Heat and

Temperature
THERMODYNAMICS
 Question:
If you stand in bare feet
with one foot on carpet
and the other on an
adjacent tile floor, which
is colder?
Macroscopic Definition of Temperature
Temperature is the quantitative measure of the relative hotness
or coldness of a body.

• Temperature is also related to the molecular kinetic

energy of the molecules that make up the material.
• A device that measures temperature is called a
thermometer.
• To obtain the temperature of an object, a
thermometer is placed in contact with the object,
until thermal equilibrium is reached.
Thermal Equilibrium
• Thermal equilibrium is a condition in
which two objects would not exchange
energy by heat or electromagnetic
radiation if they were placed in thermal
contact.
• Two systems are in thermal equilibrium
if and only if they have the same
temperature.
• Two bodies can be in thermal
equilibrium with each other even if they
are not in physical contact with each
other.
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

If two objects are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third

object, then they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Concept Check:
• You put a thermometer in a pot of hot water and record the reading.
What temperature have you recorded?

A. The temperature of the water

B. The temperature of the thermometer
C. An equal average of the temperatures of the water and thermometer
D. A weighted average of the temperatures of the water and
thermometer, with more emphasis on the temperature of the water
E. A weighted average of the water and thermometer, with more
emphasis on the temperature of the thermometer
Concept Check:
• Two objects, with different sizes, masses, and
temperatures, are placed in thermal contact. In
which direction does the energy travel?

A. Energy travels from the larger object to the

smaller object.
B. Energy travels from the object with more mass to
the one with less mass.
C. Energy travels from the object at higher
temperature to the object at lower temperature.
Temperature Dependent Properties
• All thermometers are based on the principle that some physical
properties change with temperature.
• Some of these properties include:

Volume of a liquid

Dimensions of a solid

Pressure of a gas at constant volume

Volume of a gas at constant pressure

Electric resistance of a conductor

Thermometer Types

Bimetallic strip Resistance infrared

thermometer thermometer thermometer
The Celsius Scale

•Formerly the centigrade scale and

was later named after its developer,
Anders Celsius (1742).
•The scales is based on the ice point
(0°C ) and steam point (100°C) of
water.
•Used today in a huge majority of
countries around the world.
The Fahrenheit Scale

•Developed by Daniel Gabriel

Fahrenheit
•The ice point and the steam point
of water are assigned 32°F and
212°F respectively.
•Used in the United states.
Concept Check:
•Which of the following types of thermometers have to be in
thermal equilibrium with the object being measured in order
to give accurate readings?

A. A bimetallic strip
B. a resistance thermometer
C. infrared thermometer
D. A and B
E. A, B and C
Temperature Conversion

   

 
Thermometer Limitations
•Thermometers are calibrated by placing them in
thermal contact with reference systems.
•Because different materials have different expansion
properties, errors occur in temperature measurements.
•Mercury thermometers cannot be used below its
freezing point (39°C)
•Alcohol thermometers are not useful above 85°C
(boiling point)
The Constant Volume Gas Thermometer
• In a constant volume gas thermometer,
the temperature is determined from the
pressure variation of the gas.

Absolute
zero!
The Kelvin Scale
• SI unit of absolute temperature, named after William Thomson (Lord Kelvin)
• Reference temperatures: absolute zero (0 K) and the triple point of water.
• At absolute zero (-273.15°C) any thermodynamic system has minimum energy.
• The triple point of water is the condition in which all the 3 states of water can exist
in equilibrium (0.01°C and 4.58 mmHg).

One kelvin is defined as 1/273.16 of the difference between

the triple point of water and absolute zero.

Absolute zero: −273.15°C = 0 K  

Triple point (H2O): 0.01°C = 273.16 K

The magnitude of 1 K equals the magnitude  

of 1 degree in Celsius scale.
Comparison of Temperature Scales
Problem:
•On a day when the temperature reaches 50°F, what is
the temperature in degrees Celsius and in kelvins?
Solution:

283.15 K
Thermal Expansion
• The increase in dimensions of a material as a consequence of
temperature rise is called thermal expansion.
• Due to the increase in the average separation of the atoms
• For small temperature variations, change in length is directly
proportional to temperature change.

