via the voltage divider. Equation 6.25 can be written as:
vo
vs = + β vo (6.29)
Av
Solving this last equation to obtain vo we get:
Av
vo = vs (6.30)
1 + β Av
and eqn 6.26 can be solved to obtain vi as follows;
1
vi = vs (6.31)
1 + β Av
6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks 179
If we now let Av tend towards infinity in eqns 6.30 and 6.31 then we obtain
Av
vo = lim vs
Av →∞ 1 + β Av
1
= vs
β
R2 + R 1
= vs (6.32)
R1
and
1
vi = lim vs = 0 (6.33)
Av →∞ 1 + β Av
From eqn 6.32 we can write the closed-loop gain Avf as follows:
vo R2 + R 1 R2
Avf = = =1+ (6.34)
vs R1 R1
Equation 6.33 reveals that when the op-amp gain is very large then the voltage
difference between the two input terminals of the op-amp tends to zero. This
gives rise to a ‘virtual short-circuit’ between the two input terminals of the
op-amp. This virtual short-circuit is always valid when the feedback applied
to the op-amp is negative, and is a valuable concept which contributes to the
simplicity of analysis and design of circuits with op-amps.
Another very important result is the one expressed by eqn 6.34 which states
that the voltage gain depends only on the values of the external resistances used
to implement the feedback network. Again, this is a consequence of the large
I$L differential open-loop voltage gain.
IKJ CHG
6.3.2 Other examples and applications
? F N
CED
M The inverting amplifier
=>@?A ?B
Figure 6.13 shows another important voltage amplifier topology; the inverting
amplifier. Since there is no current flowing through the input terminals we
have:
Figure 6.13: Inverter ampli-
fier i1 = i 2 (6.35)
Using the concept of virtual short-circuit between the op-amp input terminals
we can write v 0 = 0. Therefore, the voltage vs is applied across R1 and vo
occurs across R2 . Equation 6.35 can be written as follows:
vs vo
=− (6.36)
R1 R2
and the closed-loop voltage gain is
vo
Avf =
vs
R2
= − (6.37)
R1
180 6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks
———————————————————————————————
Example 6.3.1 Design two voltage amplifiers with voltage gains of +15 and
−15.
Solution: Considering the non-inverting amplifier and using eqn 6.34 we have
R2 = 14 R1 . Choosing R1 = 1 kΩ we have R2 = 14 kΩ.
Now for the gain of −15 we choose the inverting amplifier. Using eqn 6.37
we have R2 = 15 R1 . Choosing R1 = 1 kΩ we have R2 = 15 kΩ.
UVW X$Y
———————————————————————————————
U$ZW X[Y
T
Q#R The integrator amplifier
_
S
Q] W X$Y ^ Q\ W X[Y Figure 6.14 shows an integrator amplifier. It should be noted that this amplifier
OP
is a structure that is quite similar to that of the inverting amplifier discussed
previously. The main difference is that R2 is replaced by a capacitor, C. We
use now a time domain analysis.
Figure 6.14: Integrator Using the concept of virtual short-circuit we have v 0 = 0. Also i1 (t) =
amplifier. i2 (t). Therefore, we can write;
vs (t) d vo (t)
= −C (6.38)
R dt
Solving the last equation in order to obtain vo (t) we get;
Z t
1
vo (t) = − vs (t) d t + Vco (6.39)
RC 0
where Vco is the initial voltage across the capacitor terminals (at t = 0). Equa-
tion 6.39 shows that the output voltage is proportional to the time integral of
the input voltage. Note that the DC gain of such an amplifier is equal to the
open-loop gain and is, therefore, very high. In practice a large resistor is placed
across the capacitor to define a finite DC gain which prevents the saturation of
the output voltage.
dif g$h ———————————————————————————————
d$ef g[h l Example 6.3.2 Show that if we interchange the positions of the capacitor and
b#c
o
the resistor in figure 6.14 we obtain an amplifier that produces an output that is
k n bj f g[h proportional to the time differential of the input.
`a
b m f g[h Solution: If we swap the position of the resistor and the capacitor in figure 6.14
we obtain the circuit shown in figure 6.15. Once again we can write v 0 = 0 and
i1 (t) = i2 (t). Hence we have that
Figure 6.15: Differentiator
amplifier. d vs (t) vo (t)
C =− (6.40)
dt R
that is
d vs (t)
vo (t) = −R C (6.41)
dt
The last equation shows that the output voltage of the amplifier is proportional
to the derivative of vs (t).
———————————————————————————————
6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks 181
zv
Figure 6.16 shows a circuit which allows the addition of voltage signals. Since
v 0 = 0 and each voltage vsk is applied across each resistor Rk we can write
zt y v
ru vsk
q p
y t
| ik = , k = 1, 2, . . . , n (6.42)
rs[t zx { rv Rk
q p The output current, io , is the sum of each input current ik :
y x
rs.x
zw
io = i 1 + i 2 + . . . + i n (6.43)
q p
y w
rs w
that is:
vo vs1 vs2 vsn
Figure 6.16: The adder − = + + ... + (6.44)
Ro R1 R2 Rn
amplifier.
The last equation can be written as:
n
X vsk
vo = −Ro (6.45)
Rk
k=1
− + +
vsa 1
−
i0 R2
vsa
R3 va −
R1 3
R4 + vo
R3 vb
vsb v0
R1
i0 R2
−
2
− + +
vsb
6.4 Active We now present the main active electronic devices1 which are fundamental in
the amplification process: the Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) and the Field-
devices Effect Transistor (FET). We also present and analyse some important amplifier
topologies such as the common-emitter amplifier and the differential-pair am-
plifier.
KT
VT = (6.57)
) H
q
elements. Explanations based on the physical nature of these devices has been limited and is only
used so as to aid understanding of the circuit characteristics and models. Readers are referred to
references [1, 2] for detailed descriptions of the physics of such devices.
184 6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks
¤¢
¥.¦¨§ª©
¯[¬
IC
Collector
(C)
Also, the collector area is usually greater than the emitter area. The base region
is very thin when compared to the emitter and collector regions. Conversely,
n
C for the PNP transistor both the emitter and the collector areas are p type silicon
and the base region is n type silicon.
IB Figures 6.21 and 6.22 also indicate the directions of the current flowing
Base
p
B
through each terminal of each transistor. It can be seen that
(B)
IE = I C + I B (6.58)
n+
where IE IC and IB are the emitter current, the collector current and the base
IE E
Emitter current, respectively. From this figure it can be seen that base current is usually
(E) significantly smaller than either the emitter current or the collector current.
The base terminal is usually the input terminal for both devices while either
Figure 6.21: Geometry and the collector or the emitter is the output terminal.
symbol for an NPN bipolar
transistor. The Ebers-Moll model for the BJT
Collector
IC (C)
The Ebers-Moll model, shown in figure 6.23, describes the relationships be-
C
p tween the various currents and voltages of the bipolar transistor. The model
consists of two diodes and of two current-controlled current sources. We dis-
IB cuss the application of this model to the NPN transistor. The PNP model is
n
Base
B
similar. For the NPN transistor the diode currents IDE and IDC are given by
(B)
the diode equation (see eqn 6.56);
p+ ³ ´
E IDE = ISE eVBE /VT − 1 (6.59)
IE
Emitter
³ ´
(E) IDC = ISC eVBC /VT − 1 (6.60)
Figure 6.22: Geometry and where ISE and ISC are the saturation currents of the two diodes. Since the
symbol for a PNP bipolar collector region is usually larger than the emitter region, ISC is usually larger
transistor. than ISE (by a factor up to 50).
6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks 185
− C+
C IC
− + VBC ·· ¹¹··
¹¸
¹¸
·¹¸
αF¹¸ · I¹·¹· DE
VBC
IC I DC
+ IB
+ IB
B VCE B VCE
+ + I
DE
º»¸º »º»º
»¸
IE º»¸
αR»¸ º I»º»ºDC
VBE VBE
− − IE
E − −
E
a)
C
+
C −
IC ½¸
+ VCB ¼½¸
¼¼ ½¼½½¼¼
½¸
¼½¸
VCB αF½¸ ¼ I½¼½¼ DE
−
IC I DC
− IB − IB
B VEC B VEC
− −
I DE
¾¿¸
¿¸ ¿¾
¾¾ ¾¿¾
¸
VEB
IE αR¿¸
¾¿¸ ¿
¾ I¿¾¿¾ DC
¿¸
+ + VEB
E + IE +
E
b)
The relationship between the terminal currents and the junction voltages
can be written, from figure 6.23 a), as follows:
IE = I DE − α R I DC (6.61)
Current-
IC = −IDC + αF IDE (6.62)
IC meter
+ IB = (1 − αF ) IDE + (1 − αR ) IDC (6.63)
VCE
IB −
Volt-
αF is the ‘forward gain’ of the transistor and is typically near unity (0.98 to
meter
VBE
0.998). αR is the ‘reverse gain’ of the transistor and is typically near zero (0.02
to 0.1). The last equations can be written, using eqns 6.59 and 6.60, as follows
³ ´ ³ ´
Figure 6.24: Measurement IE = ISE eVBE /VT − 1 − αR ISC eVBC /VT − 1 (6.64)
of the DC characteristic for | {z } | {z }
an NPN bipolar transistor. Diode effect Reverse transistor effect
³ ´ ³ ´
VBE /VT
I C = α F I SE e − 1 − ISC eVBC /VT − 1 (6.65)
| {z } | {z }
Forward transistor effect Diode effect
IB = I E − I C (6.66)
Figure 6.24 shows how we can obtain the variation of the collector current I C
with the collector-emitter voltage VCE for various values of IB (VBE ). These
186 6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks
curves are the I–V curves for the transistor and an example is shown in figure
6.25. From this figure we identify three distinct regions of operation for the
transistor; the active region, the cut-off region and the saturation region.
IC Saturation
region Active region
(mA)
10
IB = 90 µA (VBE = 0.731 V)
8
IB = 70 µA (VBE = 0.725 V)
6
IB = 50 µA (VBE = 0.716 V)
4
IB = 30 µA (VBE = 0.703 V)
2
IB = 10 µA (VBE = 0.676 V)
Active region
The active region is the relevant region of operation when the transistor is used
as an amplification device. In this region of operation the transistor can be
characterised by its VBE and by its VBC as follows:
Under the conditions expressed by eqns 6.67 and 6.68 we can write:
³ ´
IE ' ISE eVBE /VT − 1
' ISE eVBE /VT for VBE > 4 VT (6.69)
IC ' αF ISE eVBE /VT (6.70)
= α F IE
IB = IE − IC
IC
= (6.71)
βF
with
αF
βF ,
1 − αF
6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks 187
IC ' I E
30 (mA)
25
20
|
∆IC2 15
{z
}
10
5
∆IC1 | {z }
VBE (V)
0
0.64 0.66 0.68 0.7 0.72 0.74 0.76
| {z } | {z }
∆VBE ∆VBE
Figure 6.26: Variation of IC with VBE when the transistor is in the linear
region. Example (ISE = 1.8 × 10−15 A).
Figure 6.27 a) shows a very simple transistor circuit which illustrates the role of
the BJT as an amplification device. An alternative representation for this circuit
b)
is presented in 6.27 b) where the DC voltage source, VCC , is described by a
small horizontal trace with its value. This value is assumed to be referenced to
Figure 6.27: a) Common-
ground. The input signal source symbol is often omitted for simplicity.
emitter amplifier. b) Alter-
From this figure we observe that the input voltage signal is between the
native representation.
base and emitter while the output is between the collector and emitter. Since
the emitter is the common terminal, in terms of input and output ports, the
circuit configuration is known as the ‘common-emitter amplifier’. We assume
188 6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks
Vbe = Vi (6.72)
Vce = Vo (6.73)
VCC = Vce + RL Ic (6.74)
From the above we can easily derive a linear relation describing the variation
of the collector current with the collector-emitter voltage for a given load R L
and supply voltage VCC . This is known as the load-line equation and, in this
case, is given by:
VCC Vce
Ic = − (6.75)
RL RL
= 2 − 0.2 Vce mA (6.76)
Example 6.4.1 Show that if the input voltage vi exceeds about 22.5 mA dis-
tortion will occur in the output voltage.
6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks 189
Ic Vbe (Vi)
VCC
Rc
VBE = 0.695 V
15 mV
I CQ Q VBE Q
1 mA 0.68 V
VBE = 0.665 V
Vce
VCE Q VCC t
a) b)
2V 5V 8V
Vo (Vce )
3V
t
c)
Solution: According to figure 6.28 the maximum amplitude for the output sig-
nal voltage is about ±5 volts. Taking 0.5 volt as a safety margin we establish
the maximum amplitude for the output signal voltage as ±4.5 volts. Dividing
this value by the voltage gain, Av = 200, we obtain the maximum input volt-
age of 22.5 mV.
———————————————————————————————
The analysis of the circuit presented in figure 6.27 considers the bias (DC)
and the (AC) signals simultaneously. However, it is possible, and often de-
sirable, to separate these two analyses. In fact from eqns 6.72 – 6.74 we can
separate the signal component from the DC components as follows:
Equation 6.79 can be separated into two equations: one relates to the signal
190 6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks
Ic Vbe (Vi )
VCC
Rc
' 25 mV
Q 0.68 V
' 25 mV
VCC Vce t
Vo (Vce)
Saturation
Cut-off
Equation 6.80 reveals that, in terms of signal analysis the DC voltage source
∆I I is equivalent to a ground terminal. This is reasonable and expected since an
ideal voltage source has a zero output impedance which implies that (see also
Figure 6.30: Ideal DC volt- figure 6.30):
age source.
∆V
= 0 (6.81)
∆I
signal):
¯
d Ic ¯¯
Ic = ICQ + vbe (6.82)
d Vbe ¯IC =IC
Q
giving
I CQ
gm = (6.85)
VT
The dynamic resistance between the base and the emitter terminals, rπ , defines
the small-signal vbe variations with small-signal ib variations according to the
following expression:
¯
rπ , d Vbe ¯ (6.86)
¯
d Ib Ib =IBQ
where IB = IBQ is the bias base current equal to ICQ /β. Hence, from eqns
6.70 and 6.71 we can write:
µ ¶
αF β I b
Vbe = VT ln (6.87)
I SE
VT
= β (6.88)
I CQ
Therefore,
β
rπ = (6.89)
gm
Ö[×Ø Õ
Ù Ì Ú ÌÍ Î
|VA |
ro = (6.90)
I CQ
VA is a theoretical voltage known as the Early voltage and can be obtained from
the convergence point of the output characteristics as shown in figure 6.32. For
a BJT ro is of the order of hundreds of kΩ.
———————————————————————————————
ber of the FET family known as the enhancement n-channel FET2 . Both the
VGD
D
G
IDS
VDS drain and the source are heavily doped n regions. The gate is isolated from the
VGS S
source, the drain and the substrate by a layer of silicon dioxide (SiO2 ). Hence,
a)
this FET is often called Insulated Gate FET (IGFET) or Metal-Oxide Semicon-
ductor FET (MOSFET). Unlike the BJT transistor the FET is a symmetrical
Gate
Source Drain
device, that is, the source and the drain of the device can be interchanged.
Metal SiO2 Figure 6.35 shows the symbol and the physical structure of an enhancement
Metal
íî+
î+
íîí+ð+ ïð+
ïð+ íí ð+
î+ ïï î+ íí ð+ ïï î+ íí ð+ ïï î+ íí ðïðï îíîí p-channel FET. Note that the p-channel FET can also be constructed in an n
îí+ ïï î+ íí ð+
î+
î+ ïï î+
ð+ íí ð+
î+
î+ ïï î+
ð+ íí ð+
î+
î+ ïï î+
ð+ íí ððïï îîíí
î+
î+
íîí+ð+
î+ îï +
ïð+
ð+ íî+
ðí + ð+
îï +
ïð+ íî+
ðí + ð+
îï +
ïð+ íî+
ðí + ð+
ïð+ íí ðïðï îíîí
î+
îí+
í +
î ð î+
ï+ï +
ð íî+
í ð î+
ï+ï +
ð íî+
í ð î+
ï+ï +
ð íî+
í
ïï+
ð î+
ï +
ð íî+íí ïðïððï îíîíîí
î+ substrate. However, with the integrated technology it is common to implement
ôôóô îîíí+
+
í
ïï+
îð +
ð+ íí ð+
+
î í
ïï+
îð + íí ð+
+
î í
ïï+
îð + íí ð+
+
î í
ïï+
ð î+ íî+
î+
íî+ ïð îí an n well in the p substrate and this n well serves the purpose of a substrate for
ññóó ò+
+
î îí+
î ð+
ï +
ð ïð+ +
î íî ð+
î+ ï +
ð ïð+ +
î íî ð+
î+ ï +
ð ïð+ +
î íî ð+
î+ ï +
ð ïð+ íî ðïðïðï îíîííî
ò+
ò+ ññ ò+
ò+ ññ ò+
ò+ ññ ò+
ò+ ññ ò+
ò+ ò+ ñ+òñòñ í+
ññ òòñ+ ïï í+
ð+ ïï í+
ð+ ïï í+
ð+ ïï í+
ð+ ðï W the implementation of the p-channel transistor.
n+ n+
L
p-type substrate
b)
DC large signal model
Figure 6.34: n-channel FET. A popular DC large signal model used to characterise n-channel FETs is de-
a) Symbol. b) Geometry. fined by the following set of equations:
VGD
D
W
£ 1 2
¤
kn L (VGS − VT h ) VDS − 2 VDS , VDS ≤ VGS − VT h
G ISD VDS
and VGS > VT h
(Triode region)
VGS S
a)
1 2
W
Source
Gate
Drain IDS = 2 kn L [VGS − VT h ] , VDS > VGS − VT h
Metal
and VGS > VT h
SiO2
õõ ö+
ö+ õõ ø+ ÷÷+ õõ ø+
ö+ ÷÷+ õõ ø+
ö+ ÷÷+ õõ ø+
ö+ ÷÷+ õõ ø÷÷ø ööõõ
ö+ Metal
(Saturation region)
ö+
öõ+ ö+
õö+ ÷øø+ ö+
õö+ ÷øø+ ö+
õö+ ÷øø+ ö+
õö+ ÷øø+ ö+
õö+õö ø÷ø÷ø÷ öõöõõö
ö+ ö+ ö+ ö+ ö+
öõõ+
+ ö õ+ õö ø+ ÷ø+
÷ õ+ õö ø+ ÷ø+
÷ õ+ õö ø+ ÷ø+
÷ õ+ õö ø+ ÷ø+
÷ õ+
öõ+
öõõ+
+ õ +
ö õ +
ö ÷ +
ø ÷ +
ø õ +
ö õ +
ö ÷ +
ø ÷ +
ø õ +
ö õ +
ö ÷ +
ø ÷ +
ø õ +
ö õ +
ö ÷ +
ø ÷ +
ø õö+õö ø÷ø÷ø÷ öõöõõö
ö+
üü ö ö+
öõ+ +
õ õöö+ ÷ ö+
÷ø+
ø+ +
õ õöö+ ÷ ö+
÷ø+
ø+ +
õ õöö+ ÷ ö+
÷ø+
ø+ +
õ õöö+ ÷ õ+
÷ø+
ø+ õõ ø÷ø÷ öõöõ
ö+
0 , VGS ≤ VT h
ûüû öõ+
õ ö+
ö+ õ õ ø+ ÷ +
ø õ õ ø+ ÷ +
ø õ õ ø+ ÷ +
ø õ õ ø+ ÷ +
ø ÷ ö+ õ ø÷ø÷ öõöõ
õö+ ÷ ö+
÷ø+ õö+ ÷ ö+
÷ø+ õö+ ÷ ö+
÷ø+ õö+ ÷ø+ õö+
öõ+ ö+
ù+ ù
ù+ú+ +
ú ù ú+ û ù +
ú ù
ù ú+ +
ú ù
ù ú+ +
ú ù
ù ú+ +
ú ù
ù ú+ +
ú ù
ù ú+ +
ú ù úù ø+ õ +
ö ù ú õ +
ö ÷ +
ø ÷ ø+ õ +
ö ÷ +
ø ÷ ø+ õ +
ö ÷ +
ø ÷ ø+ õ +
ö ÷ +
ø ÷ ö+ õ ø÷ø÷ öõ (Cut-off region)
W
p+
L n well
p+ (6.93)
p-type substrate
where IDS is the current which flows from the drain to the source of the tran-
b)
sistor. VGS and VDS are the gate-source and the drain-source voltages, respec-
tively, as indicated in figure 6.34. L is the channel length and W is the width
Figure 6.35: p-channel FET.
of the channel. VT h is the threshold voltage which is often between 1 and 3
a) Symbol. b) Geometry.
volts. kn is defined as follows:
charges are negative (electrons). Such charges can be attracted towards the top of the device when
a positive voltage is applied to the gate, thus creating the channel between the source and drain.
For detailed discussion of the physics of FET devices the reader is referred to [1, 2].
194 6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks
Figure 6.36: DC curves of n-channel FET according to the large signal model
(eqn 6.93). Vth = 1 V and kn W/L = 0.2 mA/V2 .
2 IDSQ
gm = (6.96)
VGS Q − VT h
6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks 195
IDS
(mA)
2
Q
IDSQ
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 VGS (V)
VGS Q
P S
O According to the DC large signal model described by eqn 6.93 the drain cur-
T/UWVXY rent of the FET does not vary with VDS when the device is operating in the
V XY QR saturation region. However, in practice we observe a slight increase of this
Z
current as VDS increases, similar to the Early effect in BJTs. In FETs this phe-
nomenon is known as channel-length modulation and is described, in terms of
M N M
small signal model as a resistance ro which can be calculated as follows:
Figure 6.39 b) shows the high-frequency small-signal model for the FET
which includes two capacitance: Cgs and Cgd . These two capacitors vary
typically between fractions of pico-farad to 10 pF and Cgs is usually larger
uv than Cgd .
w xy z
} ` | A very important figure of merit for both BJTs and FETs is the unity-gain
u5
bandwidth, fT , which indicates the frequency at which the short-circuit current
x| u| ~ | gain drops to unity (0 dB). For BJTs this frequency can be calculated from the
{ circuit shown in figure 6.40. Since the collector is short-circuited to the emitter
vπ is also applied to Cµ . Hence we can write:
Figure 6.40: Calculation of
fT for a BJT. vπ (1 + j ω rπ Cπ )
ib = + vπ j ω C µ (6.98)
rπ
ic = (gm − j ω Cµ ) vπ (6.99)
For the frequency range for which this model is valid, ω Cµ is much less than
gm and, therefore, we can calculate the short-circuit current gain as follows;
ic gm rπ
' (6.100)
ib 1 + j ω (Cµ + Cπ ) rπ
The unity-gain bandwidth, fT , can be calculated from the last eqn (see problem
6.8) as follows:
gm
fT = (6.101)
2 π (Cµ + Cπ )
Similarly, for FET devices it can be shown (see problem 6.9) that fT is given
by:
gm
fT = (6.102)
2 π (Cgd + Cgs )
For either type of transistor fT can vary from hundreds of MHz to a few tens
of GHz depending on the technology and size of the devices.
The high-frequency models presented in figure 6.39 are valid for frequen-
cies up to about fT /3. For frequencies higher than fT /3 other parasitic ele-
ments, like the parasitic inductances and resistances associated with terminal
connectors, must be taken into account in order to obtain an accurate charac-
terisation of the devices.
