DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY-DASMARINAS

College of Engineering, Architecture and Technology

Depart of Engineering
Civil Engineering Program

CEET 321: PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

FIRST SEM SY 2021-2022
Engr. Dolphy F Fadriquela

MODULE 1: TRANSPORTATION PLANNING

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Gospel Devotion
Psalm 127:1
Except the LORD build the house, they labour in vain that build it: except the LORD keep
the city, the watchman waketh but in vain.
No matter what we do or where we are, the Lord is the One who makes things come to
pass. We can praise Him for He holds every aspect of our lives in His hands !
Let’s Pray,,,,,,,
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Transportation Engineering
The application of technology and scientific principles to the planning , functional
design, operation and management of facilities for any mode of transportations in order
to provide for the safe, raoid, comfortable , convenient, economical and environmentally
compatible movement of people and goods.

MODULE 1: TRANSPORTATION PLANNING

LESSON 1: Definition. Objectives. Basic Elements of Transportation Planning

1. DEFINITION
Transportation planning is the process of defining future policies, goals, investments,
and spatial planning designs to prepare for future needs to move people and goods to
destinations. It is a collaborative process that incorporates the input of many
stakeholders including various government agencies, the public and private
businesses. 

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2. OBJECTIVES
The government’s objectives ensure that all the areas where it can have an impact are
considered before making a viable plan. The transportation planning objectives in
relevance with the government are:

 Access to Employment: Provide for transportation system connections to areas of

employment density and key activity centers, with an emphasis on connecting to
areas of high poverty rates.
 Freight Mobility: Enhance freight corridors and intermodal connections to facilitate
goods movement into, within and out of the region.
 Safety & Security: Provide for transportation improvements that increase safety and
security for system users.
 System Reliability: Implement technologies and programs to improve travel times
and support the ease of travel throughout the region.
 Congestion Mitigation: Support transportation system improvements that address
existing and expected future traffic congestion.
 Environment & Air Quality: Provide for project alternatives that protect and enhance
the region’s natural resources.

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  Multimodal Connectivity: Improve accessibility and interconnectivity of various
transportation modes for all systems users.
 Preservation & Maintenance: Ensure that existing transportation infrastructure and
facilities achieve a constant state of good repair.

LESSON 2: TRANSPORTATION PLANNING PROCESS

Stages of Transportation Planning Process. Use of Transportation Models. Trip

Generation. Trip distribution. Traffic Assignment. Modal Split. Elements of
Transportation Process. Sample Problem.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….

The planning process has four distinct steps:

Step 1: Planners and development professionals will take surveys of the current
transportation infrastructure and demand.

Step 2: Once planners know the traffic patterns and land use information, they can use
what is known as a transportation model to predict future regional transport planning
and requirements. Models vary but can include mathematical analysis regarding trip
distribution, traffic assignments, and home-based trips.

Step 3: Transportation planners continue by overlaying forecasts of future land use and
policies that have been used previously to determine transport infrastructure and flow.

Step 4: Finally, these professionals evaluate the policies and concepts in relation to other ideas.
They may hold public forums to get feedback from the community, discuss budgeting
requirements for land purchases, and weigh the maintenance costs against other alternatives.

Steps in Transportation Planning Process

1)Transportation survey, data collection and analysis;

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Includes all types of literature and data (both government and non-government)
available on transportation, journey behavior patterns, nature and intensity of traffic,
freight structure, cost and benefits, income, employment estimates, etc.

The comprehensive knowledge of traffic flows and patterns within a defined area.

The survey should be well defined and be divided in ‘zones’ so that origins and
destinations of trips can be geographically monitored. 

 It involves both ‘roadside-interview’ and ‘home-interview’. 

When this has been completed, planners can begin their data analysis.
2) Use of Transportation Models

The second stage of the transportation planning process is to use the collected data to
build up a transportation model. This model is the key to predicting future travel
demands and network needs and is derived in four recognized stages:

Trip generation, Trip distribution, Traffic assignment and Modal split

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First Stage: Trip Generation

Trip Generation is widely used for forecasting travel demands. It predicts the number of
trips originating in or destined for a particular traffic analysis zone. The trip generation
aims at predicting the total number of trips generated and attracted to each zone of the
study area. It answers the questions to “how many trips" originate at each zone, from
the data on household and socioeconomic attributes.

*Socioeconomic status is the social standing or class of an individual or group. It is often measured as a
combination of education, income and occupation. The travel behavior is highly influenced by the socio
economic attribute of the traveler and are normally categorized based on the income level, vehicle ownership and
house hold size.

Types of trip

A Trip is defined as a one-way person movement by a mechanized mode of transport,

having two trip ends. The start of the trip is called as origin and the end of trip is called
as destination. Trip is classified as Production or Origin and Attraction or Destination.
The term Origin and Destination are defined in terms of direction of the trip while Production and
Attraction in terms of land use associated with each trip end.

Classification of trips
Better trip generation models can be obtained if the trips by different purpose are
identified and modelled separately. The trips can be classified as;
1. Home Based Trip: One of the trip end is home.
Example: A trip from home to office.
Following are the list of home based trips that is trip purpose which are classified into
five categories:
a. Work Trips
b. School Trips
c. Shopping Trips
d. Social- recreational Trips
e. Other Trips

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The first two trips are mandatory trips while other trips are discretional trips. The other
trip class encompasses all the trips made for less routine purpose such as health
bureaucracy etc.

2. Non Home based trips: None of the trip end is home.

Example: A trip from office to Shopping Mall.