   

 
 
Thermal-expansion Joints
Average Expansion Coefficients for Some Materials
The Unusual Behavior of Water
• Most liquids expand with increasing temperature.
• Water contracts from 0°C to 4°C, (density increases)
• Above 4 °C, water expands with increasing
temperature and its density decreases.

Density of water is max.

at 4°C (1.000 g/cm3)

The unusual behavior of water

explains why lakes freezes from
the surface, which makes
marine life possible.
Concept Check:
•If you are asked to make a very sensitive glass
thermometer, which of the following working liquids
would you choose?

A. Mercury
B. Alcohol
C. Gasoline
D. Glycerin
Problem:
•A segment of steel railroad track has a length of
30.00 m when the temperature is 0.0°C. What is its
length when the temperature is 40.0°C? What if the
temperature drops to -40°C? What is the length of
the unclamped segment?
Solution:
•
Problem:
•A segment of steel railroad track has a length of
30.00 m when the temperature is 0.0°C. What is its
length when the temperature is 40.0°C? What if the
temperature drops to -40°C? What is the length of
the unclamped segment?
Problem:
A surveyor uses a steel measuring tape that is exactly
50.000 m long at a temperature of 20°C. The markings
on the tape are calibrated for this temperature.
(a) What is the length of the tape when the
temperature is 35°C?
Problem:
A poorly designed electronic device has two bolts attached to different
parts of the device that almost touch each other in its interior. The steel
and brass bolts are at different electric potentials, and if they touch, a
short circuit will develop, damaging the device. The initial gap between
the ends of the bolts is d = 5.0 μm at 27°C. At what temperature will the
bolts touch? Assume the distance between the walls of the device is not
affected by the temperature change.
Solution:

7.35℃

7.35℃ 34.35℃
Problem:
3
A 200 cm glass flask is filled to the brim with
mercury at 20°C. How much mercury overflows
when the temperature of the system is raised to
100°C? The coefficient of linear expansion of the
-5 -1
glass is 0.40 × 10 C .
Solution:

= 2.688 cm^3
Macroscopic Description of an Ideal Gas
• Real gases at low pressures can be modeled as ideal gases.
• Ideal gases have low densities and maintained at low pressures.
• The equation of state of an ideal gas relates its properties (P, V, T, m).
• One mole of any substance contains Avogadro’s number of constituent
particles (atoms or molecules)
  Avogadro’s number

• Number of moles, n:   m = mass

M = molar mass
Equation of State of An Ideal Gas
For a fixed amount of gas (constant n):
   
 
 

    Ideal gas law

 

  R = universal gas constant

 

R = 8.314 J/mol·K
 
  R = 0.0821 L·atm/mol·K
The Boltzmann’s Constant
• The Boltzmann’s constant equals the ratio of the universal gas constant
to Avogadro’s number

 
 

 
Ideal gas law
Concept Check:
•A common material for cushioning objects in packages is made
by trapping bubbles of air between sheets of plastic. This
material is more effective at keeping the contents of the package
from moving around inside the package on

A. a hot day
B. a cold day
C. either hot or cold days
Concept Check:
• On a winter day, you turn on your furnace and the temperature of
the air inside your home increases. Assume your home has the
normal amount of leakage between inside air and outside air. Is the
number of moles of air in your room at the higher temperature

A. larger than before

B. smaller than before
C. the same as before
Problem:
•A spray can containing a propellant gas at twice
atmospheric pressure (202 kPa) and having a
3
volume of 125.00 cm is at 22°C. It is then tossed
into an open fire. When the temperature of the gas
in the can reaches 195°C, what is the pressure
inside the can? Assume any change in the volume
of the can is negligible.
Solution:

468.15 K
???
295.15 K
Problem:
•A spray can containing a propellant gas at twice
atmospheric pressure (202 kPa) and having a volume of
125.00 cm3 is at 22°C. It is then tossed into an open fire.
When the temperature of the gas in the can reaches 195°C,
what is the pressure inside the can? Suppose we include a
volume change due to thermal expansion of the steel can
as the temperature increases. Does that alter our answer
for the final pressure significantly?
Solution:

(318.48 kPa)