;
DC analysis
Figure 6.41 b) shows the equivalent circuit used in the DC analysis. Recall that
at DC each capacitor is an open-circuit. We assume that the BJT is operating
within the linear range of operation and VBE ' 0.7 volt.
Since the bias currents passing through R1 and R2 (IR1 and IR2 ) are much
larger than IB we can assume, for DC analysis, that IB ' 0. These two
approximations3 (IB ' 0 and VBE ' 0.7 V) simplify considerably this type
of analysis.
The current that flows through R1 is nearly the same as the current that
flows through R2 , that is IR1 = IR2 . Since VCC is applied across these two
resistors we can write:
VCC
I R1 = I R2 = (6.103)
R1 + R 2
= 1 mA
VB = I R2 R 2 (6.104)
= 1V
3 It should be clear that I in reality is not zero! However, the statements I
B B << IR1 and
IB << IR2 are equivalent to saying that IB = 0 for the purpose of DC analysis.
198 6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks
VE = VB − VBE (6.105)
= 0.3 V
VE
IE = (6.106)
RE
= 1 mA
VC = VCC − RC IC (6.107)
= 5V
Low-frequency analysis
Now that the DC analysis is complete we are able to calculate gm and rπ as
follows:
IC
gm = (6.108)
VT
= 40 mA/V
β
rπ = (6.109)
gm
= 5 kΩ
Rs CB CL
vin vo0 vo
vπ vin +
rπ = Zina g m vπ
vπ
+ RB
vs rπ
− (R1||R2) − RC RL
RE
Zin Zina
CE
vo vo0 vin
Av = 0
× × (6.110)
vo vin vs
The partial gain vo /vo0 is given by the impedance voltage divider consisting of
the resistance RL and the impedance of the capacitor (j ω CL )−1 :
vo j ω C L RL
= (6.111)
vo0 j ω C L RL + 1
The small signal base current, ib , can be written as follows:
vin vπ
ib = = (6.112)
Zin rπ
and the partial gain vo0 /vin can be written as:
with ZE given by
1
ZE = RE ||
j ω CE
RE
= (6.116)
1 + j ω C E RE
The partial gain vin /vs is given by the impedance voltage divider consisting of
RB in parallel with Zina and the impedance consisting of the series of Rs with
the impedance of the capacitor (j ω CB )−1 :
CL
vo0 vo
+
it g m vπ
rπ vπ
+
vt
− − RC RL
RE
vt
Zina = it CE
Figure 6.43: Equivalent circuit for the calculation of Zina (see also fig 6.42).
The total gain is obtained by multiplying the three partial gains derived above.
It is obvious that the expression for this gain is very lengthy. Therefore, it
is difficult to extract the relevant information directly, namely the 3 dB cut-
off frequency and the knowledge of which capacitor (or capacitors) mostly
influence this frequency. Nevertheless, it is possible to plot this gain and extract
quantitative information. Figure 6.44 shows |Av | versus the frequency. From
this figure it is possible to see that the mid-frequency gain tends to |Avm | =
132.6 and that the low cut-off frequency is fL = 680 Hz.
¶ ·¹¸¬¶
Á(ÊL ·¹¸Í
ÁÉÂ
ÁrÂLÂ
Ì/Â
ËLÂ
ÊFÂ
É/Â
º/À º¼»t½¾¿
Â
ÁrÂ/È Á(Â¬Ç ÁrÂ/Æ ÁrÂ/Å ÁrÂÄ ÁrÂ/Ã
it
− +
+
vt g m vπ
RB RL
Rs rπ vπ RC
(R1||R2)
−
a)
+
vπ g m vπ
rπ
RB rπ vπ
Rs
(R1||R2) − RC RL
ie1 it
ie2
+ vt
RE
−
b)
R→∞ it
− +
+
g m vπ vt
Rs RB RL
rπ vπ RC
(R1||R2)
−
c)
with
vt
ie2 = (6.124)
RE
and
vπ
ie1 = gm vπ + (6.125)
rπ
6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks 203
τ2 = CE Req2 (6.130)
= 0.2 ms
Req3 = RL + RC (6.131)
and
τ3 = CL Req3 (6.132)
= 20 ms
This analysis clearly indicates that the time constant which dominates
and determines fL is that associated with CE . In many practical circuits,
the resistance seen by this capacitor tends to be relatively small when
compared to Req1 and Req3 and so this dominates fL .
The estimate for fL given by this method is:
fL = 726 Hz (6.133)
Comparing this value with that obtained from figure 6.44 we observe
that the error in the estimate of fL is only 7%.
204 6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks
Ò
Ñ Ö×
Ð Î ØÙ Ð/Û
Î ÐÚ Ò6Ó
Ò6Ý Ü Ò>Ô
Ï Ð/Ñ Þ Ò>ß;à à Ò+áâ Ú ÐÚ
Ï
Õ`Ö ×
High-frequency analysis
Figure 6.47 shows the equivalent circuit at high frequencies. It can be shown
Rs Cµ
vin vo
+
g m vπ
+ RB Cπ
vs RL
(R1||R2) vπ RC
−
rπ
−
(see problem 6.6) that the voltage transfer function, vo /vs , for this circuit can
be written as follows:
0
Ys RL (j ωCµ − gm )
Av = 0 C ) 0 )] − ω 2 C C R0
Yπ0 (1 + j ω RL µ + j ω[Cπ + Cµ (1 + gm RL µ π L
(6.135)
6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks 205
with
1 1 1
Yπ0 = + + (6.136)
Rs RB rπ
1
Ys = (6.137)
Rs
and
0
RL = RL ||RC (6.138)
Equation 6.135 is lengthy and it is not straightforward to extract the 3-dB
cut-off frequency, fH . Figure 6.48 plots the magnitude of the gain at high-
frequencies (eqn 6.135) from which fH can be determined as 4.6 MHz.
ñ ò¹ó¬ñ
ã(õFä ò¹óô
ãöä
ã(äLä
÷Lä
øLä
õFä
öä
ëLì ë¼ítîïð
ä
ãräå ãrä/æ ãrä/ç ãrä/è ãräLé ãrä/ê
The use of Miller’s theorem, discussed in the last chapter (section 5.2.5), pro-
vides insight into the high frequency response of the common-emitter ampli-
fier. In fact, by applying Miller’s theorem to the impedance associated with
Cµ , Zµ = (j ω Cµ )−1 , in figure 6.47 we obtain the circuit of figure 6.49 a).
These two circuits are equivalent in terms of input impedance and voltage gain.
For this circuit we can write the following eqns:
vo
AvBC =
vin
Zµ
Z1 =
1 − AvBC
1
= (6.139)
j ω Cµ (1 − AvBC )
Zµ AvBC
Z2 =
AvBC − 1
206 6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks
#þ # 1!23! + "
+
þ
ù þÿ
ù û¯ü
7 ,:
ú #
98 8 +
ÿ+
ýü
ú
þ
1
= AvBC −1
(6.140)
j ω Cµ AvBC
AvBC is the voltage gain between the base and the collector and can be calcu-
lated as follows:
gm − j ω C µ
AvBC = − 1 (6.141)
R 0 + j ω Cµ
L
with RL
0
= RC ||RL . At the 3 dB cut-off frequency, fH we can write:
1
gm > |j ω Cµ |ω=2πfH and 0 > |j ω Cµ |ω=2πfH
RL
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
4 × 10−2 > 5.8 × 10−5 and 2.7 × 10−4 > 5.8 × 10−5
Therefore, we can approximate AvBC as follows:
0
AvBC ' −gm RL (6.142)
= −132.6
Equation 6.139 indicates that Z1 is the impedance associated with an equiva-
lent capacitance with value Cµ (1−AvBC ). Since this capacitance is in parallel
with Cπ we can add them in order to obtain an input equivalent capacitance of
Cπ + Cµ (1 − AvBC ), as illustrated in figure 6.49 b). Similarly, Z2 is the
AvBC −1
impedance associated with a capacitance with value Cµ A vBC
which is also
represented in figure 6.49 b). Note that, according to Miller’s theorem, the ca-
pacitance Cµ is reflected to the input of the amplifier after being multiplied by
6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks 207
a factor of 133.6! As is shown next, this has a dramatic impact on the amplifier
bandwidth.
The second time constant of the circuit of figure 6.49, τ2 , is that associ-
ated with Cµ (1+gm RL 0 0
)/(gm RL ) ' Cµ . It can be shown (see problem
6.7) that the resistance Req2 seen by this capacitance is:
0
Req2 = RL (6.146)
= 3.75 kΩ
208 6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks
1
fH = (6.148)
2π(τ1 + τ2 )
= 4.5 MHz
It can be seen that the cut-off frequency provided by the exact analysis is
virtually the same as that provided by applying Miller’s theorem together
with the open-circuit time constants method. Also, from this discussion
it is clear that τ1 > τ2 and that τ1 dominates the high frequency response,
that is:
1
fH ' 0 )] R (6.149)
2π[Cπ + Cµ (1 + gm RL eq 1
This equation indicates one of the most important trends for this type
of amplifier: the larger the mid-frequency voltage gain, −gm RL 0
, the
smaller the bandwidth of the amplifier becomes; a direct result of the
Miller effect.
———————————————————————————————
4. An estimate for fH .
Solution:
SQ5Q @BA.TVU,E
HJQ
LH K @ R5NPO E
@ M5NPO E
> ?
S[\
> G @BACDFE
H ?
> W HJX @BAYR$N[OE
@ RCDFE
@BA.TT$O E <
@ AYTCDFE
HJI H W ZX =
@BA]NPO E @ ^TT$OE
g m vπ 1
it vo ' since gm rπ = β >> 1 (6.152)
−
gm
vt rπ = 25 Ω
+
vπ RL0
−
Now eqn 6.150 gives AV = 28. Note that, this gain is significantly
+ smaller than that obtained for the common-emitter, a result of the low
input impedance of the amplifier in comparison with the source output
Zina impedance.
Figure 6.52: Equivalent cir- 2. Figure 6.53 shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of the current
cuit for the calculation of
Zina . vin
g m vπ
vo
−
io
is = vRs Rs
s
rπ 0
RE RL
vπ
Zin
Figure 6.53: Equivalent circuit for the calculation of the current gain Ai .
gain Ai = io /is , where the voltage signal source has been replaced by
its equivalent Norton model. The gain can be calculated as follows:
io vin
Ai = ×
vin is
−gm vπ is (Zin ||Rs )
= ×
−vπ is
= gm (Zin ||Rs ) (6.153)
= 0.75
For the common-base amplifier, the current gain is always less than
unity. In fact, if Rs and RE are much larger than Zina , then we have
(Rs ||Zin ) ' Zina and, under this condition we can write the current
gain as:
Aimax = gm Zina
gm rπ
=
gm rπ + 1
β
= (6.154)
β+1
which can approach but never achieve a value of unity.
6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks 211
c
mk _qpr
_!l
b n k nJo
a` ak
c
and τ2 = RL
0
Cµ = 7.5 ns. The estimate for fH is given by:
1
fH = (6.155)
2π(τ1 + τ2 )
= 20.6 MHz
This is much greater than the 4.6 MHz value of the common-emitter amplifier.
This is because the Miller effect does not operate on Cµ .
———————————————————————————————
Example 6.4.4 The amplifier of figure 6.55 a) is called a common-collector
(or emitter follower) amplifier. Determine;
1. The DC bias voltages and currents of the circuit;
2. The voltage gain in the mid-frequency range;
3. The input impedance in the mid-frequency range;
4. The output impedance in the mid-frequency range;
212 6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks
u4vxw!z
}
u 9wyFz
}! {F|
{F
u.vxwew yFz u 3z
s
u4vw z
t }
!
} ~
q }
u yFz u4v yFz
uB9w]yJz
µL¶
°· ¸
ÇYÉ ÈÈ ®
²³´° ±
À± °±
® µFÁ
°¶ ¹ µº» » µF¼&½
¯
¯ °9Â
¾ ·¸ ¾ · ¸e¿ ÅÂ µFÄÃ
¹ µ Ä » » µJƽ
2. Figure 6.57 shows the small-signal equivalent circuit for the mid-frequency
range AC analysis. The voltage gain, Av = vo /Vs can be calculated as
follows:
vo vin
Av = ×
vin vs
0
RE io RB ||Zina
= 0 i + v × R + (Z
RE o π s ina ||RB )
³ ´
0 vπ
RE r π + g m vπ RB ||Zina
= ³ ´ ×
0 vπ
R E r π + g m vπ + v π R s + (Zina ||RB )
0
RE (β + 1) RB ||Zina
+ = 0 × (6.160)
it = vrππ g m vπ rπ + RE (β + 1) Rs + (Zina ||RB )
vt vπ RB = R1 ||R2 (6.161)
+ rπ
− = 10 kΩ
−
0
RE = RE ||RL (6.162)
io RE0 = 3.3 kΩ
(RE ||RL)
Zina is the impedance looking into the base of the amplifier as indicated
in figure 6.57. Figure 6.58 shows the circuit for the calculation of Zina :
³ ´
0 vπ
vπ + R E rπ + g m vπ
= rπ
vπ
0
= rπ + RE (β + 1) (6.163)
= 676 kΩ
From eqn 6.160 the voltage gain Av is found to be 0.95. In the common-
collector amplifier the voltage gain can approach (but is always less than)
+
vπ g m vπ one.
rπ
rπ vπ
3. The input impedance of the amplifier, Zin as indicated in figure 6.57 is:
RB −
ie
Zin = RB ||Zina
it
(RB ||Rs) ' RB (6.164)
vt
io RE0 + = 10 kΩ
−
(RE ||RL) 4. The circuit of figure 6.59 shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation
of the output impedance.
vt
Figure 6.59: Circuit for Zo = (6.165)
it
the calculation of the output
0 vπ
impedance. vt = −vπ − RB (6.166)
rπ
vt
it = 0 − ie
RE
vt vπ
= 0 − − g m vπ (6.167)
RE rπ
0
RB = RB ||Rs (6.168)
= 96.2 Ω
Solving eqns 6.166 and 6.167 in order to obtain Zo as given by eqn 6.165
we obtain
µ 0
¶
0 rπ + R B
Zo = R E || (6.169)
β+1
= 25.1 Ω
5. Figure 6.60 shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of the current
gain, Ai :
io
Ai =
is
io vin
= ×
vin is
gm vπ + vrππ
= Zina vπ
× (Rs ||Zin )
rπ
β+1
= × (Rs ||Zin ) (6.170)
Zina
= 2.3
6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks 215
ÔxÕ xÔ Ù Ú Ì
Ö ÕØ× Û Ù ÚÜ ÎPÏjÊeË
ÐË ÊeË
Ñ å Ñ!æ
ä4å Ý Ñç Þ Þ Ñ!èà
Í
äBé ÑqÒÓ
Ý Ñ Ó3Þ Þ Ñqßà
áâ ã Ü
áâ ã
Figure 6.60: Equivalent circuit for the calculation of the current gain.
IQ IQ
2 2
RD RD
(12 kΩ) (12 kΩ) RD RD
Vo 1 Vo 2 Vo 1 Vo 2
Vin1 Vin2
Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2
Vc Vc
+ +
VGS Q VGS Q −
−
IQ
IQ
(1 mA)
(−5 V)
−VSS −VSS
a) b)
VDD IQ VDD IQ
2 + ids1 2 + ids2
RD RD
RD RD
Vo 1 Vo 2 Vo1 Vo 2
Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2
vs
2 − v2s
+
vs + +
−
− VGS Q + v2s VGS Q − v2s −
IQ IQ
−VSS −VSS
c) d)
voltage VGS Q for each transistor which satisfies the following equation:
IQ 1 W ¡ ¢2
IDSQ = = kn VGS Q − VT h (6.171)
2 2 L
where IDSQ is the drain bias current of each transistor. Assuming VT h = 1 V
and kn W
L = 0.2 mA/V , we can calculate the bias voltage VGS Q as,
2
s
IQ
VGS Q = VT h + (6.172)
kn W
L
= 2.6 V
IQ
Vo1 = Vo2 = VDD − RD (6.173)
2
= 4V
1 W ³ vs ´2
Ids1 = kn VGS Q + − VT h (6.176)
2 L 2
1 W ³ vs ´2
Ids2 = kn VGS Q − − VT h (6.177)
2 L 2
Subtracting the square root of these two drain currents we get:
r
p p 1 W
Ids1 − Ids2 = kn vs (6.178)
2 L
218 6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks
Solving eqns 6.178 and 6.179 in order to obtain Ids1 and Ids2 it can be shown
(see problem 6.12) that:
r s
vs2
IQ W vs kn W
Ids1 = + I Q kn 1− 4 L
(6.180)
2 L 2 IQ
r s
vs2
IQ W vs kn W
Ids2 = − I Q kn 1− 4 L
(6.181)
2 L 2 IQ
Figure 6.62 shows the variation of the drain current of each transistor, nor-
malised to IQ , with the variation of vs normalised to VGS Q − VT h . From this
figure we observe that for vs = 0 V, IQ is divided equally between Ids1 and
÷Jøù
ð9ë ê ÷ú
òPóxô.û êë ï ò[óxô&õ
òPö ò[ö
êë î
êë í
êë ì ü ù
ýþÿ ö ý
ñ ðeë í ñ ð9ë ê ñ êë î ñ êë ì êë ì êë î ðeë ê ðeë í
Figure 6.62: Large signal operation of the differential pair for differential input
voltage vs .
6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks 219
Ids2 as mentioned previously. Also, for |vs | ' 1.4 (VGS Q − VT h ) the current
IQ can be fully switched to either of the branches of the differential pair. For
this situation one of the transistors conducts IQ while the other is cut-off. From
this figure we also observe that for values of |vs | ≤ 0.4 (VGS Q − VT h ) the op-
eration of the differential pair is approximately linear. This conclusion can also
be inferred from eqns 6.183 and 6.184 where, for |vs | << 2 (VGS Q − VT h ),
they can be approximated as follows:
IQ IQ vs
Ids1 = + (6.185)
2 V GS
| {z } | Q {z − V T h 2
}
Bias AC signal
IQ IQ vs
Ids2 = − (6.186)
2 } VGS Q − VT h 2
| {z | {z }
Bias AC signal
From the definition of the FET transconductance (see eqn 6.96) we can write
the last two equations as:
IQ
Ids1 = + ids1 (6.187)
2
IQ
Ids2 = + ids2 (6.188)
2
with
vs
ids1 = +gm (6.189)
2
vs
ids2 = −gm (6.190)
2
The output voltages Vo1 and Vo2 can be determined to be:
vo1 − vo2
Avd =
vs
= −gm RD (6.193)
= −7.5
220 6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks
It should be noted that the analysis presented above does not take into account
#%$"&' the channel width modulation effect, that is we assume that ro is infinite. If
#%-/.0#%$"&' this effect is accounted for then the differential gain is given by:
ABC D
q
W
1 + (VSS − VT h ) 2 kn RREF
9?
L
(6.197)
3 ±
kn W 2
5 6 7=@ L RREF
4 that is
6.6 Problems 6.1 Design a voltage amplifier using one op-amp and two resistors with a gain
of +20.
6.3 Design a circuit such that its output voltage, vo is related to its input volt-
age, vin , by vo = −vin .
6.4 Design a circuit such that its output voltage is equal to the sum of its three
input voltages, that is vo = vi1 + vi2 + vi3 .
6.6 Show that the voltage transfer function of the common-emitter amplifier
at high frequencies can be written as in eqn 6.135.
6.7 Show that the resistances Req1 and Req2 seen by the capacitances Cπ +
Cµ (1 + gm RL0
) and Cµ are as given by eqn 6.144 and by eqn 6.146, respec-
tively.
6.8 Show that the unity-gain bandwidth, fT , for a BJT can be expressed by
eqn 6.101.
6.9 Show that the unity-gain bandwidth, fT , for a FET can be expressed by
eqn 6.102.
6.10 Consider the amplifier of figure 6.65. Determine the voltage gain, vo /vs ,
in the mid-frequency range. Also calculate the amplifier’s bandwidth. Assume
VT h = 1 V, kn W/L = 4 mA/V2 , VA = 80 V, Cgd =2 pF and Cgs = 20 pF.
222 6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks
]P^%^ M N T`_aS
VXe
M h T
V"[\U=Y S M di j%[\U=S
KL
V`b K=g M NPORQ"S
M N T T%U=S M ZRORQ"S M N Z%[\VXU=L S
I cb K=f
J Vf
M d T%[\VXU=W S M N T T%U=S M N T%ORQ"S
6.11 Consider the amplifier of figure 6.66. Determine the current gain, io /is ,
in the mid-frequency range. Also calculate the amplifier’s bandwidth. Assume
β = 200, VA → ∞, Cµ =3 pF and Cπ = 18 pF.
VCC (10 V )
R1
(20 kΩ)
CB
CE
(5 µF )
Rs io
is (10 µF )
RL
R2 RE
(4.3 kΩ) (15 kΩ)
(20 kΩ)
(10 kΩ)
6.12 Show that the large-signal drain currents of the differential pair of figure
6.61 can be written as in eqns 6.180 and 6.181.
6.13 Consider the amplifier of figure 6.67. Determine its voltage gain, vo /vs ,
in the mid-frequency range. Assume that all transistors have the same electrical
characteristics; VT h = 1 V, kn W/L = 2 mA/V2 , and VA = 80 V.
6. Basic electronic amplifier building blocks 223
VDD (5 V)
(6 kΩ) (6 kΩ)
RD RD
vo
Q1 Q2
− vs
(3 kΩ)
Q3 Q4
−VSS (−5 V)
6.14 Consider the current mirror of figure 6.68. Derive an expression to de-
scribe its output impedance and show that it is approximately equal to gm ro2 if
R >> ro .
Io
R
Q3
Q1 Q2
−VSS
7.1 Introduction In this chapter we discuss the main tools used in the analysis of Radio-Frequency
(RF), or microwave1 , signals and RF linear electronic circuits.
These tools are based on phasor analysis, presented in Chapter 3, but with
the addition of another dimension: the space or physical length. This is be-
cause, as will be discussed in sections 7.2 and 7.3, in the microwave frequency
range the corresponding wavelength (1 cm to 100 cm) is of the order of the
physical size of the vast majority of the electrical components and the physical
electrical connections between them. Thus, signal propagation issues must be
considered in this type of analysis.
Another significant difference between RF analysis tools and the analy-
sis methods presented previously, is that the electrical measurements and the
characterisation of electronic devices using open- and short-circuit methods is
difficult to achieve over the entire RF frequency range which is located between
300 MHz and 30 GHz. In fact, at these frequencies short- and open-circuits are
very difficult to implement due to the existence of parasitic inductances and
capacitances in a practical measurement set-up. Such a problem implies that it
is difficult to characterise RF circuits in terms of voltage or current gains and
input and output impedances. This problem is overcome using the Scattering
parameters. These parameters, which are presented in section 7.4, are defined
in terms of travelling waves and completely characterise the behaviour of RF
and microwave electronic circuits. In addition these parameters are closely
related with practical RF measurements.
Finally, in section 7.5 we present the Smith chart which is a powerful graph-
ical method to handle the analysis, modelling and design of RF circuits. We
also discuss, in detail, the problem of impedance matching using transmission
lines and the uses of L-section based circuits.
