Nervous System

Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology
Seventh Edition Functions of the Nervous System

Elaine N. Marieb
 Sensory input – gathering information

 To monitor changes occurring inside and outside
the body
Chapter 7  Changes = stimuli
The Nervous System  Integration
 To process and interpret sensory input and decide
if action is needed
 Motor output
Slides 7.1 – 7.102
 A response to integrated stimuli
Lecture Slides in PowerPoint by Jerry L. Cook  The response activates muscles or glands
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 7.2
Structural Classification of the Nervous Functional Classification of the

System Peripheral Nervous System
 Central nervous system (CNS)  Sensory (afferent) division
 Brain and Spinal cord
 Nerve fibers that carry information to the
 Acts as integrating and command center – interpret central nervous system
incoming sensory information and issue instructions
based on past experiences and current conditions
 Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
 Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord
 Link all parts of the body by carrying impulses to the
CNS and back
Figure 7.1
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 7.3 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 7.4
Functional Classification of the Functional Classification of the

Peripheral Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System
 Motor (efferent) division  Motor (efferent) division
 Two subdivisions
 Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from
the central nervous system  Somatic nervous system = voluntary
nervous system
 Skeletal muscle reflexes such as stretch
reflex are initiated involuntarily by same
fibers
 Autonomic nervous system = involuntary
nervous system
 Sympathetic and parasympathetic
divisions
Figure 7.1
Organization of the Nervous System Nervous Tissue: Support Cells

(Neuroglia) - glia
 Astrocytes
 Abundant, star-shaped cells
 Brace neurons
 Form barrier
between capillaries
and neurons and make
exchanges between Figure 7.3a
the two
 Control the chemical
environment of
Figure 7.2
the brain by capturing ions and
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 7.7 neurotransmitters
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 7.8
Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Nervous Tissue: Support Cells
 Microglia  Oligodendrocytes
 Spider-like phagocytes  Wrap their flat
 Dispose of debris – extensions tightly
dead cells and bacteria around the nerve
 Ependymal cells fibers
 Line cavities of the  Produce myelin
brain and spinal cord
sheath around nerve
 Circulate fibers in the central
cerebrospinal Figure 7.3d
fluid with cilia nervous system

Figure 7.3b, c
Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Nervous Tissue: Neurons

 Satellite cells
 Protect neuron cell bodies
 Neurons = nerve cells
 Schwann cells
 Cells specialized to transmit messages
 Form myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous
system  Major regions of neurons
 Neuroglia are not able to transmit nerve impulses but  Cell body – nucleus and metabolic center
do not lose their ability to divide, unlike neurons
Figure 7.3e
of the cell
 Processes – fibers that extend from the
cell body
Neuron Anatomy Neuron Anatomy

 Cell body
 Nissl
substance –
specialized  Cell body
rough
endoplasmic  Nucleus
reticulum  Large
 Neurofibrils – nucleolus
intermediate
cytoskeleton
that maintains
cell shape Figure 7.4a Figure 7.4a
Neuron Anatomy Axons and Nerve Impulses

 Extensions
outside the cell  Axons end in axonal terminals
body  Axonal terminals contain vesicles with
 Dendrites – neurotransmitters
conduct
impulses toward  Axonal terminals are separated from the
the cell body next neuron by a gap
 Axons – conduct  Synaptic cleft – gap between adjacent
impulses away neurons
from the cell
body  Synapse – junction between nerves
Figure 7.4a
Nerve Fiber Coverings Neuron Cell Body Location
 Most are found in the central nervous system in
 Schwann cells – clusters called nuclei
produce myelin  Bundles of nerve fibers in CNS = tracts
sheaths in jelly-roll
like fashion  Gray matter – cell bodies and
unmyelinated fibers
 Nodes of Ranvier –
gaps in myelin  White matter – myelinated fibers
sheath along the  Bundles of nerve fibers in PNS = nerves
axon
 Ganglia – collections of cell bodies outside the
Figure 7.5
Slide 7.17
central nervous system Slide 7.18
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Functional Classification of Neurons Functional Classification of Neurons