7.2 Lumped In essence, the analysis of electronic and electrical circuits presented in the
previous chapters uses the concept of the phasor, where the electrical entity
versus considered (voltage or current) depends only on the time dimension for a cer-
distributed tain phasor angular frequency, ω.
£ ¤
v(t) = V Real ejωt (7.1)
1 Traditionally, RF referred to signals with frequencies extending from 100 kHz to tens of MHz
and Microwaves covered a higher frequency range extending into the tens of GHz. Today, as
a result of the high frequencies used in wireless communication systems, it is common to use
the two terms ”RF” and ”microwave” interchangeably to refer to circuits operating at frequencies
beyond few hundreds of MHz.
7. RF circuit analysis techniques 225
£ ¤
i(t) = I Real ejωt+φ (7.2)
Such a definition assumes, in an implicit way, that the amplitude of the elec-
trical signal does not depend on the space dimension or, in other words, the
amplitude of the signal varies ‘simultaneously’ at any physical point of the cir-
cuit as if the propagation speed, vp , of the signal was infinite. What actually
is assumed is that the wavelength, λ, of the electrical signal is so much greater
than the circuit physical dimensions that this signal occurs at the same phase
angle and amplitude, at any time, anywhere in the circuit. In other words the
circuit physical dimension is zero. This assumption allows us to consider any
circuit element, such as resistors, capacitors, and connecting cables or copper
lines in circuit boards, as lumped elements.
However, for any type of propagation medium, the propagation speed for
an electrical signal (voltage or current) is finite and is related to the signal
frequency, f , and wavelength, λ, as follows:
vp = λf (7.3)
Hence, assuming that vp is constant, the signal wavelength decreases as its fre-
quency increases. When the wavelength of a high frequency signal is approx-
imately equal or less than the circuit physical length, l, then the amplitude of
such a signal also varies significantly as it propagates along the circuit physical
length.
Figure 7.1 illustrates this. Figure 7.1 a) shows the amplitude of a 28 MHz
sine wave propagating along a lossless connecting cable of length 1 m. Ac-
cording to eqn 7.3 the wavelength is about 10 metres assuming vp = 2.8 × 108
m/s. This means that the wavelength is 10 times greater than the physical di-
mensions of the cable. From this figure it is clear that the signal amplitude
is almost independent of the physical dimensions of the circuit at any time.
This approximation is, in general, valid for frequency signals up to 100 MHz
for which the wavelength is greater or equal than 300 cm since the physical
dimensions of a typical circuit implementation rarely exceeds 20 to 30 cm in
total length.
On the other hand, figure 7.1 b) shows the amplitude of a 280 MHz sine
wave propagating along the same lossless connecting cable. The wavelength
is about 1 metre which is equal to the cable physical dimension. From this
figure it is clear that the signal amplitude depends not only on the instant of
time considered but also on where the amplitude measurement is taken. Mi-
crowave signals feature wavelengths which range from 1 cm to 100 cm. For
these signals the lumped concept for most circuit elements is no longer valid
and there is a need to adopt distributed models which take into account the
physical dimensions of the electrical elements.
An appropriate model for a signal phasor describing a voltage travelling
wave, such as that illustrated in Figure 7.1 b), is given by:
£ ¤
v(t, x) = Real VA ejωt−jβx (7.4)
£ jωt ¤
v(t, x) = Real e V (x) (7.5)
where
V (x) = VA e−jβx (7.6)
226 7. RF circuit analysis techniques
0.5
AMPLITUDE 0
−0.5
−1
1
0.8 10
0.6 8
l
0.4 6
TIME 4
0.2
2
0 0 DISTANCE
2.1 ns
a)
0.5
AMPLITUDE
−0.5
−1
1
0.8 10
0.6 8 l
TIME 0.4 6
4
0.2
2
0
DISTANCE
0
2.1 ns
b)
Figure 7.1: Propagating sine wave along a lossless connecting cable with l =
1 m. a) 28 MHz sine wave (λ = 10 × l). b) 280 MHz sine wave (λ = l).
7. RF circuit analysis techniques 227
It should be noted that V (x) is a static phasor (see eqn 3.57) which represents
the phase dependence of the voltage signal on the physical length.
———————————————————————————————
Example 7.2.1 Consider a signal with a bandwidth of 7 GHz which is pro-
cessed by a filter. Give an estimate for the maximum size for this filter which
allows the use of lumped models in the analysis of such a filter. The propaga-
tion speed of the signal is 2.4 × 108 m/s.
Solution: The wavelength corresponding to 7 GHz is:
2.4 × 108
λ = = 3.4 cm
7 × 109
Since the use of lumped models requires the signal wavelength to be about
10 times greater than the circuit size, then the maximum size must not exceed
about 3.4 mm. This can be achieved using integrated circuit technology.
———————————————————————————————
7.3 Electrical In order to characterise an ideal (or lossless) transmission line in terms of an
electrical model we consider the circuit2 of figure 7.2 where maximum power
model for transfer, from a source with an output impedance Zs to a load ZL = Zs∗ ,
ideal is intended. The transmission line electrical characteristics are such that the
impedance at its input terminals is equal to the load impedance, ZL . In this
transmission situation the transmission line allows for maximum power transfer from Zs to
lines ZL and the transfer function for the line in figure 7.2, H(f, x) must impose
only a time (phase) delay to the propagating voltage. This delay is a function
of its length. In fact, from eqn 7.6 we can conclude that:
V (x)
H(f, x) =
V (x = 0)
= e−jβx (7.10)
Recall that if x(t) and X(f ) form a Fourier transform pair then we have that
F
x(t − τ ) X(f ) e−jωτ (7.11)
⇐⇒
2 A single line connecting two elements represents an ideal conductor with zero physical di-
mension.
228 7. RF circuit analysis techniques
where x(t − τ ) is a delayed replica of x(t) with τ representing this time delay.
Figure 7.3 shows an ideal transmission line and its equivalent circuit model.
This transmission line can be sub-divided into N equal sections where each
one has a length ∆ x = l/N . Each section has a capacity per unit of length of
C and an inductance per unit of length of L. From the above the impedance
which terminates the line, ZL , is equal to the impedance seen at the input of
each section. Hence, we can write:
` "/
£¢
G
¦©§ ¦¨§ ¬
m
ª § ª § m«
¤ ¥
¡
lim k ∆x = x (7.19)
k→∞
∆x→0
or
√
H(f, x) = e−j ω LC x
(7.22)
230 7. RF circuit analysis techniques
and
r
L
ZL = (7.23)
C
Comparing eqn 7.10 with eqn 7.22 we observe that the propagation con-
stant, β, is equal to
√
β = ω LC (7.24)
From eqn 7.22 we can relate the voltage at any point of the transmission
line, x, with the input voltage, V (0), according to the expression below:
√
V (x) = e−j ω LC x
V (0) (7.25)
Similarly, it can be shown (see problem 7.2) that we can relate the current at
any point of the transmission line, x, with the input voltage according to:
√ V (0)
I(x) = e−j ω LC x
(7.26)
Zo
where
r
L
Zo = (7.27)
C
p
Zo = L/C is termed the ‘characteristic impedance’ of the transmission line.
It should be noted that Zo is real and relates only the amplitude of the voltage
propagating wave with the amplitude of the current propagating wave. There-
fore, Zo does not represent any dissipative effect along the transmission line!
The eqns derived above, for the voltage and current travelling waves, were
calculated under the assumption that the transmission line was terminated by a
load impedance ZL equal to the characteristic impedance, Zo . Under this con-
dition there is maximum power transfer from the transmission line to the load
and, therefore, the propagating signal (voltage and current) is totally absorbed
by this load. In this situation the transmission line is said to be matched to the
load.
———————————————————————————————
Example 7.3.1 Figure 7.4 a) illustrates the transmission of a square voltage
pulse, shown in figure 7.4 b), through a 10 metre transmission line which is
lossless. The transmission line is matched (ZL = Zo ) and is characterised
by an inductance per metre of 250 nH and a capacitance per metre of 100 pF.
Determine:
1. An expression for the voltage, in the time domain, at any physical point,
x, of the transmission line;
2. The delay of the voltage across the load;
3. An expression for the current, in the time domain, at any physical point,
x, of the transmission line.
7. RF circuit analysis techniques 231
Solution:
1. The voltage vs (t) has a Fourier transform, Vs (f ) given by (see appendix
A)
x=0 x=l
Zo Vs (f ) = VA T sinc(f T ) (7.28)
+ Zo Since the transmission line is terminated by a load impedance equal to
− vs (t)
its characteristic impedance, the voltage at the input of the transmission
Load
Source
Transmission
line, V (f, x = 0), is given by:
Zo line (lossless)
a) Zo
V (x = 0) = VA T sinc(f T )
vs (t) Zo + Z o
VA VA
= T sinc(f T ) (7.29)
t 2
T where we drop the explicit dependency of V on f for simplicity. The
b) transmission line imposes only a time delay to the propagating voltage
V (x) and, from eqn 7.10, we can write:
Figure 7.4: a) Transmission
of a square voltage pulse V (x) = V (x = 0) e−j β x
through an ideal transmis- VA
= T sinc(f T ) e−j β x (7.30)
sion line. b) Square voltage 2
pulse.
From eqn 7.9 we can write β:
2πf
β = (7.31)
vp
where vp is the propagation speed (see also eqn 7.24):
1
vp = √ (7.32)
LC
= 2 × 108 m/s
From eqns 7.31 and 7.32 we can write eqn 7.30 as follows:
VA √
V (x) = T sinc(f T ) e−j 2π f LC x (7.33)
2
and, using eqn 7.11 we can write the time domain voltage on the trans-
mission line as
à √ !
VA t − LC x
vo (t, x) = rect (7.34)
2 T
2. From eqn 7.34 we can write the voltage across the load as
à √ !
VA t − LC l
vo (t, l) = rect (7.35)
2 T
√
where the delay LC l is equal to 50 ns.
232 7. RF circuit analysis techniques
V (x = 0) −j β x
I(x) = e
Zo
VA √
= T sinc(f T ) e−j 2π f LC x (7.36)
2 Zo
Using eqn 7.11 to return to the time domain, we can write the current in
the transmission line as
à √ !
VA t − LC x
i(t, x) = rect (7.37)
2 Zo T
µ·¶¹¸ µ·¶¹º
Figure 7.5: Transmission line with characteristic impedance Zo and un-
matched load ZL .
7. RF circuit analysis techniques 233
The reflection coefficient, Γ(d), is defined as the ratio between the voltage
of the reflected wave and the voltage of the incident wave at any location on
the transmission line, d:
VB e−jβd VB −2jβd
Γ(d) = = e (7.40)
VA ejβd VA
The voltage, V (d), and the current I(d) can be written as follows:
µ ¶
jβd VB −2jβd
V (d) = VA e 1+ e
VA
= VA ejβd [1 + Γ(d)] (7.41)
whilst
VA jβd
I(d) = e [1 − Γ(d)] (7.42)
Zo
and the impedance, Zin (d), as a function of the distance d, is given by the
following expression:
V (d)
Zin (d) =
I(d)
1 + Γ(d)
= Zo (7.43)
1 − Γ(d)
For d = 0 it is known that Zin (0) = ZL , that is;
1 + Γ(0)
ZL = Zo
1 − Γ(0)
Solving the last eqn in order to obtain Γ(0), we get:
ZL − Z o
Γo , Γ(0) = (7.44)
ZL + Z o
The reflection coefficient given by eqn 7.44 effectively ‘measures’ the differ-
ence between the load ZL and the transmission line characteristic impedance
Zo . If Γo = 0 then ZL = Zo . When Γo 6= 0 these two impedances are differ-
ent. The greater the value for |Γo | the greater the difference between ZL and
Zo . Setting d = 0 in eqn 7.40 and using eqn 7.44 we have
VA ejβd + VB e−jβd
T (d) =
VA ejβd
VB e−jβd
= 1+ (7.46)
VA ejβd
234 7. RF circuit analysis techniques
that is
T (d) = 1 + Γ(d) (7.47)
The transmission coefficient is often presented, in dB, as the ‘insertion loss’,
IL(d):
IL(d) = 20 log10 |T (d)| (7.48)
Using eqns 7.43, 7.44 and 7.45, the input impedance Zin (d) can be written
(see problem 7.3) as a function of ZL , Zo and β d:
ZL + j Zo tan(β d)
Zin (d) = Zo (7.49)
Zo + j ZL tan(β d)
β d represents an angle which is commonly referred to as the ‘electrical length’,
where the angle β d = 2π corresponds to a single wavelength. Equation 7.49
shows that, at different locations on the transmission line, the input impedance
varies between being capacitive and inductive depending on the value of the
load ZL .
———————————————————————————————
Example 7.3.2 Consider a transmission line with Zo = 50 Ω. The load imped-
ance is ZL = 10 Ω. Determine the line input impedance for:
1. An electrical length of 45o ;
2. An electrical length of 90o ;
3. An electrical length of 135o .
Solution: Using eqn 7.49 for the required electrical lengths, β d;
1. β d = π/4, Zin = 19.2 + j 46.2 Ω.
2. β d = π/2, Zin = 250 Ω.
3. β d = 3π/4, Zin = 19.2 − j 46.2 Ω.
———————————————————————————————
v(t, d)
VA 1 d=0 d=l
(Load) (source)
|V (d)|
0.5
0 0
−0.5 VA
−VA−1
1
0.8 10
0.6 8 (source)
0.4 6
t 4 d=0 d=l
0.2
2 d
0
0 0 0 a)
(Load)
0.5
0 0
−0.5
−1
−1.5
−2V−2A1
0.8 10
0.6 8 (source) d=0 d=l
0.4 6
4
t 0.2
2 d
00 00 b)
(Load)
0.5
0
0
−0.5
−1
−1.5
−2VA−21
0.8 10
0.6 8 (source) d=0 d=l
0.4 6
t 4
0.2
2 d c)
00 00
(Load)
Figure 7.6: Voltage patterns on a transmission line showing standing waves versus time and distance (left)
and magnitude of the standing wave voltage (right). a) Matched transmission line (no standing wave). b)
Open-circuit transmission line. c) Short-circuited transmission line.
7. RF circuit analysis techniques 237
+ Zs Zo
− Vs
Vs
1+r
2Vs
1+r
Vs
1+r
Time Vs (r−1)
(1+r)2
2 Vs (r−1)
(1+r)2
Vs (r−1)
(1+r)2
Vs (r−1)2
(1+r)3 2Vs (r−1)2
(1+r)3
 ÇÈÊÉ
¾ mÇ ÈÌË
Hence, a fraction of this voltage is reflected back towards the open-circuit with
a value given by
½¼ ÁàÀ¾ ¿ Vs
1 r−1
= Vs
r−1
(7.63)
ÁÃÂ·Ä ¼ÆÄ Å 1+r r+1 (r + 1)2
and so on, as shown in figure 7.60. The total voltage at x = l, as t increases,
is given by the addition of the partial voltages, that is:
Figure 7.8: Voltage versus µ ¶
the distance at t = TP+ . 1 r−1 (r − 1)2
V (x = l) = 2 Vs + + + ...
r + 1 (r + 1)2 (r + 1)3
∞ µ ¶k
2 Vs X r − 1
= (7.64)
r+1 r+1
k=0
The last eqn is the sum of an infinite geometric series (see appendix A) whose
value is given by:
2 Vs r + 1
V (x = l) =
r+1 2
= Vs
7. RF circuit analysis techniques 239
Ð2ÑÒHÓÕÔPÖ Figure 7.9 shows the voltage at x = l versus the time normalised to TP for three
values of r; 4, 1 and 0.25. We observe that in all situations the voltage tends
Ð/× to Vs as predicted by our discussion above. Note that for r = 1 (corresponding
to Zs = Zo ) the voltage V (x = l) equals Vs for t > TP . This is because the
reflected voltage wave is totally absorbed by Zs since the line is matched to the
Ù
ÚÛÃÜ signal source impedance.
Í Ö Î=Ï Î,Í ———————————————————————————————
Ð2ÑÒHÓÕÔPÖÞÝ Example 7.3.4 We want to determine the location of a failure in a coaxial
cable with a length of 430 metres. In order to identify this location we send a 5
Ð/× µs pulse through the cable and we monitor the reflection. Figure 7.10 a) shows
the waveform monitored at the input of the cable. Determine the location of
the fault knowing that the cable has an inductance per metre of 250 nH and a
Ù
ÚÛÃÜ capacitance per metre of 100 pF.
Í Î=Ï Î,Í
Ð2ÑÒHÓÕÔPÖ ß Ö Solution: The waveform of figure 7.10 a) can be seen as the sum of two pulses
as shown in figure 7.10 b) where we clearly identify the pulse which was sent
and the one reflected back. Since the reflected pulse has the opposite polarity
Ð× of that transmitted we conclude that the fault is a short-circuit (Γo = −1).
The propagation velocity is vp = (LC)−1/2 and therefore we calculate the
location of the fault at point x given by:
Ù
ÚÛÃÜ
Í Ø Ö Î,Ï Î,Í x = v p TP
= 300 m
Figure 7.9: Load voltage at This technique of fault diagnosis is commonly used and is known as Time
x = l versus the time nor- Domain Reflectometry (TDR).
malised to TP . a) r = 4. b) ———————————————————————————————
r = 1. c) r = 0.25.
7.3.2 The λ/4 transformer
Another very important transmission line case, widely used in practical appli-
cations, is the quarter-wavelength transmission line also known as the quarter-
wave transformer. This transmission line has an electrical length of βd =
V V
Transmitted
t (µs) t (µs)
5
10 5 10
Reflected
2 TP
a) b)
(2π/λ) × (λ/4) = π/2. The input impedance for this transmission line can be
calculated by rewriting eqn 7.49 as:
ZL
tan(β d) + jZo
Zin (d) = Zo Zo
(7.65)
tan(β d) + jZL
à0á`â à0áèçêéXà2áXâmà0ëÀìîí
ΖL
ãHäæå
à0á`â
Figure 7.11: Load matching using a quarter-wave transformer.
7. RF circuit analysis techniques 241
−TAB ΓBL TBA of this wave travels back to the signal source while a fraction
ïñðò ïñðó ï −TAB ΓBL ΓBA is reflected back to the load. For this analysis the following
eqns apply;
Equation 7.73 represents the sum of an infinite geometric series (see appendix
A) whose value is
It can be shown (see problem 7.7) that the last eqn can be expressed as:
2
ZoB − ZoA ZL
Γtot = 2 +Z (7.75)
ZoB oA ZL
ô,õ=öñ÷ øöõ ÷ö=ù ú\ûüý ÿ þ ÿ
which vanishes if
p
þ ô ö=õ ô õ=ö ÷ øö=õ ÷ö=ù ZoB = ZoA ZL
√
(7.76)
It is known that
∞
X 1
rk = , |r| < 1 (7.78)
1−r
k=0
Similarly, the total voltage reflected from the load is obtained by summing all
the partial reflections:
Z10 = (R + j ω L) ∆x
1
Z20 =
(G + j ω C) ∆x
Solving eqn 7.96 in order to obtain ZL we get
p
Z10 + Z102 + 4Z20 Z10
ZL =
2 q
R+j ω L
(R + j ω L) ∆x (R + j ω L)2 ∆x2 + 4 G+j ωC
= + (7.97)
2 2
Under the assumptions mentioned above, the voltage transfer function between
any two adjacent sections is equal and given by the impedance voltage divider:
Z20 ZL0
V (k∆x) Z20 + ZL0
= (7.98)
V ([k − 1]∆x) Z20 ZL0
+ Z10
Z20 + ZL0
with k = 1, 2, . . . , N . From eqn 7.96 it is known that:
Z20 ZL
= ZL0 − Z10 (7.99)
Z20 + ZL
Using the result of eqn 7.99 on eqn 7.98 the voltage transfer function between
any two adjacent sections can be written as:
V (k∆x) ZL − Z10
=
V ([k − 1]∆x) ZL
q
R+j ω L
(R + j ω L)2 ∆x2 + 4 G+j ω C − (R + j ω L) ∆ x
= q
R+j ω L
(R + j ω L)2 ∆x2 + 4 G+j ω C + (R + j ω L) ∆ x
7. RF circuit analysis techniques 245
Example 7.3.7 Prove that for a lossy transmission line with RC = LG the
signal propagation is distortionless.
Solution: The complex propagation constant for a lossy transmission line can
be expressed as:
s µ ¶µ ¶
R G
γ = (jωL)(jωC) 1 + 1+
jωL jωC
s µ ¶
√ R G RG
= jω LC 1 − j + − 2
ωL ωC ω LC
and because α is constant and does not depend on the frequency and β varies
linearly with the frequency, all signal frequency components are equally attenu-
ated and they all travel at the same propagation velocity, (LC)−1/2 , effectively
resulting in distortionless transmission.
———————————————————————————————
When a lossy transmission line is terminated with a load impedance ZL ,
the solution for the voltage and current wave signals, at any position of the
transmission line, d, is given by:
Zo ' √ (7.115)
120π/ ²e
W/d+1.393+0.667 ln(W/d+1.444)
if W
d ≥ 1
The effective dielectric permittivity accounts for the fact that whilst part of the
wave propagation takes place within the dielectric substrate (²r ²o ) some occurs
through the air (²o ).
For a given value of d it is necessary to calculate W to achieve correct
electrical parameters. Hence, for a given characteristic impedance, Zo , and
dielectric constant ²r , the W/d ratio can be calculated as follows:
W 8 eA W
' 2A
if <2 (7.117)
d e −2 d
·
W 2
' B − 1 − ln(2B − 1)
d π
µ ¶¸
²r − 1 0.61 W
+ ln(B − 1) + 0.39 − if > 2 (7.118)
2²r ²r d
where
r µ ¶
Zo ²r + 1 ²r − 1 0.11
A = + 0.23 + (7.119)
60 2 ²r + 1 ²r
248 7. RF circuit analysis techniques
and
377 π
B = √ (7.120)
2 Zo ²r
ω√
β = ²e (7.121)
c
with c representing the speed of light in vacuum.
The attenuation due to the dielectric loss can be determined as follows:
ω ²r (²e − 1) tan(δ)
αd ' √ nepers/m (7.122)
2 c ²e (²r − 1)
with tan(δ) representing the ‘loss tangent’ of the dielectric given by:
σd
tan(δ) = (7.123)
ω ² r ²o
Solution: Taking the initial guess that W/d > 2 we use eqns 7.118 and 7.120
to obtain;
Note that the value obtained for W/d is greater than two. Otherwise, it would
be necessary to use eqn 7.117, valid for W/d < 2. W = 3.08 d = 0.39 cm.
From eqn 7.116 we obtain ²e = 1.87.
———————————————————————————————
7.4 Scattering Scattering parameters (S-parameters) were developed in the early 1960s for the
purposes of high-frequency transistor assessment and measurements. These
parameters parameters are defined according to the voltage and current wave signal defini-
tions presented previously in the context of lossless (ideal) transmission lines.
7. RF circuit analysis techniques 249
Let us consider the voltage and current wave signals propagating in an ideal
transmission line as shown in figure 7.17, for which we shall use the following
notation:
V + (x) p
a(x) = √ = Zo I + (x) (7.135)
Zo
V − (x) p
b(x) = √ = Zo I − (x) (7.136)
Zo
we can write the following set of eqns
or
1 1
a(x) = [v(x) + i(x)] = √ [V (x) + Zo I(x)] (7.140)
2 2 Zo
and
1 1
b(x) = [v(x) − i(x)] = √ [V (x) − Zo I(x)] (7.141)
2 2 Zo
250 7. RF circuit analysis techniques
x1 = 0 x1 = l1 x2 = l2 x2 = 0
For a two-port circuit (see figure 7.18) we have now a1 (l1 ) and b1 (l1 ) rep-
resenting the incident and reflected waves, respectively, at port one located
at x1 = l1 . Similarly, a2 (l2 ) and b2 (l2 ) represent the incident and reflected
waves, respectively, at port two located at x2 = l2 . We can relate the incident
and the reflected waves in port one and port two by generalising eqn 7.139 for
the characterisation of a two-port circuit, like in figure 7.18, as follows:
where a1 (l1 ), b1 (l1 ), a2 (l2 ), b2 (l2 ) represent the normalised values for the
incident and reflected waves at x1 = l1 and x2 = l2 as illustrated in figure 7.18.
The S-parameters represent the reflection and transmission coefficients for the
two-port circuit. From eqns 7.142 and 7.143 we can define each parameter as
follows:
¯
b1 (l1 ) ¯¯
S11 = Input reflection coefficient (7.145)
a1 (l1 ) ¯a2 (l2 )=0
¯
b1 (l1 ) ¯¯
S12 = Reverse gain coefficient (7.146)
a2 (l2 ) ¯a1 (l1 )=0
¯
b2 (l2 ) ¯¯
S21 = Forward gain coefficient (7.147)
a1 (l1 ) ¯a2 (l2 )=0
¯
b2 (l2 ) ¯¯
S22 = Output reflection coefficient (7.148)
a2 (l2 ) ¯a1 (l1 )=0
7. RF circuit analysis techniques 251
S11
S22
x1 = 0 x1 = l 1 x2 = l 2 x2 = 0 x1 = 0 x1 = l 1 x2 = l 2 x2 = 0
a) b)
Figure 7.19: Two-port circuit. a) Calculation of S11 and of S21 . b) Calculation of S12 and of S22 .
a2 (l2 ) = 0 the output transmission line is terminated with a load equal to its
characteristic impedance, that is, S11 and S21 are determined with the output
transmission line matched to Zo2 . S12 and S22 are determined with the input
transmission line matched to Zo1 (see figure 7.19 b)).
———————————————————————————————
Example 7.4.1 Determine the S-parameters of a series impedance, Z, in a Z o
system.
Solution: S11 is calculated as follows (see also figure 7.20):
ZIN − Zo
S11 = (7.149)
ZIN + Zo
4 \ F
4 4 Since ZIN = Z + Zo we have
Z
S11 = (7.150)
2F v v Z + 2Zo
S21 is calculated as:
¯
Figure 7.20: Set-up for the b2 (l2 ) ¯¯
S21 =
calculation of S11 and of a1 (l1) ¯a1 (l2)=0
S21 of a series impedance Z. V2 (l2 ) − Zo I2 (l2 )
= (7.151)
V1 (l1 ) + Zo I1 (l1 )
It is known that:
V1 (l1 ) = ZIN I1 (l1 )
= (Z + Zo ) I1 (l1 ) (7.152)
Also, V2 (l2 ) can be related to V1 (l1 ) by the voltage divider expression:
Zo
V2 (l2 ) = V1 (l1 ) (7.153)
Z + Zo
252 7. RF circuit analysis techniques
R R R
+ + + + + I1(x1) +
I1(x1) I2(x2) I1(x1) I2(x2) Zo I2(x2)
V1 (x1) C V1 (x1) (jωC) −1 (jωC) −1
V2 (x2)
V2 (x2) V2 (x2) V1 (x1)
Zo Zo Zo Zo Zo Zo
− − − − Zo − −
x1 = 0 x1 = l 1 x2 = l 2 x2 = 0 ZIN 1 Zo
a) b) Zo c) ZIN 2
Figure 7.21: a) RC low-pass filter. b) Set-up for the calculation of S11 and S21 . c) Set-up for the calculation
of S12 and S22 .
a2 (l2 ) = 0 implying that V2 (l2 ) = −Zo I2 (l2 ) (see also eqn 7.140).
Hence we have
2 V (l )
S21 = µ 2 2 ¶
Zo
V1 (l1 ) 1 +
Zo + Z
2Zo
= (7.154)
Z + 2Zo
From symmetry considerations it is straightforward to conclude that S22 = S11
and that S12 = S21 .
———————————————————————————————
Example 7.4.2 Determine the S-parameters of the low-pass filter shown in
figure 7.21 a) in a Zo system.
Solution: S11 and S21 are calculated from the circuit of 7.21 b) where we
consider that the output transmission line is matched. From its definition S11
can be calculated as
ZIN 1 − Zo
S11 = (7.155)
ZIN 1 + Zo
with ZIN 1 given by
µ ¶
1
ZIN 1 = R + Zo ||
jωC
Zo
= R+ (7.156)
1 + jωCZo
Therefore we can write
R + jωCZo (R − Zo )
S11 = (7.157)
R + 2Zo + 2jωCZo (R + Zo )
S21 is given by
¯
b2 (l2 ) ¯¯
S21 =
a1 (l1) ¯a1 (l2)=0
V2 (l2 ) − Zo I2 (l2 )
= (7.158)
V1 (l1 ) + Zo I1 (l1 )
7. RF circuit analysis techniques 253
Since a2 (l2 ) = 0 ⇒ V2 (l2 ) = −Zo I2 (l2 ) (see also eqn 7.140), the last eqn
can be written as
2 V2 (l2 )
S21 = (7.159)
V1 (l1 ) + Zo I1 (l1 )
V2 (l2 ) can be related to V1 (l1 ) using the impedance voltage divider formula:
Zo
1+jωCZo
V2 (l2 ) = V1 (l1 ) Zo
R + 1+jωCZ o
Zo
= V1 (l1 ) (7.160)
Zo + R + jωCZo R
Using the result of the last eqn and taking also that V1 (l1 ) = ZIN 1 I1 (l1 ) we
can calculate S21 as follows:
2 Zo
S21 = (7.161)
2Zo + R + jωCZo (R + Zo )
S22 and S12 are calculated considering the circuit of 7.21 c) where we have
the input transmission line terminated by a load equal to its characteristic
impedance. ZIN 2 is given by
1
ZIN 2 = (R + Zo )||
jωC
R + Zo
= (7.162)
1 + jωC(Zo + R)
Therefore we can write
R − jωCZo (Zo + R)
S22 = (7.163)
R + 2Zo + jωCZo (Zo + R)
S12 is given by
¯
b1 (l1 ) ¯¯
S12 =
a2 (l2) ¯a1 (l1)=0
V1 (l1 ) − Zo I1 (l1 )
= (7.164)
V2 (l2 ) + Zo I2 (l2 )
Since a1 (l1 ) = 0 ⇒ V1 (l1 ) = −Zo I1 (l1 ) (see also eqn 7.140), the last eqn
can be written as
2 V1 (l1 )
S12 = (7.165)
V2 (l2 ) + Zo I2 (l2 )
V1 (l1 ) can be related to V2 (l2 ) using the impedance voltage divider formula:
Zo
V1 (l1 ) = V2 (l2 )
R + Zo
Using the result of the last eqn and since V2 (l2 ) = ZIN 2 I2 (l2 ), we can calcu-
late S12 as follows:
2 Zo
S12 = (7.166)
2Zo + R + jωCZo (R + Zo )
———————————————————————————————
254 7. RF circuit analysis techniques
Reference planes
The practical measurement of S-parameters requires the usage of connecting
cables, which are effectively transmission lines, between measurement instru-
ments and the circuit to be measured. Thus, these measurements probe the
S-parameters at the inputs of these connecting cables; s0ij . Since the transmis-
sion lines impose a phase shift which depends on their physical lengths and
the measurement frequency, it is possible to relate the measured S-parameters
with the S-parameters of the circuit under test as follows:
· ¸ · 0
¸
S11 S12 S11 e2jθ1 0
S12 ej(θ1 +θ2 )
= 0 (7.167)
S21 S22 S21 ej(θ1 +θ2 ) 0
S22 e2jθ2
where θ1 and θ2 represent the electrical lengths of the transmission lines at the
circuit input and output, respectively (see figure 7.22).
θ1 = β l 1 θ2 = β l 2
x1 = 0 x1 = l1 x2 = l2 x2 = 0
+ I1(x1) +
2-Port I2 (x2)
V1 (x)
Zo2
V2(x) 7.4.1 S-parameters and power waves
Zo1 Circuit
Using eqns 7.126 to 7.139 for the circuit shown in figure 7.23 we can write the
− −
where 1/2 |a1 (0)|2 and 1/2 |b1 (0)|2 are usually termed the incident power,
P1+ (0), and the reflected power, P1− (0), at the input port, respectively. P1+ (0)
and P1− (0) can also be expressed as:
1 £ ¤
P1+ (0) = Real V1+ (0)I1+∗ (0)
2
¯ ¯2
1 ¯V1+ (0)¯
= (7.172)
2 Zo1
1 £ ¤
P1− (0) = Real V1− (0)I1−∗ (0)
2
¯ ¯2
1 ¯V1− (0)¯
= (7.173)
2 Zo1
V1 (0) = Vs − Zs I1 (0)
= Vs − Zo1 I1 (0) (7.174)
1
a1 (0) = √ [V1 (0) + Zo1 I1 (0)]
2 Zo1
Zo1 + I1(x1)
2-Port I2(x2) + 1
Vs V1(0) Zo2 V2(0) Zo2 = √ Vs (7.175)
+
−
Zo1 Circuit b2(l2)
−
2 Zo1
−
x1 = 0 x1 = l 1 x2 = l 2 x2 = 0 that is,
1 |Vs |2
P1+ (0) = (7.177)
8 Zo1
This power is the maximum power that a source can deliver to a load. It is
known as the available power (PAV ). For a load impedance to absorb PAV the
source impedance, Zs , must be equal to Zo1 .
For a lossless transmission line we have
We conclude that |S11 |2 represents the ratio of the reflected power to the avail-
able power in port one.
———————————————————————————————
Example 7.4.3 Show that P1 (0) given by eqn 7.170, in figure 7.24, can be
expressed in terms of a1 (0) and b1 (0) as follows:
1 1
P1 (0) = |a1 (0)|2 − |a2 (0)|2 (7.183)
2 2
.
Solution: Using eqns 7.168 and 7.169 we can write eqn 7.183 as
1
P1 (0) = [V1 (0) + Zo1 I1 (0)] [V1∗ (0) + Zo1 I1∗ (0)]
8 Zo1
1
− [V1 (0) − Zo1 I1 (0)] [V1∗ (0) − Zo1 I1∗ (0)]
8 Zo1
1
= 4 Real [Zo1 V1 (0)I1∗ (0)]
8 Zo1
1
= Real [V1 (0)I1∗ (0)] (7.184)
2
———————————————————————————————
The average power in port one at x2 = 0, that is the power delivered to the
load, P2 (0), is equal to;
1
P2 (0) = Real [−V2 (0)I2∗ (0)] (7.185)
2
It can be shown (see example 7.4.4) that P2 (0) can be expressed in terms of
a2 (0) and b2 (0) as follows:
1 1
P2 (0) = |b2 (0)|2 − |a1 (0)|2 (7.186)
2 2
For the circuit in figure 7.24 we can write:
so that
1
a2 (0) = √ [V2 (0) + Zo2 I2 (0)] = 0 (7.188)
2 Zo2
The result that a2 (0) = 0 is expected since the output transmission line is
matched with ZL = Zo2 . Using the result of the last eqn we can write b2 (0) as
1
b2 (0) = √ [V2 (0) − Zo2 I2 (0)]
2 Zo2
V (0)
= √2
Zo2
p
= − Zo2 I2 (0) (7.189)
From eqns 7.186 and 7.188 we observe that the power delivered to the load
ZL = Zo2 , P2 (0), is
1
P2 (0) = |b2 (0)|2
2
The transmission coefficient S21 is given by:
¯
b2 (l2 ) ¯¯
S21 = (7.190)
a1 (l1 ) ¯a2 (l2 )=0
a1 (l1 ) = a1 (0)e−j β1 l1
1
= √ Vs e−j β1 l1 (7.191)
2 Zo2
b2 (l2 ) = b2 (0)e−j β2 l2 (7.192)
where β1 and β2 are the propagation constants of the input and output trans-
mission lines, respectively. |S21 |2 can be written as
1 ¯
2¯
2 2 |b2 (l2 )| ¯
|S21 | = 1 2¯
2 |a1 (l1 )| a2 (l2 )=0
P2 (0)
= (7.193)
PAV s
and we conclude that |S21 |2 represents the ratio of the power delivered to the
load ZL = Zo2 to the available power, PAV . It follows that |S21 |2 repre-
Zo1 + I1(x1)
2-Port I2(x2) + Zo2 sents a power gain, GT , named the ‘Transducer Power Gain’. Note that if the
V1(0)
Zo1 Circuit
Zo2 V2(0)
+
Vs
source impedance and the load impedance are not equal to the characteristic
−
impedances Zo1 and Zo2 , respectively, the power gain is different from that
−
−
———————————————————————————————
Example 7.4.4 Show that P2 (0) given by eqn 7.185, in figure 7.24, can be
expressed in terms of a2 (0) and b2 (0) as follows:
1 1
P2 (0) = |b2 (0)|2 − |a1 (0)|2 (7.194)
2 2
Solution: Using eqns 7.168 and 7.169 we can write eqn 7.194 as
1
P1 (0) = [V2 (0) − Zo2 I2 (0)] [V2∗ (0) − Zo2 I2∗ (0)]
8 Zo1
1
− [V2 (0) + Zo2 I2 (0)] [V2∗ (0) + Zo2 I2∗ (0)]
8 Zo1
1
= − 4 Real [Zo2 V2 (0)I2∗ (0)]
8 Zo2
1
= Real [−V2 (0)I2∗ (0)] (7.195)
2
that is, if ZL = Zs∗ the power absorbed by the load is maximum and equal to
the available power, PAV .
———————————————————————————————
Example 7.4.5 Show that the available power can be expressed as:
1
PAV |ap |2
= (7.200)
2
and that the power delivered to the load can be expressed as:
1 1
|ap |2 − |bp |2
PL = (7.201)
2 2
Solution: From eqn 7.196 we can write:
1 1
|ap |2 = |V + Zs I|2 (7.202)
2 8 Rs
and from figure 7.26 we can write Vs = V + I Zs . Thus, eqn 7.202 can be
written as
1 |Vs |2
|ap |2 = | = PAV (7.203)
2 8 Rs
From eqns 7.196 and 7.197 we can write:
1 1
|ap |2 = (V + Zs I)(V ∗ + Zs∗ I ∗ ) (7.204)
2 8 Rs
1 1
|bp |2 = (V − Zs∗ I)(V ∗ − Zs I ∗ ) (7.205)
2 8 Rs
and
1 1 1
|ap |2 − |bp |2 = (2Real [V I ∗ Zs∗ ] + 2Real [V I ∗ Zs ])
2 2 8 Rs
1
= (4Real [V I ∗ ] Real [Zs ])
8 Rs
1
= Real [V I ∗ ] = PL (7.206)
2
It should be noted that 1/2|bp |2 represents the reflected power. If ZL = Zs∗
then bp = 0 as expected.
———————————————————————————————
The reflection coefficient for power waves can be defined as:
bp V − Zs∗ I ZL − Zs∗
Γp = = = (7.207)
ap V + Zs I ZL + Z s
It is possible to write:
µ ¶
1 |bp |2
PL = |ap |2 1 −
2 |ap |2
= PAV (1 − |Γp |2 ) (7.208)
This is consistent with our earlier discussion showing that maximum power is
delivered to the load when perfect matching is achieved (Γp = 0).
260 7. RF circuit analysis techniques
Generalised S Parameters
From eqns 7.196 and 7.197 we can write:
1
V = √ [Zs∗ ap + Zs bp ] (7.209)
Rs
1
I = √ [ap − bp ] (7.210)
Rs
Now it is possible to define incident and reflected voltage and current waves as
follows
V = Vp+ + Vp− (7.211)
I = Ip+ − Ip− (7.212)
with
Zs∗ ap
Vp+ = √ (7.213)
Rs
Z s bp
Vp− = √ (7.214)
Rs
ap
Ip+ = √ (7.215)
Rs
bp
Ip− = √ (7.216)
Rs
so that
Vp+ = Zs∗ Ip+ (7.217)
and
Vp− = Zs Ip− (7.218)
I1
The reflection coefficients for voltage and current waves are defined as follows
I2
Vp− Zs
Z1 Z2 ΓV = = Γp (7.219)
2-port Vp+ Zs∗
Circuit
+ V1 V2 + Ip−
ΓI = = Γp (7.220)
Ip+
− −
Vs1 Vs2
with Γp given by eqn 7.207. When the impedance Zs is a positive real quantity,
the expressions for ap and bp are identical to those derived for a and b in the
Figure 7.27: Calculation of context of transmission lines. For this situation we have, Zs = Zs∗ = Zo .
Sp of a two-port circuit. Therefore:
ZL − Z o
Γo = Γ V = Γ I = Γ p = (7.221)
ZL + Z o
With these definitions and the normalisations presented above, we are in a
position to determine the generalised S-parameters for a two-port circuit de-
noted below as Spij (see figure 7.27).
bp1 = Sp11 ap1 + Sp12 ap2 (7.222)
bp2 = Sp21 ap1 + Sp22 ap2 (7.223)
7. RF circuit analysis techniques 261
with
1
api = √ (Vi + Zi Ii ) , i = 1, 2 (7.224)
2 Ri
1
bpi = √ (Vi − Zi∗ Ii ) , i = 1, 2 (7.225)
2 Ri
with Zi representing the reference impedances shown in figure 7.27. Ri =
Real [Zi ].
Sp11 and Sp21 are calculated after setting Vs2 = 0 in figure 7.27. From
eqn 7.207, Sp11 is calculated as follows:
ZIN 1 − Z1∗
Sp11 = (7.226)
ZIN 1 + Z1
where ZIN 1 represents the circuit input impedance when port two is terminated
by Z2 .
For the calculation of Sp21 we can determine the power delivered to the
ZA j 25 Ω
load PL which is given by;
1 1
PL = |bp2 |2 = |Sp21 |2 |ap1 |2 , and if ap2 = 0 (7.227)
2 2
a)
Zin Hence,
I1 I2
1 2
Z1 ZA j 25 Ω 2 |bp2 |
|Sp21 |2 = 1 2
2 |ap1 |
40 + j 50 Ω Z2
+ V2 10 Ω
V1
Vs1 PL
−
= (7.228)
PAV
b)
Zin |Sp21 |2 is also called a transducer power gain, GT . Note the similarity of the
I1 I2
last eqn with eqn 7.193.
Z2
Z1
ZA j 25 Ω
10 Ω
The calculations of Sp22 and of Sp12 are similar to the calculation of Sp11
V1 V2
+
Vs2 and of Sp21 , respectively, but now setting Vs1 = 0. It should be noted that if
−
Z1 = Z2 = Zo (real), the results obtained for the Sp -parameters are identical
40 + j 50 Ω
to those obtained for the S-parameters.
c) ———————————————————————————————
Figure 7.28: Calculation of Example 7.4.6 Consider the two-port network of figure 7.28 a)
Sp11 and of Sp21 of a two- 1. Determine Sp11 and Sp21 of the two-port circuit using figure 7.28 b).
port circuit.
2. Determine Sp12 and Sp22 of the two-port circuit using figure 7.28 c).
Solution:
1. Applying Ohm’s law to the circuit of figure 7.28 b) we find that:
Vs1
I1 =
Z1 + Z 2 + Z A
= Vs1 0.01 e−j 0.98 A
I2 = −I1
262 7. RF circuit analysis techniques
and we have
Zin − Z1∗
Sp11 =
Zin + Z1
= 0.90¯e−j 0.97
bp2 ¯¯
Sp21 =
ap1 ¯ ap2 =0
Vs2
I2 =
Z1 + Z 2 + Z A
= Vs2 0.01 e−j 0.98 A
I1 = −I2
= Vs2 0.01 ej 2.16 A
V2 = (ZA + Z2 ) I2
= Vs2 0.94 ej 0.98 V
V1 = Z 1 I2
= Vs2 0.71 e−j 0.09 V
Zin = (ZA + Z1 )
= 85 ej 1.08 Ω
and we have
Zin − Z2∗
Sp22 =
Zin + Z2
7. RF circuit analysis techniques 263
= 0.90¯ej 21
bp1 ¯¯
Sp12 =
ap2 ¯ ap1 =0
———————————————————————————————
where · ¸
Z11 Z12
[Z] = (7.230)
Z21 Z22
· ¸
V1
[V ] = (7.231)
V2
· ¸
I1
[I] = (7.232)
I2
Equation 7.229 can be generalised as follows
[V + ] = [Zo ] [I + ] (7.234)
and that
with
[Zo ] = Zo [1] (7.236)
where [1] represents the identity matrix, that is
· ¸
1 0
[1] = (7.237)
0 1
[V − ] [I − ]
[S] = +
= +
[V ] [I ]
= ([Z] + [Zo ])−1 ([Z] − [Zo ]) (7.239)
and that · ¸
S11 S12
[S] = (7.241)
S21 S22
Similarly, conversions can be made between the other electrical parameters
such as impedance, chain (or ABCD), etc. In appendix C we present a table
with the conversions between the main electrical parameters including the S-
parameters.
———————————————————————————————
Solution:
[I] = [Y ] [V ] (7.242)
where · ¸
Y11 Y12
[Y ] = (7.243)
Y21 Y22
Equation 7.242 can be expanded as:
[I + ] − [I − ] = [Y ] ([V + ] + [V − ]) (7.244)
[I − ]
[S] = = ([1] − [Y ][Zo ])−1 ([1] + [Y ][Zo ]) (7.246)
[I + ]
———————————————————————————————
7.5 The Smith The analysis of impedance and transmission line matching problems using an-
alytical eqns can be cumbersome. The Smith chart is a powerful tool which
chart provides a graphical analysis of such problems.
valid for all values of Z (usually for Real [Z] ≥ 0). The normalised impedance
plane is defined according to:
Z R + jX
z = = = r + jx (7.247)
Zo Zo
¸
where Zo is a real (non-complex) number representing either the characteristic
· °g²³ ´µv¶ impedance or a reference impedance as discussed previously for S- and gener-
¥ « ¥
¦ ¥
§ ¥¨ ¥
ª alised S-parameters, respectively. The reflection coefficient plane can now be
defined as follows:
Z − Zo
Γ =
Z + Zo
¥
Z
−1
= ZZo
Zo + 1
z−1
a) = = U + jV (7.248)
z+1
¯®±°g²v³ ´?µ¶ Using the same normalisation as used for impedance (eqn 7.247) we can write:
r − 1 + jx
Γ = = U + jV (7.249)
r + 1 + jx
¥« ¥
¦¥
§ ¬ that is
¥¨©¥
ª
r 2 − 1 + x2
U = (7.250)
(r + 1)2 + x2
2x
V = (7.251)
(r + 1)2 + x2
b) The last two eqns allow for the transformation from the normalised impedance
z-plane to the reflection coefficient Γ-plane and allows the variables r and x to
Figure 7.29: a) Constant be mapped as circles in the Γ plane as explained below.
resistance impedances. b)
Constant resistance circles. Constant resistance circles
If we solve eqn 7.250 in order to obtain x we have
r
r2 − 1 − U (r + 1)2
x=± (7.252)
U −1
If we now substitute x in eqn 7.251, we can show that:
µ ¶2
r 1
U− +V2 = (7.253)
r+1 (r + 1)2
Note that in this procedure x is eliminated as a variable from the eqns (7.250
and 7.251) that define the transformation to the Γ-plane. This effectively allows
us to obtain a representation of impedances with a constant real part (constant
resistance) in the Γ plane. Such a representation, given by eqn 7.253, describes
a family of circles with centres on the U axis at the points (r/(r + 1), 0) and
with radii of (1 + r)−1 .