 Sensory (afferent) neurons
 Cell bodies in a ganglion outside the CNS
 Interneurons (association neurons)
 Carry impulses from the sensory receptors to CNS
 Found in neural pathways in the central
 Cutaneous (skin) sense organs nervous system
 Proprioceptors – detect stretch or tension in  Cell bodies in the CNS
muscles, tendons, joints
 Connect sensory and motor neurons
 Motor (efferent) neurons
 Cell bodies found in the CNS
 Carry impulses from the central nervous system
Neuron Classification Structural Classification of Neurons
 Multipolar neurons – many extensions

from the cell body
Figure 7.8a
Figure 7.6
Structural Classification of Neurons Structural Classification of Neurons
 Bipolar neurons – one axon and one  Unipolar neurons – have a short, single
dendrite process leaving the cell body
 Rare in adults – in eye and ear only  Axon conducts nerve impulses both to and
from the cell body
Figure 7.8b
Figure 7.8c
Functional Properties of Neurons Starting a Nerve Impulse
 Two main functions  Depolarization – a
stimulus depolarizes the
 Irritability – ability to respond to stimuli neuron’s membrane
 Conductivity – ability to transmit an  A deploarized membrane
impulse allows sodium (Na+) to
flow inside the membrane
 The exchange of ions
 The plasma membrane at rest is polarized initiates an action
potential (nerve impulse)
 Fewer positive ions (usually K+) are inside the in the neuron
cell than outside the cell (usually Na+)
Figure 7.9a–c
The Action Potential Nerve Impulse Propagation

 If the action potential (nerve impulse) starts, it is  The impulse continues to
propagated over the entire axon – all-or-none
response move toward the cell body
 Potassium ions rush out of the neuron after  Impulses travel faster
sodium ions rush in, which repolarizes the when fibers have a myelin
membrane sheath
 The sodium-potassium pump restores the  Nerve impulse literally
original configuration jumps from node to
 This action requires ATP node because it cannot
cross myelin insulation
 Until repolarization occurs, a neuron cannot
conduct another impulse Figure 7.9c–e
Continuation of the Nerve Impulse How Neurons Communicate at

between Neurons Synapses
 Impulses are unable to cross the synapse to
another nerve
 Neurotransmitter is released from a nerve’s axon
terminal
 The dendrite of the next neuron has receptors
that are stimulated by the neurotransmitter
 An action potential is started in the dendrites of
the next neuron
 Transmission of an impulse is an electrochemical
event
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 7.29 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 7.10
Slide 7.30
The Reflex Arc Simple Reflex Arc
 Reflex – rapid, predictable, and

involuntary responses to stimuli
 Reflex arc – direct route from a sensory
neuron, to an interneuron, to an effector
Figure 7.11b, c
Figure 7.11a
Types of Reflexes and Regulation Types of Reflexes and Regulation
 Autonomic reflexes  Reflex arcs have a minimum five elements
 Smooth muscle regulation  A sensory receptor – reacts to stimuli
 Size of eye pupils  An effector receptor – muscle or gland
 Heart and blood pressure regulation stimulated
 Regulation of glands and sweating  Afferent and efferent neurons connecting
 Digestive system and elimination regulation the two
 Somatic reflexes  The CNS integration center
 Activation of skeletal muscles
Central Nervous System (CNS) Regions of the Brain

 CNS develops from the embryonic neural  Cerebral hemispheres
tube – a simple tube
 Diencephalon
 The neural tube becomes the brain and spinal
cord  Brain stem
 The opening of the neural tube becomes the  Cerebellum
ventricles
 Four chambers within the brain
Figure 7.12
 Filled with cerebrospinal fluid
Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum) Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum)
 Paired (left  The surface is

and right) made of
superior parts elevated ridges
of the brain (gyri) and
shallow grooves
 Include more (sulci)
than half of
the brain
mass
Figure 7.13a Figure 7.13a
Lobes of the Cerebrum Lobes of the Cerebrum
 Fissures (deep grooves) divide the

cerebrum into lobes
 Surface lobes of the cerebrum – named for
cranial bone over them
 Frontal lobe
 Parietal lobe
 Occipital lobe
 Temporal lobe Figure 7.15a
Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum Sensory and Motor Areas of the
Cerebral Cortex
 Somatic sensory area in parietal lobe –
receives impulses from the body’s sensory
receptors (except special senses)
 Occipital lobe – vision and temporal lobe
– auditory
 Primary motor area – sends impulses to
skeletal muscles – frontal lobe
 Broca’s area – involved in our ability to
speak – base of the precentral gyrus Figure 7.14
Specialized Area of the Cerebrum Specialized Area of the Cerebrum
 Cerebral areas involved in special

senses  Interpretation areas of the cerebrum
 Gustatory area (taste)  Speech/language region
 Visual area  Language comprehension region
 Auditory area  General interpretation area
 Olfactory area
Specialized Area of the Cerebrum Layers of the Cerebrum
 Gray matter
 Outermost layer
 Composed
mostly of neuron
cell bodies
 Cerebral cortex
Figure 7.13c Figure 7.13a
Layers of the Cerebrum Layers of the Cerebrum