Figure 7.29 a) presents impedances of constant resistance in the z-plane
while figure 7.29 b) shows these constant resistance impedances mapped into
the Γ-plane as given by eqn 7.253.
266 7. RF circuit analysis techniques
¿ º Y
y = = Y Zo (7.256)
¿» Yo
¿¼
¹ It is left to the reader, as an exercise, to show that:
¾2¿ ¼
¾2¿ »
¾2¿ º Γy = −Γ = Γ ejπ (7.257)
Æ Å
that is, the admittance map is obtained by rotating the impedance map by 180
Î È ÉÊ ÆËÌ
Á degrees.
¿ »
¿ ¼
¿ º 7.5.2 Representation of impedances
¹-º ¹g» ¹,¼ ¹,½
 The representation of impedances in the Smith chart is straightforward given
¹,Ã
the graphical nature of the Γ plane where the constant resistance and constant
¾2¿ º reactance circles are clearly indicated. Figure 7.32 shows the representation of
¾À¿ ¼
the following impedances4 normalised to 50 Ω:
ÄÅ ¾À¿ »
z1 = 1 + j z2 = 0.4 + j 0.5
Figure 7.31: a) Constant z3 = 3 − j 3 z4 = 0.2 − j 0.6
reactance and constant z5 = 0 z6 = 1
resistance impedances.
b) The Smith chart. It is also possible to determine and to represent an impedance given the corre-
4 Note that the Smith chart of figure 7.32 allows us to represent impedances with a real part
V
1
0.5
2
3
z2 z1 4
y8 5
z7 6
8
20
0 0.5 1 2 4 8 ∞
z5 z6 U
20
z3 8
y7
z8 6
5
4
3
z4
2
0.5
1 Ú?Û Ô Õ?Ü
0.5 2
é6ê ç¤ÑJëì é
3
Ö×
ce
4
Sour
5
6
ards
8
Tow
20
0 0.5 1 2 4 8
Ø
Ý Þ2Ý-ßà
á â:â 20
Tow
6
5
Load
0.5 2
Ï Ð0Ï?ÑÓÒvÔ ÕÍÕ
20
measured from the U axis, of course. After the rotation described above we
0 0.5 1 2 4 8 obtain Zin (λ/8) = (2 − j) × 50 Ω = 100 − j 50 Ω.
20
8
———————————————————————————————
6
5
4
Solution:
Figure 7.35: a) Constant Γ
circles. 1. Short-circuited line: First we represent the normalised impedance zin =
j 100/50 = j 2 in the Smith chart as shown in Figure 7.36. Then, trav-
elling from zL = 0, towards the signal source, to zin = j 2 in a con-
stant |Γ| circle, we determine the angle 2βlsc = 127o . Knowing that
β = 2π/λ we get lsc = 0.176λ.
———————————————————————————————
íðï
1
í î,ï ÷ü ý ôþtÿ
0.5 2
3
4
5
6
8
÷ø ôûú
20
0 0.5 1 2 4 8
÷ ø ôQù 20
8
6
5
4
3
ñ òóñvôöõ
2
0.5
The Smith chart is also very useful in representing the impedance or ad-
mittance versus frequency of various circuits. Figure 7.37 illustrates the rep-
resentation of the impedance versus frequency of a resistor-inductor (RL) and
resistor-capacitor (RC) series combinations. These representations are done
for a frequency range of fa to fb . It is clear that for each of the circuits the
impedance follows a constant resistance circle, as expected. Note that as the
frequency is increased (from fa to fb ) the reactance of the RL circuit increases
while it decreases for the RC circuit.
0.5
2
3
4
5
6
8
20
0 0.5 1 2 4 8
20
8
6
5
4
3
2
0.5
0.5
2
3
4
5
6
8
20
0 0.5 1 2
4 8
20
8
6
5
4
3
2
0.5
0.5
2
3
4
5
6
8
20
0 0.5 1 2 4 8
20
8
6
5
4
2
0.5
= j 2 π f 6 × 10−10
j 2πf L
zind (f ) =
50
= j 2 π f 4 × 10−11
R
r =
50
= 0.43
0.43 + j 2 π f 4 × 10−11
j 2 π f 6 × 10−10
———————————————————————————————
ZL ZL
practical solutions for this problem. It should be noted that there are no dissi-
d) h) pative elements in any of the L-section circuits.
Let us consider the problem of matching a load ZL to a signal source with
Figure 7.40: L-section cir- an output impedance Rs = 50 Ω using L-section circuits, as illustrated in
cuits for impedance match- figure 7.41. The matching is to be effected at 500 MHz. The load ZL is the
ing with the load ZL . series combination of an inductor LL = 3.18 nH with a resistor RL = 10 Ω.
7. RF circuit analysis techniques 273
Figure 7.42 shows two solutions for this matching problem. At 500 MHz
the load is ZL = 10 + j 10 Ω. Normalising to Rs = 50 Ω we get zL =
LL 0.2 + j 0.2. It should be noted that, by using an L-section circuit, we aim to
+
Rs obtain a normalised unit impedance (or admittance) which is represented in the
−
Vs L-Section R
L
ZL centre of the Smith chart.
Figure 7.42 shows a circle (dotted line) which represents all the admit-
tances (or impedances) corresponding to the constant unit conductance (resist-
Rs ance) circle. This circle plays a major role in obtaining the solution for the
L-section as we will show. Let us consider the solution a). First we repre-
Figure 7.41: Impedance sent the normalised load impedance, zL in the Smith chart. By inserting an
matching with L-section cir- inductor, with a normalised impedance of j0.2, in series with zL , the resulting
cuits. impedance increases along a constant resistance (r = 0.2) circle until it arrives
to point a) on the dotted circle. Hence, at point a), the normalised impedance
is za = 0.2 + j 0.4. The corresponding normalised admittance can be obtained
by rotating point a) by 180 degrees resulting in point a1) with a normalised
admittance ya = 1 − j 2. Finally, in order to get a unit normalised admittance
(or impedance) we need to reduce the negative susceptance of ya to zero. This
is obtained by adding a positive susceptance of +j 2.0 which corresponds to
a move from point a1) to the centre of the Smith chart along the unit conduc-
tance circle. The addition of a positive susceptance of +j 2.0 corresponds to
the addition of a capacitor, with normalised admittance of j 2, in parallel with
the series combination of the inserted inductor and the load. It is now possible
to determine the values of the inductor and capacitor as follows:
2 π 500 × 106 L
j = j 0.2
50
Solution a)
1
Solution b)
Solution a) z = j0.2
0.5
2
y = j2.0 zL
za
3
1
a)
b1) 4
5
6
zL 8
20
0 0.5 1 2 4 8
20
8
6
5
a1) 4
b)
z = −j0.6 3
Solution b)
y = −j2.0 2
0.5 zL
zb
1
1
0.5
2
9: 4
A ? 5
6
8
20
0 0.5 1 2 4 8
! &%('*)+ ,
-/. 20
12%
5;',*+ <
)
=@? "$# 0 8
9 ) : 6
12%3,*+ 4657',*+ 8 5
4
=>
3
2
0.5
L = 3.18 nH
6
j 50 × 2 π500 × 10 C = j 2.0
C = 12.7 pF
this time in parallel with the impedance resulting from the series connection of
the inductor L1 and the load.
———————————————————————————————
0.5 2
BDE F
C 3
4
5
6
8
20
0 0.5 1 2 4 8
20
8
BDC 6
5
4
3
GI
0.5 2
GH 1
R JLKM NOQP
Figure 7.44: Impedance matching with transmission lines using Smith chart
calculations.
7.7 Problems 7.1 Show that the transfer function V (x)/V (x = 0) of an ideal transmission
line, terminated by a load ZL which allows for maximum power transfer, can
be expressed by eqn 7.22.
7.2 Show that the current I(x) in an ideal transmission line, terminated by a
load ZL which allows for maximum power transfer, can be expressed by eqn
7.26.
7.3 Show that the input impedance of an ideal transmission line terminated by
a load ZL can be expressed by eqn 7.49.
7.4 Consider a transmission line with an inductance per metre of 550 nH and
a capacitance per metre of 100 pF. This line has a length l = 13 m and is
terminated by a load ZL = 25 Ω. Determine the line input impedance for the
following frequencies:
1. ω = 2π 3 × 102 rad/s;
2. ω = 2π 5 × 108 rad/s.
7.5 Plot eqn 7.49 for 0 < βd < 2π and the following situations:
1. ZL /Zo = 0.1
2. ZL /Zo = 1
3. ZL /Zo = 10
7. RF circuit analysis techniques 277
7.7 Show that the eqn 7.74 can be expressed by eqn 7.75.
7.8 Show that if a lossy transmission line is matched then I(x) and Zo can be
expressed by eqns 7.87 and 7.88, respectively.
1. Show that for low frequencies the attenuation, α, the propagation con-
stant, β, and the characteristic impedance, Zo , can be approximated by
eqns 7.89, 7.90 and 7.91, respectively.
2. Show that for high frequencies the attenuation, α, the propagation con-
stant, β, and the characteristic impedance, Zo , can be approximated by
eqns 7.92, 7.93 and 7.94, respectively.
7.10 Show that the input impedance of a lossy transmission line terminated
by a load ZL can be expressed by eqn 7.114.
7.14 Determine the S-parameters of the high-frequency model for the field-
effect transistor.
7.15 For the previous problem assume kn W/L = 40 mA/V2 , Cgs = 3 pF,
Cgd = 1.5 pF, VA = 60 V and ID = 10 mA. Zo = 50 Ω. Plot the S-
parameters for a frequency range 1 MHz–10 GHz.
7.17 Represent the following impedances on the Smith chart and determine
the corresponding admittances
1. 10 − j 30 Ω
2. 75 + j 20 Ω
3. 60 − j 40 Ω
4. 5 − j 70 Ω
5. j 50 Ω
278 7. RF circuit analysis techniques
Ii Ri
Z1 Z2 +
Arv Vo Af i Ii
+
Z2 Z1 Vo
− Ro
−
a) b) c)
Z2 Z1 Z2
Z1
Z3 Z3
d) e)
6. −j 180 Ω
7.18 Represent the following admittances on the Smith chart and determine
the corresponding impedances
1. j 4 × 10−3 S
2. 8 × 10−2 − j 6 × 10−2 S
3. 0.2 + j 4 × 10−2 S
8.1 Introduction Electronic noise is defined as a signal that either corrupts, masks or interferes
with the desired signal which is being processed by an electronic circuit. There
is a very broad range of noise sources that can be present in such circuits. Here
we divide these noise sources into two major classes. The first refers to noise
sources which are intrinsic to electronic devices and arise from fundamental
physical effects. Such noise sources, sometimes known as intrinsic, are thermal
(or Johnson) noise, electronic shot-noise, and 1/f noise. The second class
encompasses all coupled noise sources that arise from interactions between
the electronic circuit and the surrounding environment. Examples of extrinsic
noise sources are atmospheric-based noise, glitches induced by fast switching
digital circuits, coupling from nearby electrical circuits, etc. In this chapter we
shall address only the first class of noise sources.
We start by revising very important statistical and probability concepts
which are fundamental to modelling electronic noise. This is done in the next
section and in section 8.3, where the main mathematical properties of random
variables and of stochastic (or random) processes are discussed. In section
8.4 we present models for the various sources of intrinsic noise in active and
passive devices. Also, we present a method to address the performance of
electronic amplifiers in terms of equivalent input noise sources and the noise
figure. Finally, in section 8.5 we present a matrix-based method suitable for a
computer-aided analysis of noise performance of linear circuits.
8.2 Random In the previous chapters we have studied the current–voltage relationships of
electronic circuits and, for that purpose, we have treated current and voltage
variables as deterministic (non-random) quantities; that is, they were characterised by
precise values following deterministic models. These deterministic models, al-
though very useful for the analysis and design of a large variety of circuits,
do not account for the randomness associated with currents and voltages. For
example, when the measurement of a DC current through a resistor reads 3.4
amperes this value corresponds to the average value of this DC current as there
is always some randomness associated with the flow of electronic charges.
In order to understand some of the statistical properties of noise we con-
sider the following experiment where the current passing through N identical
resistances is measured in a ‘very precise manner’. The resistances have no
voltage applied to their terminals. According to Ohm’s law we would expect
no current flow. In fact, although the average (net) current is zero there is a
random motion of free electronic charges in the resistors as illustrated in fig-
280 8. Noise in electronic circuits
Amplitude
u
Amplitude
u
Amplitude
u
prqspt
ure 8.1. Such a random motion results in noise termed the ‘current noise’. If
we take an instant of time t = t1 and we record the N measurements taken,
we can construct a histogram which tell us the likelihood or the probability of
the measured current being in a certain amplitude interval. The histogram is
constructed by dividing the amplitude of the measured current into intervals
and by plotting the number of measured amplitudes in each interval relative to
the total number of measurements, N , as in figure 8.2 a). It should be noted
that the amplitude of the current taken at time t1 is a random variable (r.v.).
In this chapter the random variables are represented by capital letters and the
possible outcomes of a random variable are represented by lower cases. The
random variable associated with the current at time t1 is represented here by I1
and the outcomes of I1 are represented by i1 .
From this histogram it is already possible to extract the following informa-
tion; the average current amplitude is zero as expected. Also, it is more likely
to measure amplitudes near zero than further away from this average (or mean)
value.
If we increase the number of measurements and if we decrease the ampli-
tude intervals we get a more refined histogram, such as that depicted in figure
8. Noise in electronic circuits 281
Relative number
of occurrences 8.2 b), which characterises more accurately the probability of the measured
current, in time t1 , being in a certain amplitude interval.
In figure 8.2 c) we present the theoretical model for the Probability Density
Function (PDF) of the current measured at t1 . This PDF would result from a
i1 non-discrete continuous histogram where the number of measurements tends
0 Noise
Amplitude
towards infinity while the amplitude interval tends towards zero. This PDF is
a)
Relative number
called the ‘Gaussian’ PDF, or the ‘Gaussian distribution’, and can be described
of occurrences mathematically as follows:
µ ¶
1 (i1 − µ)2
pI1 (i1 ) = √ exp − (8.1)
2πσ 2σ 2
i1
0 Noise where µ is the mean, or the average value, of the distribution. σ is the stan-
b) Amplitude
dard deviation and it accounts for the ‘amount of randomness’ of the random
Gaussian PDF
pI1 (i1) variable. If we take the square value of the standard deviation (σ 2 ) we obtain
what is defined as the variance. Basically, the greater the value of σ the more
likely it is to have occurrences of the random variable further away from the
mean value µ. Figure 8.3 illustrates the Gaussian PDF with µ = 0 and with
i1
0 Noise
σ = 0.5, σ = 1 and σ = 2. Clearly, as the the value of σ increases the PDF
c)
Amplitude gets broader. The area under pI1 (i1 ) is unity:
Z ∞
Figure 8.2: a) Histogram of pI1 (i1 ) di1 = 1 (8.2)
the noise associated with the −∞
current. b) Histogram of In other words, when σ increases, resulting in a broader PDF, the maximum
the noise associated with the amplitude of the PDF decreases in order to maintain the area constant and
current. c) Gaussian Proba- equal to one. Conversely, when σ decreases the PDF gets narrower and the
bility Density Function. density around the mean value, µ = 0, increases. When σ tends to zero the
PDF tends to a Dirac delta function with unity area centred at the mean value:
µ ¶
0.8
pI1 (i1) 1 (i1 − µ)2
lim √ exp − = δ(i1 − µ) (8.3)
σ = 0.5
σ→0 2πσ 2σ 2
0.6
It follows that the PDF of a completely deterministic event is the Dirac delta
0.4 function located at the mean value with unity area. If the random fluctuations
σ=1
0.2 σ=2 (noise) associated with the current measured at t1 were non-existent then its
i1 PDF would be a Dirac delta function centred at zero.
−6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6
Probability calculation
Figure 8.3: Gaussian PDF.
The calculation of the probability of I1 being in a given interval [ia , ib ], with
ia < ib , is defined as follows:
Z ib
P [ia < I1 < ib ] , pI1 (i1 ) di1 (8.4)
ia
methods have been devised to generate tables of the normalised integrals below
(see also appendix A) which are also known as error functions1 :
Z ∞
1 2
Q(x) , √ e−λ /2 dλ
2π x
Z x
2 2
pI1 (i1) erf(x) , √ e−λ dλ
π 0
Z ∞
2 2
erfc(x) , √ e−λ dλ
π x
= 1 − erf(x)
ia ib i1
Example 8.2.1 Show that if I1 is a Gaussian r.v. with mean value µ and vari-
ance σ 2 then eqn 8.4 can be written as
µ ¶ µ ¶
ia − µ ib − µ
P [ia < I1 < ib ] = Q −Q (8.11)
σ σ
1 The function erfc(·) is also known as the complementary error function.
8. Noise in electronic circuits 283
and P [ia < I1 < ib ] can be calculated according to eqn 8.4, that is;
Z ib µ ¶
1 (i1 − µ)2
P [ia < I1 < ib ] = √ exp − di1 (8.13)
ia 2πσ 2σ 2
x = −y (8.17)
dx = −dy (8.18)
x = −7 ; y=7 (8.19)
x → −∞ ; y → +∞ (8.20)
Other distributions
There is a large variety of PDFs which have been devised as appropriate mod-
els for a broad range of random phenomena. Among these distributions the
following are commonly found in electronic and communication systems:
• Uniform. This continuous distribution is characterised by a PDF which
Figure 8.5: Uniform PDF.
can be expressed by the following equation:
Example. µ ¶
1 x−µ
pX (x) = rect (8.26)
∆ ∆
pX (x) where rect(·) represents the rectangular function (see appendix A) and µ
is the mean value. Figure 8.5 illustrates a zero mean uniform PDF with
range ∆. Note that, unlike the Gaussian distribution with infinite tails,
the uniform distribution has a finite range of possible occurrences for the
random variable. Note that the area of pX (x) is one, as expected.
• Poisson. This distribution differs substantially from the two previous
distributions (Gaussian and uniform) since it is categorised as a (non-
continuous) random variable. It is used to model a very broad range of
random phenomena including shot noise in electronic devices, a subject
0 x that will be discussed further in section 8.4.2. Discrete distributions are
often characterised by probability frequency functions. However, using
Figure 8.6: Poisson distribu- the Dirac delta function, it is possible to describe these discrete distri-
tion. Example. butions using probability density functions. For the Poisson distribution
we can write:
∞
X µk
pX (x) = e−µ δ(x − k) (8.27)
k!
k=0
Figure 8.7 illustrates the mathematical operation of eqn 8.29. In figure 8.7 a)
we illustrate the zero mean PDF, pX (x), and the linear function f (x) = x.
¤
£c
r
r3s
6g
¡ ¢
Figure 8.7 b) shows the product of x with pX (x). It can be seen that, for this
situation, the positive area, A+ , is equal to the negative area, A− . Thus, the
overall area, that is the sum of A+ + A− is zero as expected. In Figure 8.7 c)
we see the PDF with a mean value µ 6= 0 and the linear function f (x) = x.
Figure 8.7 d) represents the product of x with pX (x). Now the positive area,
A+ is greater that the negative area, A− . In fact the sum of A+ + A− is equal
to µ, the mean value of the PDF.
The variance
The second moment is called the mean-square value of the random variable:
Z ∞
E [X 2 ] = x2 pX (x) dx (8.30)
−∞
When the mean of the PDF is zero then E [x2 ] = σ 2 . Figure 8.8 illustrates
the mathematical operation of eqn 8.31 for two zero mean distributions with
different variances.
Figure 8.8 a) represents the distribution pX (x) and the parabolic function
f (x) = x2 . The role of the function x2 is as follows: after multiplying x2
with pX (x), as shown in figure 8.8 b), the parabolic function attenuates the
importance of those values of pX (x) near the mean value while it enhances
the values of pX (x) further away from the mean value. Thus, the calculation
of the area resulting from this product provides a measure of how broad (or
scattered) a PDF is and the result is called the variance. In figure 8.8 c) we
show another distribution pX (x) with a larger variance represented together
with the parabolic function f (x) = x2 . It can be seen, in a qualitative manner,
that the area resulting from the product of pX (x) with x2 for this situation is
larger than the situation presented in figure 8.8 a) a result that is also apparent
from figure 8.8 d).
The square root of the variance is the standard deviation, σ, which has
already been discussed in the context of the Gaussian distribution. The inter-
pretation for σ, although presented in the context of the Gaussian distribution,
is valid for any kind of distribution. In fact Chebyshev’s inequality states that,
regardless of the PDF pX (x), we have
1
P (|X − µ| ≥ a σ) ≤ (8.32)
a2
where µ and σ are the mean and the standard deviation of pX (x). Equation
8.32 states that the probability of observing any outcome of a random variable
X outside ±a times the standard deviation of its average value is never greater
than 1/a2 , regardless of its distribution.
8. Noise in electronic circuits 287
¬ § ¥
¨
¦Q§ ¥¨*©a¥ª ¦Q§ ¥¨*©«¥
ª
¬ § ¥
¨
¥ ¥
² ¯ ± ¯
¥
ª¬ § ¥
¨
¥
ª}¬ § ¥¨
®*¯ ¥ ° ¯ ¥
Figure 8.8: Calculation of the variance of different zero mean PDFs. a) Rep-
resentation of pX (x) and of f (x) = x2 . b) The product of x2 with pX (x).
c) Representation of pX (x), with larger variance, and of f (x) = x2 . d) The
product of x2 with pX (x) with the larger variance.
———————————————————————————————
Solution: The variance of a zero mean uniform distribution coincides with the
second moment and can be calculated as follows:
Z ∞ ³x´
1
σ2 = x2 rect dx
−∞ ∆ ∆
Z ∆/2 ¯∆/2
1 x3 ¯¯
= x2 dx =
−∆/2 ∆ 3 ∆ ¯−∆/2
∆2
= (8.33)
12
———————————————————————————————
Multivariate expectations
The term multivariate expectations refers to the calculation of expectations of
more than one random variable and the calculation of functions of multiple ran-
dom variables. However, in this chapter we only consider simple but important
288 8. Noise in electronic circuits
The last eqn can be generalised for higher order moments provided that the
random variables are independent:
r
E [X1r X2r . . . XN ] = r
E [X1r ] E [X2r ] . . . E [XN ] (8.35)
As before, the last eqn can be generalised for higher order moments as
E [X1r + X2r + . . . XN
r
] = E [X1r ] + E [X2r ] + . . . + E [XN
r
] (8.37)
and consequently
Z ∞
pX (x) = F−1 [CX (2πα)] = CX (2πα) ej 2 π x α dα (8.40)
−∞
The last two eqns reveal that the characteristic function and the PDF of a ran-
dom variable form a Fourier transform pair.
The moments of a random variable can be calculated from its characteristic
function according to:
¯
n 1 d ¯
E [X ] = n n
CX (2πα)¯¯ (8.41)
(−j 2π) dα α=0
8. Noise in electronic circuits 289
———————————————————————————————
Example 8.2.4 Calculate the second moment of a zero mean uniform distri-
bution using eqn 8.41 and show that it is equal to ∆2 /12, where ∆ represents
the range of the r.v.
Solution: The PDF of a zero mean uniform distribution can be written as:
1 ³x´
px (x) = rect (8.42)
∆ ∆
and the characteristic function is its Fourier transform, that is, (see appendix
A):
———————————————————————————————
The characteristic function is very useful when dealing with sums of inde-
pendent variables. Considering the sum of two independent random variables
Y = X1 + X2 , the characteristic function of Y is calculated as:
£ ¤ h i £ ¤ £ ¤
E ej λ Y = E ej λ(X1 +X2 ) = E ej λX1 E ej λX2 (8.44)
that is
That is, the PDF resulting from the sum of two independent random variables
is given by the convolution of the PDFs of each random variable.
290 8. Noise in electronic circuits
———————————————————————————————
Example 8.2.5 Show that the sum of two independent Gaussian random vari-
ables is also a Gaussian random variable.
Solution: Let us consider two Gaussian random variables X1 and X2 each one
characterised by a PDF
µ ¶
1 (xi − µi )2
pXi (x) = √ exp − i = 1, 2 (8.47)
2π σi 2σi2
where µi and σi2 are the mean value and the variance of Xi , i = 1, 2, respec-
tively. Taking the Fourier transform (see appendix A) of each PDF we get:
2
(2 π σ1 )2
CX1 (2πα) = e−j 2 π α µ1 −α (8.48)
−j 2 π α µ2 −α2 (2 π σ2 )2
CX2 (2πα) = e (8.49)
where µz = µ1 + µ2 and σz2 = σ12 + σ22 . Taking the inverse Fourier transform
we get;
µ ¶
1 (z − µz )2
pZ (z) = √ exp − (8.51)
2π σz 2 σz2
and,
where µi and σi2 represent the mean value and the variance, respectively, of
each random variable Xi . This theorem is very important since it allows the
characterisation of the PDF of a r.v., which results from a large sum of r.v.s, as
a Gaussian distribution. It should be noted that there is no need to know the
PDF of any of these individual random variables. All that is required is that the
mean and the variance of each of these individual random variables be known.
To illustrate this important theorem we consider the sum of three identi-
cal and uniform distributions. Figure 8.9 a) shows a zero mean uniform dis-
tribution with range 2A and a zero mean Gaussian PDF with the same vari-
ance that is, σ 2 = (2 A)2 /12. From this figure it can be observed that these
two distributions are quite different. If we sum two uniform random variables
Y = X1 + X2 its PDF is triangular as shown in figure 8.9 b). It can be seen
ÂÐ ¾ Ä Ñ ¾
¹
Exact PDF ½ ¾
Gaussian PDF
À À{Ç*È É
Å ¼ Æ ¾À
Ñ@¾
³´ Î ¹ ·
ÂÌÄ Í
¹ Ï
¼½«¾@¿g½2À
À À{ÇQÈ É
Å ¼ Ê Æ ¾À
Í
µ Ê · Ë ¹ Ê ·
Â_Ã$Ä
¹
º »¼½¾@¿g½2À_¿g½&Á
À À{ÇQÈ É
Å ¼ ¶6Æ ¾ À
µ¶· ¸c¹ ¶
· º
Figure 8.9: Comparison between the exact PDF of the sum of N uniform ran-
dom variables (Xi , i = 1, 2, 3), which are independent identically distributed,
with the Gaussian approximation given by the central limit theorem. a) N = 1.
b) N = 2. c) N = 3.
that the range of the PDF of Y is now 4A. Figure 8.9 b) also shows the Gaus-
sian approximation to the PDF of Y , as stated by the central limit theorem. It
can be observed that the difference between these two PDFs is not as large as
in the previous situation described by figure 8.9 a). In figure 8.9 c) we show
the PDF for the random variable Z resulting from the sum of three uniform
random variables. The range of this distribution is now 6A and we observe
that the piecewise parabolic shape of this distribution starts to resemble the
292 8. Noise in electronic circuits
Gaussian PDF. In fact, from figure 8.9 c) it can be seen that the difference be-
tween these two PDFs is small. Clearly, the PDF of the r.v. resulting from the
addition of more than one uniform random variable tends to a Gaussian distri-
bution as stated by the central limit theorem. However, we emphasise that the
distribution resulting from the sum of three uniform distributions has a finite
range while the Gaussian PDF exhibits infinite tails. Therefore, some caution
must be exercised using the Gaussian PDF to approximate the PDF of Z when
dealing with very small probabilities! The following example illustrates this
idea.
———————————————————————————————
Example 8.2.6 Consider the random variable Z resulting from the sum of
three independent, identically distributed, uniform random variables Xi , i =
1, 2, 3:
1 ³ x ´
pXi (x) = rect (8.56)
2A 2A
with 2A = 1.
1. Determine the value za such that the P (Z > za ) = 0.3.
2. Consider the Gaussian approximation to the PDF of Z and determine an
estimate for the value za such that the P (Z > za ) = 0.3. Compare the
value of za with that obtained above.
3. Repeat the last two questions but now for zb such that P (Z > zb ) =
2.1 × 10−5 .
Solution:
1. The piecewise parabolic PDF is given by the convolution of the three
uniform PDFs and can be expressed by;
(z + 3A)2
−3A ≤ z < −A
16A3
2 2
− (z − 3A )
−A ≤ z ≤ A
3
PZ (z) = 8A (8.57)
2
(z − 3A)
A < z ≤ 3A
16A3
0 elsewhere
that is
Z 3A
(z − 3A)2
dz = 0.3
za 16A3
8. Noise in electronic circuits 293
9 1 3 9
⇔ − za3 + za2 − za = 0.3
16 6 4 8
⇔ za = 0.2836
2. For each uniform PDF the variance is σx2 = 1/12. Hence the Gaussian
approximation for Z is
1 z2
pZ (z) = √ √ e 2×3σx2 (8.58)
2π 3σx
P (Z > za ) = 0.3 can be written as
µ ¶
za
Q √ = 0.3
3σx
From the tables of the Gaussian error function (see appendix A), za is
estimated as 0.2620. The error for za given by the true PDF and by the
Gaussian approximation is relatively small; about 7.6%.
3. The true value of zb satisfies the following equation:
Z ∞
PZ (z) dz = 2.1 × 10−5
zb
that is
9 1 3 9
− zb3 + zb2 − zb = 2.1 × 10−5
16 6 4 8
⇔ zb = 1.4499
It should be noted that, for this case, there is a significant error in the
prediction of zb by the Gaussian approximation. Also, since the true
PDF of Z has a limited range [−1.5, 1.5] the outcome zb = 2.05 is
meaningless in the context of the random variable Z.
———————————————————————————————
where µx and σx2 are the mean and the variance of X, respectively. µy and σy2
are the mean and the variance of Y , respectively. If the two random variables
are statistically independent then ρXY = 0. If the two random variables are
totally correlated then ρXY = ±1. Figure 8.10 illustrates the outcomes of a
random variable Y versus the outcomes of a random variable X for ρXY = 0,
ρXY = 0.7, ρXY = −0.8, ρXY = 1. When the two random variables are
uncorrelated, ρXY = 0, it can be seen that the outcomes of Y do not relate
Ó Ó
Ô Õ6Ö ×Ù
Ô@Õ6ÖØ×Ù_Ú Û
Ò Ò
å ã
æ*ã
Ó Ó
Ô ÕÖ ×ÝÜÞÙ_Ú ß
Ô Õ6Ö ×áà
Ò Ò
âã ä ã
1
pXY (x, y) = p
2πσx σy 1 − ρ2XY
½ 2
¾
(x − µx ) (y − µy )2 ρ(x − µx )(y − µy )
× exp − − −
2σx2 (1 − ρ2XY ) 2σy2 (1 − ρ2XY ) σx σy (1 − ρ2XY )
(8.60)
pXY (x, y) is also called the joint probability distribution (or joint PDF) of X
and Y .
8. Noise in electronic circuits 295
8.3 Stochastic Let us consider again the measurements of the noise current in each resistor
illustrated in figure 8.1. Each measured noise current waveform is also called a
processes sample function or a sample waveform. Previously we have considered a fixed
time instant t1 for which we considered a random variable, I1 . If we consider
any other instant of time, t = t2 for example, we have another random variable,
I2 . Therefore, a random process can be viewed as a family of random variables
considered at different time instants.
It should be noted that the time variable t in eqn 8.61 is treated like a constant.
Hence, eqn 8.61 is often written without the explicit time dependency, that is:
Z ∞
E [I(t)] = i pI (i) di (8.62)
−∞
Equation 8.61 or 8.62 represents an ensemble average, that is, an average over
the ensemble of current waveforms (or sample functions) for any given instant
of time. Its meaning is similar to the first moment (or average value) discussed
in the context of a single random variable. The main difference is that for a
random process the value of E [I(t)] might be time dependent.
Correlation functions
Another very important ensemble average is the autocorrelation function. This
function, like the covariance defined in eqn 8.59, is a measure of the related-
ness or dependence between random variables I1 and I2 , considered at time
instants t1 and t2 respectively. As it will be shown latter on, the measure of
such a dependence can provide valuable information about the bandwidth and
about the power of the noise which is modelled as a random process. The
autocorrelation function is defined as follows:
Z ∞Z ∞
Ri (t1 , t2 ) , E [I1 (t1 ) I2 (t2 )] = i1 i2 pI1 I2 (i1 , i2 ) di1 di2 (8.63)
−∞ −∞
where the dependency of I1 and of I2 on the time variable has been dropped
for reasons of simplicity. pI1 I2 (i1 , i2 ) is the joint probability distribution of
the random variables I1 and I2 at t = t1 and at t = t2 , respectively.
If I1 is statistically independent of I2 then Ri (t1 , t2 ) = E [I(t1 )] E [I(t2 )].
On the other hand, Ri (t, t) = E [I(t)2 ], that is Ri (t, t) is the mean square value
of I(t) as a function of time.
If I1 and I2 are both zero mean random variables then
Ri (t1 , t2 ) = σI1 σI2 ρI1 I2
with ρI1 I2 representing the covariance between I1 and I2 .
296 8. Noise in electronic circuits
E [I(t)] = µ (8.64)
Ri (t1 , t2 ) = Ri (t2 − t1 )
= Ri (τ ) (8.65)
Setting τ = 0 in eqn 8.66 we have Ri (0) = E [I(t)2 ], that is, the mean square
value and the variance of a stationary random process are constants.
When all time averages are equal to the corresponding ensemble averages
the random process is said to be ergodic. Hence, for an ergodic random
process we can write the following:
• The mean value of the process, µi , represents the DC value of the process
≺ i(t) Â;
• The square of the mean value, µ2i , represents the power of the DC com-
ponent ≺ i(t) Â2 ;
• The variance, σi2 , represents the average power associated with the AC
components of the process, that is it represents the average power of the
time varying component of the process;
• The mean square, E [i(t)2 ], represents the total average power ≺ i2 (t) Â;
τ1 i1(t)
τ1 i1(t) i1(t + τ1)
Amplitude
i1(t + τ1)
Amplitude
t t
a) b)
i1(t) i1(t + τ1) i1(t) i1(t + τ1)
Positive area
Amplitude
Positive area
Amplitude
Negative area
Negative area
t
c) d)
Ri(τ ) Ri(τ )
τ1 τ τ1 τ
e) f)
Figure 8.11: a) Sample function of a slowly varying random process and its de-
layed replica. b) Sample function of a rapidly varying random process and its
delayed replica. c) Product of the sample function of a slowly varying random
process with its delayed replica. d) Product of the sample function of a rapidly
varying random process with its delayed replica. e) Autocorrelation function
of a slowly varying random process. f) Autocorrelation function of a rapidly
varying random process.
Sii∗ (f ) = Fτ [Ri (τ )]
Z ∞
= Ri (τ ) e−j 2 π f τ dτ (8.72)
−∞
For ergodic random processes the PSD can be calculated from the time
averaging-based autocorrelation function, ≺ ik (t) ik (t + τ ) Â:
Z ∞
Sii (f ) =
∗ ≺ ik (t) ik (t + τ ) Â e−j 2 π f τ dτ (8.73)
−∞
that is
Z ∞ Z T /2
1
Sii∗ (f ) = lim ik (t) ik (t + τ ) dt e−j 2 π f τ dτ (8.74)
−∞ T →∞ T −T /2
Assuming that the random process sample function, ik (t) has a Fourier trans-
form ik (f ) such that:
Z ∞
ik (f ) = ik (t) e−j 2 π f t dt (8.75)
−∞
Noting that
Z T /2
lim ik (t) e+j 2 π f t dt = i∗k (f ) (8.78)
T →∞ −T /2
we get Sii∗ (f ) to be
ik (f )i∗k (f )
Sii∗ (f ) = lim (8.79)
T →∞ T
that is
|ik (f )|2
Sii∗ (f ) = lim , hi i∗ i (8.80)
T →∞ T
The h·i represents a mathematical operator which can be used to determine the
power spectral density of an ergodic random process. We shall discuss some
elementary properties of this operator in the next section (see also example
8.3.2).
The result expressed by eqn 8.80 is extremely important since it is the basis
of the AC-based electronic noise analysis which is presented in section 8.4. In
fact, this eqn tells us that if a single sample function ik (t) of an ergodic random
process is observed for a long period of time, T , then the PSD of such a process
can be estimated by
|ik (f )|2
Sii∗ (f ) = hi i∗ i ' (8.81)
T
300 8. Noise in electronic circuits
———————————————————————————————
Solution:
ç
è_êé èhé é ê}é
û ò
ñõö;÷ ë
ì
ñ{ö÷ ë
ìcø
îïDð ñò é$ù ÷ú é
ë ë ë ë ñ
è ì è íì íì ì
ü ò
Rx (τ ) = σ 2 triang (τ B) (8.84)
2. Figure 8.12 illustrates the PSD and the autocorrelation function of the
random process x(t) when τT = 1/B and when τT = 1/B 0 , B 0 = 3B.
As has been discussed previously (see also figure 8.11), as the band-
width associated with the random process (or random signal) increases
the correlation time decreases.
———————————————————————————————
Moreover, if any of them has a zero mean value for all t then Ruw (t1 , t2 ) = 0.
If u(t) and w(t) are jointly ergodic processes such that Ruw (t1 , t2 ) =
Ruw (τ ), τ = t2 − t1 then the cross spectral density is defined as the Fourier
transform of Ruw (τ ):
Z ∞
Suw∗ (f ) , Ruw (τ ) e−j2πf τ dτ
−∞
Z ∞
= ≺ u(t) w(t + τ ) Â e−j2πf τ dτ (8.87)
−∞
If the two random processes are uncorrelated with zero mean then hu w ∗ i = 0.
———————————————————————————————
Example 8.3.2 Consider two jointly ergodic random processes x(t) and y(t).
Consider the random process z = x(t) + y(t). Show that the PSD of z(t),
hz z∗ i, can be determined as follows:
hz z∗ i = h(x + y) (x + y)∗ i
= hx x∗ i + hx y∗ i + hy x∗ i + hy y∗ i (8.89)
.
302 8. Noise in electronic circuits
Solution: According to eqn 8.73, the PSD of z(t) can be determined as follows:
Z ∞
∗
hz z i = ≺ zk (t) zk (t + τ ) Â e−j 2 π f τ dτ
−∞
Z ∞ Z T /2
1
= lim [xk (t) + yk (t)]
−∞ T →∞ T −T /2
Using eqns 8.74–8.81 and eqn 8.88 this eqn can be written as
hz z∗ i = hx x∗ i + hx y∗ i + hy x∗ i + hy y∗ i (8.92)
———————————————————————————————
where h(t) is the linear system impulse response (see figure 8.13).
The main statistics of v(t), namely the mean and the autocorrelation func-
tion, can be determined as follows:
Z ∞
E [v(t)] = E [u(t − λ)] h(λ) dλ (8.94)
−∞
Z ∞Z ∞
Rv (t1 , t2 ) = Ru (t1 − λ1 , t2 − λ2 ) h(λ1 ) h(λ2 ) dλ1 dλ2
−∞ −∞
þ ÿ @þ ÿ (8.95)
ý_þ ÿ
with H(0) representing the transfer function of the linear system at zero fre-
quency (DC).
The power spectrum density of v(t) can be determined by the Fourier trans-
form of eqn 8.98, that is:
Svv∗ (f ) = |H(f )|2 Suu∗ (f ) (8.99)
This eqn indicates that the system transfer function shapes the power spectrum
density as illustrated by figure 8.14.
The power of v(t) can be determined as follows;
Z ∞
E [v(t)2 ] = Rv (0) = |H(f )|2 Suu∗ (f ) df (8.100)
−∞
!"$# %
The power spectral density of a white noise can be written as:
η
Snn∗ (f ) = (8.101)
2
% where the 1/2 factor is included to indicate that the PSD is considered to be
a) bilateral, that is, half of the noise power is associated with positive frequencies
and the other half is associated with the corresponding negative frequencies.
The autocorrelation function of the white noise is given by the inverse
Fourier transform of Snn∗ (f ):
η
Rn (τ ) = δ(t) (8.102)
2
Figure 8.15 shows the PSD and the autocorrelation function of white noise. It
b)
should be noted that, according to eqn 8.82 (or eqn 8.83), white noise must
have infinite power. Since it is well known that there is no practical random
Figure 8.15: White noise.
signal or random noise source with infinite power, we emphasise that, although
a) Power Spectral density.
the theoretical concept of white noise is very useful to model flat and broad
b) Autocorrelation function.
bandwidth noise sources, we must bear in mind that white noise sources are
always filtered by finite bandwidth systems. It is also important to note that the
spectral density of filtered white noise takes the shape of the system transfer
function according to:
η
|H(f )|2 (8.103)
' 2
&('*) +-, .0/)
The noise power associated with the filtered white noise is given by:
Z ∞
η
Pn = |H(f )|2 df
−∞ 2
Z
η ∞
= |H(f )|2 df (8.104)
2 −∞
1(2 .
Since the integral of eqn 8.104 depends only on the transfer function H(f )
we can define the equivalent noise bandwidth, BN . This is the bandwidth of
Figure 8.16: The equivalent an ideal low-pass filter that would pass as much noise as the filter with transfer
noise bandwidth. function H(f ) (see also figure 8.16). This is normally done to simplify circuit
and system noise calculations by getting rid of the integral (see eqn 8.104) and
replacing it by a simple product as shown below:
η 2
Pn = A BN (8.105)
2
with
Z ∞
1
BN , |H(f )|2 df (8.106)
A2 −∞
where A = |H(f )|max is the maximum amplitude of |H(f )|. Usually, for a
low-pass filter |H(f )|max coincides with the DC gain.
8. Noise in electronic circuits 305
———————————————————————————————
Example 8.3.3 Determine the equivalent noise bandwidth of an RC low-pass
filter with a time constant τ .
Solution: The transfer function for the RC low-pass filter is given by:
1
H(f ) =
1 + j 2πf τ
therefore A = |H(f )|max = 1.
Z ∞
BN = |H(f )|2 df
−∞
Z ∞
1
=
−∞ 1 + (2 π f τ )2
¯∞
1 ¯
= tan−1 (2 π f τ )¯¯
2πτ −∞
1
=
2τ
We note that the equivalent noise bandwidth for a filter of order greater than or
equal to three is approximately equal to the 3 dB bandwidth.
———————————————————————————————
8.4 Noise in Knowledge of noise statistics is necessary for estimating the noise behaviour
of electronic circuits. This, in turn, is crucial for the estimation of the circuits’
electronic behaviour and their figures of merit. In this section the basic sources of noise
circuits in electronic circuits are introduced and methods of analysis of such sources
and their interactions are presented.
R
Kf
Sin i∗n (f ) = hin i∗n i = (A2 /Hz) (8.113)
fα
8. Noise in electronic circuits 307
where Kf is a factor which depends on the current passing on the device and
α is a coefficient with a range of 0.8 to 1.4. For calculation purposes α is taken
as unity and the noise power varies as the inverse of the frequency. The total
noise power considered between fa and fb is:
56 Z fb
5 687 9 Kf
7 Pn = df (8.114)
fa f
fb
3$4 = Kf ln (A2 ) (8.115)
NM fa
JKL
HI
Note that over any decade in frequency, that is, for any fb = 10 fa , the noise
56
FG power is the same and given by Kf ln(10).
E 56 7 9
7 In terms of a noise model the 1/f noise component can be accounted for
: 4
4 by adding an additional noise source to the white noise source as illustrated in
CD ; <>=@? AB C
figure 8.19.
Since the two noise sources are uncorrelated, the total noise power spectral
Figure 8.19: 1/f noise density is just the sum of each power spectral density:
and white noise. a) Noise µ ¶
sources. b) Equivalent noise η fc
Sin i∗n (f ) = hin i∗n i = 1+ (A2 /Hz) (8.116)
power spectral density. 2 f
where η/2 is the PSD of the white noise source component and fc is the ‘corner
frequency’ of the 1/f noise.
Q
8.4.4 Noise models for passive devices
\
]_^ ` acb d` ^ ` e ]_b
RS The ideal passive devices are the resistor, the capacitor and the inductor. Among
Q
U VZ UWVX all these the only one which is noisy is the resistor since, as discussed above,
P O P O
it produces thermal noise. Both the ideal inductor and the ideal capacitor are
\
]_^ ` df d` `
b d`g^ ` e ]b energy storage elements, do not dissipate energy and do not induce thermal
T S
noise. However, practical devices always have parasitic resistances and these
\
]^ ` df d` ` components will produce thermal noise and 1/f noise.
Y VX Y VZ b d` ^ ` e ]b
Q Resistor
The practical resistor generates thermal noise and 1/f noise. The noise model
[S
for the resistor is presented in figure 8.20. For the series voltage sources model
the PSD is given by:
Figure 8.20: a) Noisy
resistor. b) Series voltage hunt u∗nt i = 2KT R (8.117)
sources. c) Parallel current fc
hunf u∗nf i = 2KT R (8.118)
sources. f
where unt accounts for the thermal noise contribution and unf accounts for
the 1/f noise contribution. For the parallel current sources model the PSD is
given by:
2KT
hint i∗nt i = (8.119)
R
2 K T fc
hinf i∗nf i = (8.120)
R f
308 8. Noise in electronic circuits
Capacitor
The real capacitor has two resistive components, as shown in figure 8.21. Rd
is associated with dielectric losses and Rs includes the lead resistances. While
j
Rd is greater than 109 Ω, Rs is, typically, less than 1 Ω. There is thermal and
p qsr k$tuk"vWk"uw xy"z
1/f noise associated with Rs represented by unt1 and by unf , respectively.
k iml Rd generates only thermal noise represented by unt2 . In practice their noise is
l
n negligible compared to other circuit noise generators.
j
o
hWi
~ y"w r t r
Inductor
_g
( z r w
x y$z
l {}|
l The real inductor has a main resistive component Rs , as shown in figure 8.22,
{
| {
|
o n from the wire resistance. Rs generates both thermal and 1/f noise represented
~ " y w r t r j by unt and by unf , respectively. Like the capacitor the noise sources associated
z r w xy"z with the practical inductor are usually neglected when compared with other
u i
circuit noise generators like resistors.