 Basal nuclei –
 White matter internal islands
 Fiber tracts
of gray matter
inside the gray  Helps regulate
matter voluntary motor
 Example: activities by
corpus callosum modifying
connects instructions sent
hemispheres to the skeletal
Figure 7.13a muscles Figure 7.13a
Diencephalon - interbrain Diencephalon
 Sits on top of the brain stem

 Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
 Made of three parts
 Thalamus
 Hypothalamus
 Epithalamus
Figure 7.15
Thalamus Hypothalamus
 Under the thalamus

 Surrounds the third ventricle of the brain
 Important autonomic nervous system
 The relay station for sensory impulses center
passing upward to the sensory cortex
 Helps regulate body temperature
 Transfers impulses to the correct part of  Controls water balance
the cortex for localization and
 Regulates metabolism
interpretation
Hypothalamus Epithalamus
 An important part of the limbic system  Forms the roof of the third ventricle
(emotions) – emotional-visceral brain  Houses the pineal body (an endocrine
gland)
 The pituitary gland is attached to and
regulated by the hypothalamus  Includes the choroid plexus – forms
cerebrospinal fluid
Brain Stem Brain Stem
 Attaches to the spinal cord

 Parts of the brain stem
 Midbrain
 Pons
 Medulla oblongata
Figure 7.15a
Midbrain Pons
 Mostly composed of tracts of nerve fibers
 The cerebral aqueduct – canal that connects
the 3rd ventricle of the diencephalon to the 4th  The bulging center part of the brain
ventricle stem
 Has two bulging fiber tracts – cerebral  Mostly composed of fiber tracts
peduncles – convey ascending and descending
impulses  Includes nuclei involved in the control of
 Has four rounded protrusions – corpora breathing
quadrigemina – Reflex centers for vision and
hearing
Medulla Oblongata Reticular Formation

 The lowest part of the brain stem
 Diffuse mass of gray matter along the
 Merges into the spinal cord
brain stem
 Includes important fiber tracts
 Involved in motor control of visceral
 Contains important control centers organs
 Heart rate control
 Reticular activating system plays a role in
 Blood pressure regulation
awake/sleep cycles and consciousness
 Breathing
 Swallowing  Damage here results in a permanent
 Vomiting
coma
Reticular Formation Cerebellum
 Two hemispheres with convoluted

surfaces
 Provides involuntary coordination of body
movements – of skeletal muscles, balance
and equilibrium
 Automatic pilot – continually comparing
brain’s intentions with actual body
performance
Figure 7.15b
Cerebellum Protection of the Central Nervous

System
 Scalp and skin  Cerebrospinal fluid
 Skull and vertebral  Blood brain barrier
column
 Meninges
Figure 7.15a Figure 7.16a
Meninges Meninges
 Dura mater  Arachnoid layer
 Double-layered external covering the brain  Middle layer that is web-like
 Periosteum – attached to surface of the  Pia mater

skull  Internal layer that clings to the surface of the brain
 Meningeal layer – outer covering of the following every fold
brain and continues as the dura matter of  Subarachnoid space filled with cerebrospinal
the spinal cord fluid
Folds inward in several areas that  Arachnoid villi – projections of arachnoid
attaches the brain to cranial cavity membrane protruding through the dura matter
Cerebrospinal Fluid Ventricles and Location of the

Cerebrospinal Fluid
 Similar to blood plasma composition
 Less protein, more vitamin C, different ions
 Formed by the choroid plexus
 Forms a watery cushion to protect the brain
 Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles,
and central canal of the spinal cord
Figure 7.17a
Ventricles and Location of the Blood Brain Barrier

Cerebrospinal Fluid  Includes the least permeable capillaries of
the body – only H2O, glucose, and essential
amino acids get through
 Excludes many potentially harmful
substances
 Useless against some substances
 Fats and fat soluble molecules
 Respiratory gases
 Alcohol
 Nicotine
Figure 7.17b
 Anesthesia
Traumatic Brain Injuries Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)