Rch = (gm Kd )−1 (8.121)
> _ _
where Kd is a constant associated with the physical dimensions of the FET and
is normally taken as 2/3. The power spectral density of ind is given by:
¡ _" _
0 0 2 gm
hind i∗nd i = 2 K T (8.122)
g > _g _ 3
g
Since ro is a dynamic resistance it does not dissipate power and, therefore,
there is no noise source associated with it.
Figure 8.22: a) Ideal induc- The 1/f noise power spectral density can be written as:
tor. b) Electrical model for
the practical inductor. c) 2 g m fc
Noise model. hinf i∗nf i = 2 K T (8.123)
3 f
where fc is the corner frequency. ing accounts for shot noise resulting from
the DC gate leakage current, IG . The PSD for ing can be written as:
®
ing i∗ng = q IG (8.124)
In some FETs there is correlation between the noise at the gate and the noise
at the drain especially at high frequencies. However, at mid-range frequency
this correlation is usually neglected.
8. Noise in electronic circuits 309
§¬ §¬
ª « ² ¢ « ²
°>± ¦ §¨
¦"§¨
§¨ §¨ µ ¶¹
£¤
« «
© ©
¼ ¼
³@´ » ´
where IB and IC are the base and the collector bias currents, respectively.
ÆcÇ Õ Í>Ö ÆcÇ
½ × ½"×
È ¿ È Ô Ð
Ó
Ä Ä
À0Á¯Â0Ã Ì ÍÑ Ì Í>Ò Ì Í>Î
Æ Ã À0Á¯Â0Ã
½"¾
Æ Ã Â0Ã Â@Ã
½"Ã ½"Ã ½>¾
Å Å
É É
Ê@Ë Ï Ë
Figure 8.24: a) Noiseless hybrid-π model for the bipolar transistor. b) Hybrid-π model including noise
sources.
by the base current and the shot noise induced by the collector current are char-
acterised by their self- and cross-spectral densities as follows:
³ ¯ ¯2 ´
hinb i∗nb i = q IB + ¯1 − e−jωτb ¯ IC (8.129)
hinc i∗nc i = q IC (8.130)
¡ ¢
hinb i∗nc i = q ejωτb − 1 IC (8.131)
where τb represents the finite base transit time for the charge carriers. It should
be noted that at low-frequencies hinb i∗nb i, given by eqn 8.129, tends to q IB
as in eqn 8.126. Also, at low frequencies the cross-spectral density, given by
eqn 8.131, tends to zero.
It is interesting to note that the dominant noise process in FET devices is
thermal while bipolar devices have dominant shot-noise components. This is
understandable given the nature of FETs and BJTs. A FET can be viewed as
a variable semiconductor resistor generating the thermal noise components of
eqns 8.122 and 8.124. On the other hand a BJT is effectively three semiconduc-
tor regions forming two p–n junctions giving rise to the shot noise components
of eqns 8.126 and 8.127.
+ Noisy
vi
−
Amplifier
vo 8.4.6 The equivalent input noise sources
a) Now that the noise models for the main circuit elements have been presented it
un is clear that even simple circuits can have a significant number of noise sources
+ −
contributing to the overall noise of the circuit. Therefore, it is necessary to
+ assess the impact of each noise source on the circuit performance.
vi Noise-free
− in
Amplifier vo A noise assessment method used to quantify the noise performance of an
amplifier, or of any linear two-port circuit, is based on modelling the noisy
b) amplifier using equivalent input noise sources, as shown in figure 8.25. The
noisy amplifier is replaced by a noise-free amplifier, which accounts for the
Figure 8.25: a) Noisy ampli- electrical response, and by two equivalent noise generators which characterise
fier. b) Equivalent model for the noise of the amplifier. These two equivalent noise generators are a voltage
the noisy amplifier. noise source, un , and a current noise source, in , which are located at the input.
In general, these two noise sources are correlated. This correlation is accounted
for by hin u∗n i which is the cross-spectral density between in and u∗n . It should
be noted that there is a need for both a voltage noise source and a current noise
source to accurately characterise the noise behaviour of the amplifier. When
the input signal source is a voltage source its zero (or low) output impedance
absorbs the current noise in . If there was not a voltage noise source, the noisy
behaviour of the amplifier would not be taken into account. Similar reasoning
accounts for the need of a current noise source when the input is a current
source.
This noise representation technique is very useful since it allows amplifiers
to be compared in terms of noise performance, regardless of gain, impedance,
or transfer function of the amplifiers. In order to characterise an amplifier
according to the model shown in figure 8.25 b) it is necessary to relate all
the individual noise sources of the noisy amplifier with the equivalent noise
sources un and in .
8. Noise in electronic circuits 311
RL
vo
vi
a)
vi B C vo
+
inb G m vπ
Cπ
RL
vπ
rπ inc +
unL
− −
E
b)
vi uneq
B + − C vo
+
G m vπ
Cπ
vπ RL
ineq rπ
−
E
c)
sources discussed above, making the analysis most general. Figure 8.26 b)
shows the small-signal model of the amplifier including the intrinsic noise
sources of the HBT. inb and inc are characterised by their self- and cross-
spectral densities given eqns 8.129–8.131. Figure 8.26 b) also shows the noise
source of the load resistance RL , unL , with power spectral density given by:
hunL u∗nL i = 2 K T RL (8.132)
For reasons of simplicity the model of the circuit described by figure 8.26 b)
does not include the effect of the base resistance rx and Cµ . Also, it assumes
312 8. Noise in electronic circuits
that the Early effect can be neglected, that is, ro is very large compared to RL .
Gm is the transistor transconductance given by:
Gm = gm e−jωτ (8.133)
IC q
gm = (8.134)
KT
where the term e−jωτ accounts for the delay, τ , associated with the transistor
transconductance. In the following analysis, we shall assume τ ' 0, that is,
Gm ' g m .
vo = unL (8.135)
vo = −inc RL (8.136)
• inb : See figure 8.27 c). Again, we have vπ = 0. Hence, the voltage-
controlled current source does not produce any current and, there-
fore, the output voltage is zero.
• Total noise voltage: The sum of all noise contributions to the
noise voltage at the output of the amplifier is given by:
vi = 0 vo
+
RL
G m vπ
Cπ
vπ
rπ
+
unL
− −
a)
vi = 0 vo
+
RL
G m vπ
Cπ
vπ
rπ inc
b)
vi = 0 vo
+
RL
inb G m vπ
Cπ
vπ
rπ
c)
Figure 8.27: Equivalent circuit for the calculation of the various contributions
to the output noise voltage. a) Contribution from unL . b) Contribution from
inc . c) Contribution from inb .
ii = 0
+
RL
G m vπ
Cπ
vπ io
rπ
+
unL
− −
a)
ii = 0
+
RL
G m vπ
Cπ
vπ
rπ inc
io
b)
ii = 0
+
RL
inb G m vπ
Cπ
vπ
rπ
io
c)
Figure 8.28: Equivalent circuit for the calculation of the various contributions
to the output noise current. a) Contribution from unL . b) Contribution from
inc . c) Contribution from inb .
io = inc (8.139)
• inb : Figure 8.28 c) shows the equivalent circuit for this calculation.
Now we have:
rπ
vπ = −inb (8.140)
1 + j 2 π f C π rπ
io = g m vπ
gm rπ
= −inb (8.141)
1 + j 2 π f C π rπ
8. Noise in electronic circuits 315
¿µ
® 1 + j 2 π f C π rπ
ineq i∗neq = −unL
g m rπ RL
¶
1 + j 2 π f C π rπ
+ inc − inb
gm rπ
µ
1 + j 2 π f C π rπ
× −unL
g m rπ RL
¶∗ À
1 + j 2 π f C π rπ
+ inc − inb
gm rπ
µ ¶
1 1 + (2 π f Cπ rπ )2
= hunL u∗nL i 2 + hinc i∗nc i
RL (gm rπ )2
· ¸
1 + j 2 π f C π rπ
+ hinb i∗nb i − 2 Real hinc i∗nb i
gm rπ
(8.148)
¿µ
® 1 + j 2 π f C π rπ 1 + j 2 π f C π rπ
ineq u∗neq = −unL + inc
g m rπ RL gm rπ
¶µ ¶∗ À
unL inc
− inb − +
g m RL gm
1 + j 2 π f C π rπ
= hunL u∗nL i 2 2
g m rπ RL
1 + j 2 π f C π rπ 1
+ hinc i∗nc i 2 r
− hinb i∗nc i
gm π g m
1 + j 2 π f C π rπ 1 + j 2 π f C π rπ
= 2KT 2 r R
+ q IC 2 r
gm π L gm π
¡ jωτ ¢ IC
− q e b −1 (8.150)
gm
® ¡ ®¢∗
and uneq i∗neq = ineq u∗neq .
8. Noise in electronic circuits 317
10−10
10−8
√
√
10−11
IC = 10 mA
10−9
IC = 1.0 mA IC = 1.0 mA
10−12
IC = 0.1 mA
IC = 10 mA f (Hz) f (Hz)
10−10 10−13
106 108 1010 1012 106 108 1010 1012
Figure 8.29: Equivalent input noise spectral densities for the common-emitter
amplifier. Note that both axes are logarithmic.
®
Figure 8.29 shows the RMS voltage spectral density, ( uneq u∗neq )1/2 , and
®
the RMS current spectral density, ( ineq i∗neq )1/2 , obtained from eqns 8.146
and 8.149, respectively, for three collector bias currents: IC = 0.1 mA, IC =
1.0 mA and IC = 10 mA. We have also assumed that the HBT is characterised
by β = 200, τπ = rπ Cπ = 4 ps and τb = 0.1 ps. RL = 50 Ω.
From this figure it®can be observed that while the spectral density associ-
ated with uneq u∗neq decreases with increasing IC , the PSD associated with
®
ineq i∗neq increases. These opposite trends suggest that there is an optimum
bias collector current for which the overall noise PSD can be minimised. It is
also
interesting
® toexamine what ® are the most significant noise contributions for
ineq i∗neq and uneq u∗neq . Figure 8.30 shows the various contributions to
the equivalent input current noise spectral density as given by eqn 8.149, for
a bias collector current IC = 0.1 mA. It can be seen that the dominant con-
tribution is the current shot noise induced by the HBT base current (see also
eqn 8.129). It is left as an exercise for the reader to determine which con-
tributions dominate the equivalent input voltage noise spectral density of the
common-emitter amplifier.
Ø /10+23450+2
6 3487
<A
> ?@=
í
Ø ðòñôóWõ
öø÷ Ùúùåç(èéêëûäüãÞý*Üíÿþ è ì
;<
9:; ù ý
!
Figure 8.30: Contributions to the equivalent input current noise spectral den-
sities for the common-emitter amplifier (IC = 0.1 mA).
hun u∗n i, hin i∗n i and hun i∗n i are given by eqns 8.146, 8.149 and 8.150, re-
spectively.
Figure 8.32 shows the variation of the current spectral density of ineq with
bias collector current IC at 800 MHz. It can be seen that there is an optimum
³D E´1/2
bias value for IC (about 8 mA) which minimises ineq i∗neq .
×10−11
1.6
1.5
1.4
IC (mA)
1.3
100 101 102
Figure 8.32: Current spectral density of ineq versus collector bias current IC
+
uns
− +
un
−
(f = 800 MHz).
+ Zs Noise-free
vs Amplifier
−
in vo
| {z
Source
} | {z
Amplifier
}
Equivalent voltage noise spectral density
a)
+
uneq Zs If the noisy amplifier of figure 8.31 a) is now driven by a voltage source with
output impedance Zs (ω), as illustrated in figure 8.33 a), then the noise be-
−
+ Noise-free
− vs Amplifier vo haviour of the overall configuration (voltage source and amplifier) can be best
represented (see figure 8.33 b)) by an equivalent voltage noise source, uneq
b) with a PSD given by (see exercise 8.9):
®
Figure 8.33: a) Noisy uneq uneq ∗ = huns u∗ns i + hun u∗n i + 2 Real[hun i∗n i Zs∗ (ω)]
amplifier connected to a
+ hin i∗n i |Zs (ω)|2 (8.153)
voltage signal source.
b) Equivalent noise model
for the signal source and 8.4.7 The noise figure
amplifier.
The noise figure is widely used to quantify the noise performance of active
devices and amplifiers specially when both the signal source impedance and
the output load impedances are resistive.
320 8. Noise in electronic circuits
Pi
Pn i Pi Pn o
F = = (8.156)
Po Po Pn i
Pn o
1 Pn o
= (8.157)
G p Pn i
where Pi and Po are the input signal power and the output signal power, re-
spectively. Pni is the noise power at the input of the amplifier and Pno is the
noise power at the output of the amplifier. Gp is the power gain of the amplifier.
For the amplifier of figure 8.31 we can write:
D E
Pno = Gp ineq i∗neq (8.158)
Pn i = hins i∗ns i (8.159)
where
From eqn 8.164 we can conclude that when Ys (ω) tends to zero the terms
hin i∗n i (2 K T Real[Ys (ω)])−1 and the noise factor tend to infinity. Also, when
Ys (ω) tends to infinity both the term hun u∗n i |Ys (ω)|2 and F tend to infinity.
Therefore, there must be an optimum value of the signal source output admit-
tance, Ysopt (ω), which minimises the noise factor. In order to simplify this
calculation we consider a pure resistive output admittance Ys (ω) = Gs , for
which we can write
hin i∗n i + 2 Gs Real[hun i∗n i] + hun u∗n i G2s
F = 1+ (8.165)
2 K T Gs
The optimum Gs can be obtained by differentiating eqn 8.165 and setting the
differential to zero, that is
dF
= 0
d Gs
£ ¤
2 K T G2s hun u∗n i − hin i∗n i
= 0
(2 K T Gs )2
and
hin i∗n i
G2sopt = (8.166)
hun u∗n i
From this we conclude that the noise performance of the amplifier is dominated
by the noise performance of the first amplifier stage as long as the gain of this
first stage, Gp1 , is large.
Clearly, equation 8.168 can be generalised for a chain of N amplifiers each
one with noise factor Fk and a power gain Gpk :
N
X Fk − 1
F = F1 + k−1
(8.169)
k=2
Y
G pn
n=1
322 8. Noise in electronic circuits
———————————————————————————————
Example 8.4.1 An amplifier with a power gain of 24 dB is to be built using the
cascade of two power amplifiers. Amplifier A has a power gain of 15 dB and a
noise figure of 8 dB. Amplifier B has a gain of 9 dB and a noise figure of 5 dB.
Determine which amplifier is best suited as the first stage of amplification in
order to have a final amplifier with the lowest possible noise figure.
Solution: The gain and the noise factor of each amplifier are given by:
GpA = 31.6
GpB = 7.9
FA = 6.31
FB = 3.16
Assuming that amplifier A is the first stage of amplification the noise factor of
the final amplifier is, according to eqn 8.169, equal to:
FA = 6.38 (8.170)
If amplifier B is the first stage of amplification then the noise factor of the final
amplifier is
FB = 3.83 (8.171)
From the above we conclude that amplifier B should be the first stage of ampli-
fication followed by amplifier A. For this situation the noise figure of the final
amplifier is 5.8 dB.
———————————————————————————————
where Ysopt is the optimum source admittance which will minimise the noise
figure.
or
hun u∗n i + Rs2 hin i∗n i + 2 Rs Real[hun i∗n i]
Tn = (8.178)
2 K Rs
Note that Tn is, in general, frequency dependent.
8.5 Computer- The combination of matrix algebra and circuit analysis can be used to simplify
the computation of noise parameters in complex circuits. This can be achieved
aided noise by following a method based on dividing a complex circuit into its elementary
modelling constituents. This powerful method was originally proposed by Hillbrand and
Russer [7] and it has many similarities with the method described in Chap-
and analysis ter 5 for the computation of the electrical response of two-port circuits. In
fact, Hillbrand and Russer’s method is also based on the analysis of a two-
VCC
(10 V ) port circuit as an interconnection of basic two-port sub-circuits. These basic
RB
RL two-port sub-circuits are elementary passive impedances, and elementary ac-
(5 kΩ)
Ci
(840 kΩ)
vo tive gain elements, such as transistors. These, in turn, can be modelled as the
vi interconnection of passive devices with voltage or current-controlled sources.
(1 µF )
The noise behaviour of these elementary sub-circuits has been discussed previ-
RE ously. Starting from these basic two-port circuits, the analysis is performed by
(100 Ω)
interconnecting these basic circuits in order to obtain the noise performance of
a) the whole circuit. Figure 8.35 a) shows a common-emitter amplifier and figure
8.35 b) shows the AC equivalent circuit of the amplifier as an interconnection
RB of elementary two-port circuits. From figure 8.35 b) it can be seen that the
vi vo two-port network which represents the transistor is in series with the two-port
network which represents RE . The resulting two-port circuit is in parallel with
Ci RL
the two-port network representing RB and, so on.
¯ ´ º ´ ¹ ¯-°
¯
¯-°
¦ ¥ ¦ ¥
± ±
± ±
£¤
¡¢ ¬[°
¬ ³º ³¹ ¬[° ¬8
² ²
² ²
¯ ° ¬ ³ º ¬ ¾ ¾ ° ¯ ´ º
=
¯i°½¼ ° ¼ °° ¬ ° + ³¹ ¬[° =¾ ° ¾X°° ¯i° + ´ ¹
¼ ¼
§¨ ©f¨
¯ ´ ¯-°
¦ ¥
± ±
µ °
+ µ ¶ ·º ¶¸·U¹
¬® ³ ¬ °
» » °
² ²
À À
ª ¨
Ǭ
by their self- and cross-power spectral densities arranged in a matrix form de-
fined as the impedance correlation matrix:
· ¸
hu1 u∗1 i hu1 u∗2 i
[CZ ] = (8.180)
hu2 u∗1 i hu2 u∗2 i
The cascade (or chain) representation, which has been discussed in detail in
section 8.4.6 is also useful when analysing chains of two-port sub-circuits.
If the 1/f noise cannot be neglected then the correlation matrices for passive
devices can be obtained after calculating [CA ] as described in section 8.4.6.
For active devices [CA ] can also be derived using the noise analysis method
described in section 8.4.6. In situations where the correlation matrix cannot be
derived from theory, measurements of the noise performance can provide the
326 8. Noise in electronic circuits
vo = 0
× É Ö and therefore hun u∗n i = 0. The procedure to determine in is illustrated in
figure 8.37 d). From this figure we observe that
io = un Y
Ë8ÌÍ ÎÏÐ ÏÎÎ
Ï1Ñ
Since the current gain for this simple two-port circuit is unity then in = io , that
is
Figure 8.37: a) Noisy shunt
admittance. b) Equivalent in = un Y
Thévenin noise model. ∗
hin in i = hu u∗ i |Y |2
c) Circuit to determine un . = 2 K T R |Y |2 (8.188)
d) Circuit to determine in .
e) Two-port chain represen- and hun i∗n i = hin u∗n i = 0. Hence we can write:
tation of Y . · ¸
0 0
[CA ] = (8.189)
0 2 K T R |Y |2
The impedance characterisation for Y is given by (see also appendix C)
· ¸
Z Z
[Z] = (8.190)
Z Z
8. Noise in electronic circuits 327
Parallel interconnection
If two elementary noisy two-port networks are in parallel, as illustrated in fig-
ãä å ç ure 8.38, it is desirable that both such networks are described according to ad-
ØÙ ÚÝÜ Þ mittance representations. This is because the equivalent noisy network can be
described as an admittance representation for which the equivalent admittance
correlation matrix is the sum of the individual admittance correlation matrices:
ãä ê ç
Series interconnection
ìíÛîï If two elementary noisy networks are in series then both networks are best
ó ôRõ[ö÷ described according to impedance representations. Now, the equivalent noisy
network can be described as an impedance representation for which the equiv-
alent impedance correlation matrix is the sum of the individual impedance cor-
ìíûñUï
relation matrices:
óô õ ú÷
[CZtotal ] = [CZ1 ] + [CZ2 ] (8.195)
þ ý and the equivalent electrical response can be represented by (see also section
ìí%îïðéìíòñï 5.2.1):
ó ôRõ[öb÷8ø¤ó ôùõú÷
[Z total ] = [Z1 ] + [Z2 ] (8.196)
ü ý
For the series connection of N elementary two-port circuits the noise charac-
terisation can be described by an equivalent impedance correlation matrix:
Figure 8.39: Two-port cir-
N
cuits in series. b) Equivalent X
[CZtotal ] = [CZj ] (8.197)
two-port circuit.
j=1
328 8. Noise in electronic circuits
Chain/cascade interconnection
When two elementary noisy networks are in a cascaded connection both net-
works are best described according to chain representations. Now, the equiv-
alent noisy network can be described as a chain representation which is given
by the following expression:
+
[CAtotal ] = [A1 ] [CA2 ] [A1 ] + [CA1 ] (8.198)
%
&
where [A1 ] represents the electrical chain matrix of the first network of the
"! !('
$# # +
cascade. [A1 ] is the Hermitian conjugate of [A1 ]:
∗
A11 A∗21
+
[A1 ] = (8.199)
A∗12 A∗22
ÿ
The equivalent electrical response can be represented by (see also section
5.2.3):
Figure 8.40: a) Chain of
two-port circuits. b) Equiv- [Atotal ] = [A1 ] [A2 ] (8.200)
alent two-port circuit. The noise characterisation of a chain (or cascade) of N two-port sub-circuits
can then be described by generalising eqn 8.198 as follows;
N
X −1
£ ¤ +
[CAtotal ] = [A1→i ] CAi+1 [A1→i ] (8.201)
i=0
i
Y
for i ≥ 1
[Ak ]
[A1→i ] , k=1 (8.202)
[1] for i < 1
where [1] represents the two-by-two identity matrix (see appendix B).
Original representation
Admittance Impedance
Impedance Admittance
· ¸ · ¸
1 0 Y11 Y12
0 1 Y21 Y22
Resulting representation
· ¸ · ¸
Z11 Z12 1 0
Z21 Z22 0 1
· ¸ · ¸
0 A12 1 −A11
Chain
1 A22 0 −A21
Original representation
Chain Scattering
Impedance Admittance
· ¸ " #
Yo√
+Y11 Y12
√
−Y11 1 Yo Yo
Y Yo√
+Y22
−Y21 0 √21
Yo Yo
Resulting representation
· ¸ " #
Zo√+Z11 Z12
√
1 −Z11 Zo Zo
Z21 Zo√+Z22
0 −Z21 √
Zo Zo
Zo
0 1 −1 −(A22 +A21 Zo )
√ √
Zo Zo
√
Scattering
" −(1+S11 ) Zo
# · ¸
1−S
√ 11
2 Zo 2√ 1 0
−S
√ 21 −S21 Zo 0 1
2 Zo 2
———————————————————————————————
Example 8.5.2 Determine the transformation matrix [T] to transform from the
scattering representation to the impedance representation.
Solution: The impedance representation (see also figure 8.36 b)) can be ex-
pressed as follows:
and the scattering representation (see section 7.4) can be expressed as:
with
1
bi = √ (Vi − Zo Ii ) , i = 1, 2 (8.208)
2 Zo
1
ai = √ (Vi + Zo Ii ) , i = 1, 2 (8.209)
2 Zo
Equations 8.206 and 8.207 can be written as follows:
p
V1 (1 − S11 ) = Zo (1 + S11 ) I1 + S12 Zo I2 + S12 V2 + 2 Zo bn1
(8.210)
p
V2 (1 − S22 ) = Zo (1 + S22 ) I2 + S21 Zo I1 + S21 V1 + 2 Zo bn2
(8.211)
with ∆5 = (1 − S11 )(1 − S22 ) − S12 S21 (see appendix C). Comparing eqns
8.204 and 8.205 with eqns 8.214 and 8.215, respectively, we conclude that
√ √
2 Zo (1−S22 ) 2 Zo S12
u1 ∆5 ∆5 bn1
= (8.216)
√ √
u2 2 Zo S21 2 Zo (1−S11 ) bn2
∆5 ∆5
This can also be written, using the relationship between S and Z parameters
(see appendix C), as follows:
Zo√+Z11 Z12
√
u1 Zo Zo bn1
= (8.217)
Z21 Zo√+Z22
u2 √
Zo Zo
bn2
———————————————————————————————
———————————————————————————————
Example 8.5.3 Consider the common-emitter amplifier of figure 8.35 a). De-
termine the chain representation for the amplifier. The noise model for the BJT
is described by eqns 8.125–8.128 (see also figure 8.24). For the BJT assume
that β = 200, Cπ = 6 pF, Cµ = 0.8 pF, rx ' 0 and that ro can be neglected.
The corner frequency associated with hunf u∗nf i is fc = 200 Hz. IC = 1 mA.
Solution: Figure 8.41 a) shows the small-signal equivalent circuit of the am-
plifier including all the noise sources. It is assumed that RL , RE and RB
produce thermal noise only. Therefore, the spectral densities associated with
these resistances are given by
M A 6$78
=?>
6$78 N : @BA
9-: 9<;
= >
@ :
O N"NQP
@ : @A
Z W 2 1 R"S
9-: 9V; /
6 7 GH C<DE9<F 6$7U
6$7 GX6$7 Y _ C<D\9VF
+-,
9<F
9<F = S *
[ F 6$7U 0 I 7T
. )
] *
I 7T
)
= K
=LK
R K
*
I 7J
*
)
I 7J
)
^ 4
354
Figure 8.41: Small-signal equivalent circuit for the common-emitter amplifier. b) The common-emitter
amplifier as an interconnection of elementary two-port networks.
inB
RB
Cµ
B C
inb inf +
g m vπ
Cπ
vπ inc
rπ
−
E
a)
Yµ
inB
RB
Cµ
B C
VCCS
B C
E inbe +
g m vπ inc E
vπ BJT0
−
b)
that is
Yπ + Y µ −Yµ
[Y BJT0 ] = (8.229)
gm − Y µ Yµ
¡ ωc
¢ −1 −1
£ ¤ q IB 1 + ω + 2 K T RB −2 KT RB
CYBJT0 =
−1 −1
−2 K T RB q IC + 2 K T RB
(8.230)
The two-port sub-circuit which characterises BJT0 is in series with the two-
port sub-circuit which characterises the resistance RE , RE . Hence, it is appro-
priate to use impedance representations for both two-port sub-circuits;
RE RE
[Z RE ] = (8.231)
RE RE
8. Noise in electronic circuits 335
Now the impedance correlation matrix for BJT0 can be expressed, according
to eqn 8.203, as follows:
£ ¤ £ ¤
CZBJT0 = [T(Y→Z)BJT0 ] CYBJT0 [T(Y→Z)BJT ]+ (8.235)
and
£ ¤ £ ¤
CABJT00 = [T(Z→A)BJT0 ] CZBJT00 [T(Z→A)BJT0 ]+ (8.240)
BJT’
RB RL
vi vo
C
Ci
B
E
+
unL
−
RE
Ci
RE
+
unE
−
a)
uce
+ −
Noise-free
vi ice C-E
Amplifier vo
b)
h i £ ¤
+
[CAaux ] = [ABJT00 ] CARL [ABJT00 ] + CABJT00
+
[CAce ] = [ACi ] [CAaux ] [ACi ] (8.246)
It is now possible to obtain the voltage gain, Av and the current gain, Ai , from
eqn 8.245 as follows:
−1
Av = (Ace11 ) (8.247)
−1
Ai = (Ace22 ) (8.248)
and the spectral densities associated with uce and to ice can be obtained from
eqn 8.246 as follows:
Figure 8.44 shows the voltage gain, the current gain and the spectral densities
huce u∗ce i and hice i∗ce i. From figure 8.44 a) we observe that the voltage gain
200
40
150
30
100
20
50
10
0 0
100 104 108 f (Hz) 100 104 108 f (Hz)
(A/ Hz)
(V/ Hz)
√
√
10−6
10−11
(hice i∗ce i)1/2
(huce u∗ce i)1/2
10−8
10−12
10−10 10−13
100 104 108 f (Hz) 100 104 108 f (Hz)
in the medium frequency range is about 39.5 and it has low and high frequency
cut-off frequencies of 13 Hz and 42 MHz, respectively. Figure 8.44 b) shows
the current gain. In the mid range the current gain is about 194. The high
cut-off frequency is 3.2 MHz while the low cut-off frequency is under 1 Hz.
1/2 1/2
Figures 8.44 c) and 8.44 d) show (huce uce i) and (hice ice i) . It can be
338 8. Noise in electronic circuits
where
and · ¸
∗ Ys∗
[Ys ] = (8.255)
1
[CA ] is the amplifier chain correlation matrix:
hun u∗n i hun i∗n i
[CA ] = (8.256)
∗ ∗
hin un i hin in i
Figure 8.45 shows the noise figure of the common-emitter amplifier discussed
in the previous example considering four different values for the source admit-
tance Ys : 10−2 S, 10−3 S, 10−4 S and 10−5 S. From this figure we observe
that the noise figure exhibits a strong dependence on the admittance Ys . There
is an optimum source admittance, Ys = 10−3 S, which minimises the noise
figure at about 0.94 dB in the frequency range 1 kHz–100 MHz. Note that this
range includes most of the useful bandwidth of the amplifier.
30
Ys = 10−2 S
25 Ys = 10−3 S
10
0
100 102 104 106 108 f (Hz)
convenient to obtain an estimate of the input noise spectral density (either cur-
rent or voltage, as appropriate). This allows a simple calculation of the input
signal to noise ratio and consequently the error rate performance. Examples of
such cases include optical receivers.
8.6 Bibliography 1. A. Papoulis, Probability, Random Variables, and Stochastic Processes,
1991 (McGraw-Hill International Editions), 3rd edition.
4. P.J Fish, Electronic Noise and Low Noise Design, 1994, (McGraw-Hill).
8.7 Problems 8.1 For a Gaussian random variable, X, with mean µ = −0.7 and σ = 2.2.
Determine the following probabilities
1. P [X > 3]
2. P [X > −3]
3. P [−2 < X < 3]
4. P [X < −2]
8.2 For a uniformly distributed random variable, X, with range [−2, 3]. De-
termine
1. The mean value of the distribution
2. The variance of the distribution
3. The third moment of the distribution
8.3 Consider the Poisson distribution with µ = 0.8. Determine the character-
istic function for this distribution. Using eqn 8.41 determine the mean of this
distribution.
8.4 Consider a random variable Y resulting from the sum of three independent
and uniformly distributed random variables with range [−3, 3]. Determine the
following probabilities;
1. P [Y > 4]
2. P [Y > 8.9]
Consider now the Gaussian approximation to Y given by the central limit the-
orem. Calculate the probabilities mentioned above using the Gaussian approx-
imation and compare the results with those obtained with the true distribution
for Y .
8.5 A random variable X has a uniform distribution with range [−1, 2]. Con-
sider the random process a(t) = exp(−3 X t). Determine the expectation
E [a(t)] and and the autocorrelation function Ra (t1 , t2 ).
8.6 Consider a random process v(t) with the autocorrelation function Rv (τ ) =
σ 2 (1 − |τ |/A) rect(t/2A) where A > 0. Determine the power spectral density
of v(t).
8.7 Consider the following transfer functions:
ωn2
H1 (ω) =
−ω 2 + 2 j η ωn ω + ωn2
2 j η ωn ω
H2 (ω) =
−ω 2 + 2 j η ωn ω + ωn2
Derive an expression for the equivalent noise bandwidth of H1 (ω), H2 (ω) and
H1 (ω) + H2 (ω). Take η < 1.
8. Noise in electronic circuits 341
R2
8.8 Show that the equivalent current noise source for the amplifier of figure
R1
−
10 kΩ 8.31 b) can be expressed by eqn 8.151.
Noisy
+ 1 kΩ Amplifier
− vs +
vo
8.9 Show that the Power Spectral Density (PSD) of the equivalent voltage
noise source for the amplifier of figure 8.33 b) can be expressed by eqn 8.153.
a)
+ 8.10 Consider the two voltage amplifiers of figure 8.46. Determine the equiv-
Noisy
+
vs Amplifier
vo
alent input voltage noise source for each amplifier. The operational amplifiers
− −
9 kΩ
are characterised by a differential voltage gain of 5000, Rin = 10 MΩ and
Ro = 50 Ω. Assume that the noise of each op-amp is described by equivalent
R2
input noise sources such that;
R1
1 kΩ 1 √
hun u∗n i 2 = 0.6 nV/ Hz
b) 1 √
hin i∗n i 2 = 2 pA/ Hz
Figure 8.46: Voltage ampli- hun i∗n i ' 0
fiers.
8.11 Show that Rn and gn , defined by eqns 8.173 and 8.175, respectively, can
VDD (15 V)
be related by Ysopt as follows: gn = Rn |Ysopt |2 .
RD
Rf
(10 kΩ) 8.12 Show that the chain correlation matrix of a two-port network for which
vo Rn , Ysopt and Fmin have been measured can be expressed as eqn 8.185.
Ci (80 kΩ)
8.13 Consider the amplifier of figure 8.47. Determine the PSD of the equiv-
vs
Q
alent input current and voltage noise sources. fc = 1 kHz, IG = 10 pA,
0.1 µF
VT h = 1.5 V, kn W/L = 0.25 mA/V2 , VA = 50 V, Cgd = 4 pF and Cgs = 16
pF. Determine the noise figure assuming a 2 kΩ source load.
Function definition
Error function Z ∞
1 2
(Gaussian probability) Q(x) = √ e−λ /2
dλ
2π x
Z x
2 2
Error function (2) erf(x) = √ e−λ dλ
π 0
Z ∞
2 2
Error function (3) erfc(x) = √ e−λ dλ
π x
sin(π t)
Sinc sinc(t) =
πt
1, t>0
Sign sign(t) =
−1 , t<0
1, t>0
Step u(t) =
0, t<0
|t| < τ2
µ ¶ 1,
t
Rectangle rect =
τ
|t| > τ2
0,
µ ¶
t 1 − |t| , |t| < τ
τ
Triangle triang =
τ
0, |t| > τ
A. Mathematical formulae for electrical engineering 343
Fourier transform
Theorems1
dn X(f )
Multiplication by tn tn x(t) (−j2π)−n
df n
∞ ∞ ³
X
±j2πnλT 1 X m´
Poisson’s e δ λ−
n=−∞
T m=−∞
T
Z ∞ Z ∞
Integral x(t) y ∗ (t) dt X(f ) Y ∗ (f ) df
−∞ −∞
Fourier transforms
Constant 1 δ(f )
1 1
Step u(t) + δ(f )
j2πf 2
µ ¶
t
Rectangle rect τ sinc(f τ )
τ
µ ¶
t
Triangle triang τ sinc2 (f τ )
τ
1
Exponential (causal) e−β t u(t)
β + j2πf
2β
Symmetrical exponential e−β |t| u(t)
β 2 + (2πf )2
1 £ jφ
Sine sin(2πfc t + φ) e δ(f − fc )
2j ¤
−jφ
−e δ(f + fc )
1 £ jφ
Cosine cos(2πfc t + φ) e δ(f − fc )
2 −jφ ¤
+e δ(f + fc )
1
Sign sign(t)
jπf
∞ ∞ µ ¶
X 1 X n
Sampling δ(t − k Ts ) δ t−
Ts n=−∞ Ts
k=−∞
A. Mathematical formulae for electrical engineering 345
Laplace transforms
x(t) X(s)
1
u(t)
s
1
t u(t)
s2
n!
tn u(t)
sn+1
r
u(t) π
√
t s
1
ea t u(t)
s−a
n!
tn eat u(t)
(s − a)n+1
1 ¡ at ¢ 1
e − eb t u(t)
a−b (s − b)(s − a)
1 ¡ at ¢ s
a e − b eb t u(t)
a−b (s − b)(s − a)
(c − b)ea t + (a − c)eb t
u(t)
(a − b)(b − c)(c − a)
(b − a)ec t 1
+ u(t)
(a − b)(b − c)(c − a) (s − c)(s − b)(s − a)
a
sin(a t) u(t)
s2 + a2
s
cos(a t) u(t)
s2 + a 2
2as
t sin(a t) u(t)
(s2 + a2 )2
(s2 − a2 )
t cos(a t) u(t)
(s2 + a2 )2
cos(a t) − cos(b t) s
u(t)
b2 − a 2 (s2 + a2 )(s2 + b2 )
346 A. Mathematical formulae for electrical engineering
x(t) X(s)
b
ea t sin(b t) u(t)
(s − a)2 + b2
s−a
ea t cos(b t) u(t)
(s − a)2 + b2
a
sinh(a t) u(t)
s2 − a 2
s
cosh(a t) u(t)
s2 − a 2
2 a2 s
sin(a t) sinh(a t) u(t)
s4 + 4a4
ea t (1 + 2 a t) s
√ u(t) 3
πt (s − a) 2
1 ³a´
sin(a t) u(t) tan−1
t s
µ ¶
2 s2 + a 2
[1 − cos(a t)] u(t) ln
t s2
µ ¶
2 s2 − a 2
[1 − cosh(a t)] u(t) ln
t s2
µ ¶
a 1 −a √s
erfc √ u(t) e
2 t s
1 −a2 1 √
√ e 4 t u(t) √ e−a s
πt s
1 1 √
p u(t) √ ea s erfc( a s)
π (t + a) s
µ ¶
1 √ a
sin(2 a t) u(t) erfc √
πt s
δ(t − a) e−a s
1
at/T u(t) 1
s− T ln(a)
tn−1 −a t 1
e
(n − 1)! (s + a)n
A. Mathematical formulae for electrical engineering 347
Trigonometric identities
with
p
R = x2 + y 2
³y´
β = tan−1
x
Series
Arithmetic
n
a + (a + r) + (a + 2r) + . . . + [a + (n − 1)r] = [2a + (n − 1)r]
2
348 A. Mathematical formulae for electrical engineering
Geometric
1 − rn
1 + r + r 2 + . . . + r n−1 = , r 6= 1
1−r
Infinite geometric
∞
X
2 n−1
1 + r + r + ... + r + ... = rk
k=0
1
= , |r| < 1
1−r
Binomial
n(n − 1) 2 n!
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + ... + xk + . . . , |x| < 1
2! (n − k)!k!
Taylor
(x − a)2 00
f (x) = f (a) + (x − a)f 0 (a) + f (a)
2!
(x − a)n (n)
+ ... + f (a) + . . .
n!
Maclaurin
x2 00 xn (n)
f (x) = f (0) + xf 0 (0) + f (0) + . . . + f (0) + . . .
2! n!
∞
X x2n
cos(x) = (−1)n
n=0
(2 n)!
∞
X x2n+1
sin(x) = (−1)n
n=0
(2 n + 1)!
∞
X xn
exp(x) =
n=0
n!
∞
1 X
= xn , for − 1 < x < 1
1−x n=0
∞
X xn
ln (1 + x) = (−1)n+1 , for − 1 < x ≤ 1
n=1
n
A. Mathematical formulae for electrical engineering 349
Error functions
³√ ´
erf (x) = 1 − 2Q 2x
³√ ´
erfc (x) = 2Q 2x
Q(−|x|) = 1 − Q(|x|)
`a l `badcfe
`adcBj `badcg
} }
{n| {n|
z z
`a c(y `ba cfi
`adcxw `badckjl
`adcfv `badckjj
a ` u t r q p o
s
B Elementary matrix algebra
Definitions
A matrix is a rectangular array of elements and it is usually represented as
follows:
x11 x12 . . . x1m
x21 x22 . . . x2m
(B.1)
[X ] = . .. .. ..
..
. . .
xn1 xn2 . . . xnm
Each element xkl can represent a real or complex number or functions of time
or frequency. The matrix shown above has n rows and m columns and therefore
is said to be an n × m matrix. The subscript kl identifies the position of each
element in the matrix. Hence, the element xkl is located at the intersection of
the kth row with the lth column. If n = m the matrix is called a square matrix.
A vector is a single column or single row matrix. A column vector is
defined as an n × 1 matrix;
v1
v2
(B.2)
[V ] = ..
.
vn
[U ] = [u1 u2 . . . um ]
where xkl and ykl are the elements of [X ] and [Y ], respectively. These two
operations are commutative and associative, that is:
[X ] ± [Y ] = [Y ] ± [X ]
([X ] ± [Y ]) ± [W ] = [X ] ± ([Y ] ± [W ])
The Multiplication of a matrix [X ], of order n × m, by a scalar s pro-
duces a matrix [Z ] of order n × m. Each element zkl of [Z ] = s × [X ] is
given by
zkl = s × xkl
The Multiplication of two matrices [X ] × [Y ] can only be performed
if they conform. The matrices [X ] of order n × m and [Y ] of order p × q are
said to conform if m = p, that is, the number of columns of [X ] must be equal
to the number of rows of [Y ]. Under this condition [X ] × [Y ] produces a
matrix [Z ] of order n × q. Each element of [Z ] is given by
m
X
zkl = xki × yil
i=1
1 The unity matrix is usually denoted by [I ]. In this book, we do not use this symbol in order
to avoid confusion with the symbol which represents the electrical current.
C Two-port electrical parameters
Z22 −Z12
Y11 Y12 |Z| |Z|
Admittance
−Z21 Z11
Y21 Y22 |Z| |Z|
Y22 −Y12
|Y | |Y | Z11 Z12
Impedance
−Y21 Y11
|Y | |Y |
Z21 Z22
0 0 0 0
(z11 −1)(z22 +1)−z12 z21
(1−y110 0
)(1+y22 0
)+y12 0
y21 S11 = ∆2
S11 = ∆1 0
2z12
0
−2y12 S12 =
Scattering S12 = ∆1
∆2
0
2z21
0
−2y21 S21 = ∆2
S21 = ∆1 0
(z11 0
+1)(z22 0
−1)−z12 0
z21
(1+y110 0
)(1−y22 0
)+y12 0
y21 S22 = ∆2
S22 = ∆1
0 0 0 0 0
∆1 = (y11 + 1)(y22 + 1) − y12 y21 yij = Yij Zo i, j = 1, 2
0 0 0 0 0 Zij
∆2 = (z11 + 1)(z22 + 1) − z12 z21 zij = i, j = 1, 2
Zo
C. Two-port electrical parameters 353
|A|
A11
A21 A21
Z12 = Zo 2S
∆5
12
Impedance
1
A21
A22
A21
Z21 = Zo 2S
∆5
21
Chain 2S21
(1−S22 )(1−S11 )−S12 S21
A21 A22 A21 = 2Zo S21
A22 = (1+S22 )(1−S 11 )+S12 S21
2S21
Series Impedance
Y −Y 1 Z
NON-EXISTENT
Z
−Y Y 0 1
Shunt Admittance
Z Z 1 0
Y NON-EXISTENT
Z Z Y 1
Z1 Z2
Z3 −Y1 Y2 Y2 (Y1 +Y3 ) 1 Z3 +Z2
Z3 Z2 + Z 3 Y1 +Y2 +Y3 Y1 +Y2 +Y3 Z3 Z3
Y3
Y1 Y2 Z2 (Z1 +Z3 )
Z1 Z2
Z1 +Z2 +Z3
−Y3 Y2 + Y 3 (Y1 +Y2 )Y3 +Y1 Y2 Y3 +Y1
Z1 +Z2 +Z3 Y3 Y3
Lossless Tx Line −jZo cot(βl) −jZo csc(βl) − j cot(βl) j csc(βl) cos(βl) jZo sin(βl)
Zo Zo
Voltage controlled
Voltage Source 1
A
0
+ + NON-EXISTENT NON-EXISTENT
v − A·v
−
0 0
Voltage controlled
Current Source 0 0 0 − G1
+
v G·v NON-EXISTENT
−
G 0 0 0
Current controlled
Current Source 0 0
i NON-EXISTENT NON-EXISTENT
A·i
0 − A1
Current controlled
Voltage Source 0 0 0 0
NON-EXISTENT
+
i R·i
−
R 0 1
R
0
Index
filter henry, 9
band-pass, 86 histogram, 280
high-pass, 84 hybrid-π
low-pass, 76, 77 BJT, 190
forced response, 109, 111 IGFET, 194
forcing signal, 111 hydraulic analogue
Fourier integral, 91 capacitor, 8
Fourier series, 65 inductor, 9
average value, 66 LC circuit, 133
coefficients, 66, 87 oscillator, 133
harmonics, 66, 77, 87 resistance, 2
time delay, 71 RLC circuit, 135
Fourier transform, 88
from Laplace transform, 126 imaginary axis, 33
convolution theorems, 106, 289 impedance
DC signal, 93 capacitive, 55
duality, 91 generalised, 56, 58
generalised transform, 94 generalised (s-domain), 130
periodic functions, 95 inductive, 56
table, 344 parallel connection, 59
time delay, 92 series connection, 59
transient analysis, 113 impedance matching, 272, 275
differentiation theorem, 113 impedance parameters, 150
integration theorem, 114 impulse response, 98
frequency RC circuit, 98
angular, 48 incident wave, 232
linear, 48 inductance, 9, 52, 56, 115, 129
frequency domain, 65 inductor, 9
frequency response noise model, 308
high-frequency, 171 initial conditions, 110
low-frequency, 170 insertion loss, 234
mid-frequency, 171 instantaneous power, 4, 5, 7
frequency selectivity, 86 integration (by parts), 113
function International System of Units, 1
s-functions, 126
Gaussian probability, 342 joule, 9
parabolic, 286
rect, 73, 342 Kirchhoff’s laws, 10, 18, 52
signum, 94, 95, 342 current law, 10, 19
sinc, 90 voltage law, 10
table of, 342
triang, 105, 342 L-sections, 272
unit-step, 94, 118, 342 Laplace transform
s-domain differentiation, 121
gain convolution, 121
amplifier, 169 definition, 117
Gaussian distribution, 281 inverse transform, 119
bivariate, 293 linearity, 119
geometric series, 348 partial-fraction, 123
ground terminal, 18 region of convergence, 118, 126
solving differential equations, 127
harmonic oscillator, 124 table, 345
INDEX 359