 Concussion
 Commonly called a stroke
 Slight brain injury – dizzy or lose consciousness
briefly
 The result of a clot or a ruptured blood
 No permanent brain damage vessel supplying a region of the brain
 Contusion
 Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from
 Nervous tissue destruction occurs - does not
regenerate that blood source dies
 If cortex is damaged, coma for hours or life  Loss of some functions or death may
 Cerebral edema result
 Swelling from the inflammatory response
 May compress and kill brain tissue Slide 7.71 Slide 7.72
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Alzheimer’s Disease Spinal Cord
 Progressive degenerative brain disease  Extends from the
medulla oblongata to
 Mostly seen in the elderly, but may the region of T12
begin in middle age
 Below T12 is the cauda
 Structural changes in the brain include equina (a collection of
abnormal protein deposits and twisted spinal nerves)
fibers within neurons
 Enlargements occur in
 Victims experience memory loss,
irritability, confusion and ultimately, the cervical and lumbar
hallucinations and death regions
Figure 7.18
Spinal Cord Anatomy Spinal Cord Anatomy

 Cell bodies of sensory neurons, whose fibers
 Internal gray matter - mostly cell bodies enter the cord by the dorsal root, are found in an
that surround the central canal of the cord enlarged area called the dorsal root ganglion
 Dorsal (posterior) horns  Damage to this area causes sensation from the
body area served to be lost
 Anterior (ventral) horns
 Contains motor neurons of the somatic
nervous system, which send their axons out
the ventral root
 Together they fuse to form the spinal nerves
 Nerves leave at the level of each vertebrae
Figure 7.19
Spinal Cord Anatomy Spinal Cord Anatomy

 Exterior white mater – conduction tracts
 Central canal filled with cerebrospinal
 Posterior, lateral, and anterior columns
fluid
 Each contains a number of fiber tracts make
up of axons with the same destination and
function
Figure 7.19 Figure 7.19
Peripheral Nervous System Structure of a Nerve
 Endoneurium
 Nerves and ganglia outside the central surrounds each fiber
nervous system
 Groups of fibers are
 Nerve = bundle of neuron fibers bound into fascicles
 Neuron fibers are bundled by a by perineurium
connective tissue sheath  Fascicles are bound
together by
epineurium
Figure 7.20
Classification of Nerves Cranial Nerves
 Classified according to the direction in

which they transmit impulses  12 pairs of nerves that mostly serve the
head and neck
 Mixed nerves – carry both sensory and
motor fibers – spinal nerves  Numbered in order, front to back – names
reveal structures they control
 Afferent (sensory) nerves – carry
impulses toward the CNS  Most are mixed nerves, but three are
sensory only
 Efferent (motor) nerves – carry impulses
away from the CNS  Optic, olfactory, and vestibulocochlear
Distribution Cranial Nerves

of Cranial
Nerves
 I Olfactory nerve – sensory for smell
 II Optic nerve – sensory for vision
 III Oculomotor nerve – motor fibers to
eye muscles
 IV Trochlear – motor fiber to eye
muscles
Figure 7.21
Cranial Nerves Cranial Nerves
 V Trigeminal nerve – sensory for the  IX Glossopharyngeal nerve – sensory

face; motor fibers to chewing muscles for taste; motor fibers to the pharynx
 VI Abducens nerve –  X Vagus nerves – sensory and motor
motor fibers to eye muscles fibers for pharynx, larynx, and viscera
 VII Facial nerve – sensory for taste;  XI Accessory nerve – motor fibers to
motor fibers to the face neck and upper back
 VIII Vestibulocochlear nerve –  XII Hypoglossal nerve – motor fibers to
sensory for balance and hearing tongue
Spinal Nerves Spinal Nerves
 There is a pair of spinal nerves at the

level of each vertebrae for a total of 31
pairs
 Spinal nerves are formed by the
combination of the ventral and dorsal
roots of the spinal cord
 Spinal nerves are named for the region
from which they arise
Figure 7.22a
Anatomy of Spinal Nerves Examples of Nerve Distribution
 Spinal nerves divide
soon after leaving the
spinal cord
 Dorsal rami – serve the
skin and muscles of the
posterior trunk
 Ventral rami – forms a
complex of networks
(plexus) for the anterior,
which serve the motor
and sensory needs of
the limbs
Figure 7.22b Figure 7.23
Autonomic Nervous System Differences Between Somatic and

Autonomic Nervous Systems
 The involuntary branch of the nervous  Nerves
system  Somatic – one motor neuron – axons extend
all the way to the skeletal muscle they serve
 Consists of only motor nerves  Autonomic – preganglionic and
 Divided into two divisions postganglionic nerves
 Sympathetic division – mobilizes the body

 Effector organs
 Somatic – skeletal muscle
 Parasympathetic division – allows body to
unwind  Autonomic – smooth muscle, cardiac muscle,
and glands
Differences Between Somatic and Comparison of Somatic and

Autonomic Nervous Systems Autonomic Nervous Systems
 Nerurotransmitters
 Somatic – always use acetylcholine
 Autominic – use acetylcholine, epinephrine,
or norepinephrine
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 7.93 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.24 Slide 7.94
Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Anatomy of the Sympathetic

Division Division – thoracolumbar division
 Originates from the brain stem and S2 – S4  Originates from T1 through L2
 Neurons in the cranial region send axons out  Preganglionic axons leave the cord in the ventral root,
in cranial nerves to the head and neck organs enter the spinal nerve, then pass through a ramus
communications, to enter a sympathetic chain
 They synapse with the second motor neuron ganglion at the sympathetic chain (trunk) (near the
in a terminal ganglion spinal cord)
 Terminal ganglia are at the effector organs  Short pre-ganglionic neuron and long postganglionic
neuron transmit impulse from CNS to the effector
 Always uses acetylcholine as a  Norepinephrine and epinephrine are neurotransmitters
neurotransmitter to the effector organs
Sympathetic Pathways Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous
System
Figure 7.26
Figure 7.25
Autonomic Functioning Autonomic Functioning
 Sympathetic – “fight-or-flight”  Parasympathetic – housekeeping

activites
 Response to unusual stimulus
 Conserves energy
 Takes over to increase activities
 Maintains daily necessary body functions
 Remember as the “E” division = exercise,
excitement, emergency, and  Remember as the “D” division - digestion,
embarrassment defecation, and diuresis
Development Aspects of the Development Aspects of the

Nervous System Nervous System
 The nervous system is formed during the
 No more neurons are formed after birth,
first month of embryonic development
but growth and maturation continues for
 Any maternal infection can have extremely several years largely due to myelination
harmful effects
 The brain reaches maximum weight as
 The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of a young adult
the brain to develop – contains centers for
regulating body temperature

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Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology

Seventh Edition Functions of the Nervous System

 Sensory input – gathering information

Structural Classification of the Nervous Functional Classification of the

Functional Classification of the Functional Classification of the

Organization of the Nervous System Nervous Tissue: Support Cells

fluid with cilia nervous system

Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Nervous Tissue: Neurons

Neuron Anatomy Neuron Anatomy

Neuron Anatomy Axons and Nerve Impulses

Functional Classification of Neurons Functional Classification of Neurons

Neuron Classification Structural Classification of Neurons

 Multipolar neurons – many extensions

Structural Classification of Neurons Structural Classification of Neurons

The Action Potential Nerve Impulse Propagation

Continuation of the Nerve Impulse How Neurons Communicate at

The Reflex Arc Simple Reflex Arc

 Reflex – rapid, predictable, and

Central Nervous System (CNS) Regions of the Brain

Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum) Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum)

 Paired (left  The surface is

Lobes of the Cerebrum Lobes of the Cerebrum

 Fissures (deep grooves) divide the

Specialized Area of the Cerebrum Specialized Area of the Cerebrum

 Cerebral areas involved in special

Specialized Area of the Cerebrum Layers of the Cerebrum

Layers of the Cerebrum Layers of the Cerebrum

 Sits on top of the brain stem

 Under the thalamus

Brain Stem Brain Stem

 Attaches to the spinal cord

Medulla Oblongata Reticular Formation

Reticular Formation Cerebellum

 Two hemispheres with convoluted

Cerebellum Protection of the Central Nervous

Figure 7.15a Figure 7.16a

 Periosteum – attached to surface of the  Pia mater

Cerebrospinal Fluid Ventricles and Location of the

Ventricles and Location of the Blood Brain Barrier

Traumatic Brain Injuries Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)

Spinal Cord Anatomy Spinal Cord Anatomy

Spinal Cord Anatomy Spinal Cord Anatomy

Figure 7.19 Figure 7.19

Peripheral Nervous System Structure of a Nerve

 Classified according to the direction in

Distribution Cranial Nerves

Cranial Nerves Cranial Nerves

 V Trigeminal nerve – sensory for the  IX Glossopharyngeal nerve – sensory

Spinal Nerves Spinal Nerves

 There is a pair of spinal nerves at the

Autonomic Nervous System Differences Between Somatic and

 Sympathetic division – mobilizes the body

Differences Between Somatic and Comparison of Somatic and

Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Anatomy of the Sympathetic

Autonomic Functioning Autonomic Functioning

 Sympathetic – “fight-or-flight”  Parasympathetic – housekeeping

Development Aspects of the Development Aspects of the

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