3. Time based trips

The proportion of journey is different by different purposes usually varies with time of
the day. Thus the classification is often given as Peak and Off Peak Period Trip.

Example
Time Cars Bus Jeepney Two wheeled
7:00 - 7:30 34 8 24 40
7:30 - 8:00 39 9 30 45
8:00 - 9:30 45 12 35 55

4. Person-type based trips

The travel behavior of an individual is mainly dependent on its Socio-Economic
attributes. Following are the categories which are usually employed.
a. Income Level- Poor, Middle Class, Rich
b. Car Ownership- 0,1,2,3
c. Household Size- 1,2,3,4... etc
Factors influencing Trip Production

a. No. of workers in a household.

b. No. of Students.
c. Household size and composition.
d. The household income.
e. Some proxy of income such as number of cars etc.
Factors influencing Trip Attraction
a. Floor area and number of employment opportunities in retail trade, service,
offices manufacturing and wholesale areas.
b. School and college enrollment
c. Other activity centers like transport terminals, sports stadium, major
recreational/ cultural/religious place

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Problem

Solve the following problem using this trip generation model.

Trips = B1off + B2industrial + B3retail

The following coefficients were derived from a regression model.

B1= 1.5, B2 = 0.90, B3 = 1.2

If there are 600 office employees, 300 industrial employees, and 200 retail employees,
how many trips are going from work to home?

Problem

Planners have estimated the following models for the AM Peak Hour.

Ti=1.5Hi

Tj=(1.5Eoff, j) + (1Eoth,j) + (0.5Eret,j)

Where:

Ti= Person Trips Originating in Zone i

Tj = Person Trips Destined for Zone j

Hi = Number of Households in Zone i

Variable City A City B

H 10000 15000
Eoff 8000 10000
Eoth 3000 5000
Eret 2000 1500

A. What are the number of person trips originating in and destined for each city?

B. Normalize the number of person trips so that the number of person trip origins = the
number of person trip destinations. Assume the model for person trip origins is more
accurate.

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Solution:
City A:
Hi = 1.5 x 10000 = 15,000
Tj =1.5 x 8000 + 1.0 x 3000 + 0.50 x 2 000 = 16, 000

City B:
Hi = 1.5 x 15 000 = 22 500
Tj = 1.5 x 10000 + 1.0 x 5000 + 0.5 x 1500 = 20, 750

Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4 Column 5

      Adjustment Normalized (col 3 x col 4)
Origins(Hi) Destinations (Tj) factor destination
City A 15000 16000 1.0204 16327
City B 22500 20750 1.0204 21173
  37500 36750 1.0204 37500
Note:
Trip origins are more reliable than Trip destinations, so the Trip destinations are adjusted to equal with
Trip origins

37500
Adjustment factor = = 1.0204
36750

Growth factor modeling

Growth factor modes tries to predict the number of trips produced or attracted by a
house hold or zone as a linear function of explanatory variables. The models have the
following basic equation:

Ti = fiti
ZONE

Ti=future trips

Ti =current trips

where Ti is the number of future trips in the zone and ti is the number of current trips in that zone and fi is a
growth factor. The growth factor fi depends on the explanatory variable such as population (P)of the zone,
average house hold income (I), average vehicle ownership (V). The simplest form of fi is represented as follows:

where the subscript " d" denotes the design year and the subscript "c"
denotes the current year

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Example
Given that a zone has 275 households with car and 275 households without car and the
average trip generation rates for each groups is respectively 5.0 and 2.5 trips per day.
Assuming that in the future, all household will have a car, find the growth factor and
future trips from that zone, assuming that the population and income remains constant.

Solution

Current trip rate ti = (275 x 2.5) + (275 x 5. 0) = 2062. 5 trips / day.

Therefore, no. of future trips Ti = Fiti = 2.0 x 2062. 5 = 4125 trips / day.

Comment:
The above example also shows the limitation of growth factor method. If we think that the trip rate will
remain same in the future,

Therefore, the number of trips in the future will be

550 households X 5 trips per day = 2750 trips per day (actual trips generated)

Note:

The actual trips (2750) generated is much lower than the growth factor method (4125).
Therefore, growth factor models are normally used in the prediction of external trips where no
other methods are available. But for internal trips, regression methods are more suitable.

Regression methods
The general form of a trip generation model is

Where xi's are prediction factor or explanatory variable. The most common form of trip generation model
is a linear function of the form

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where ai 's are the coefficient of the regression equation and can be obtained by doing regression analysis. The
above equations are called multiple linear regression equation, and the solutions are tedious to obtain manually.

Example

Let the trip rate of a zone is explained by the household size done from the field survey.
It was found that the household size are 1, 2, 3 and 4. The trip rates of the
corresponding household is as shown in the table below. Fit a linear equation relating
trip rate and household size.

Solution
The linear equation will have the form y = bx + a where y is the trip rate, and x is the
household size, a and b are the coefficients.

x = 3 x 1 + 3 x 2 + 3 x 3 + 3 x 4 = 30

x2 = 3 x (12) + 3 x (22) + 3 x (32) + 3 x (42) = 90

y = 5 + 9 + 12 + 17 = 43

xy = 1 x 1 + 1 x 2 + 1 x 2
+2x2+2x4+2x3
+3x4+3x5+3x3
+4x6+4x7+4x4
=127

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Second Stage: Trip Distribution

The decision to travel (or destination choice or zonal interchange analysis) for a given

purpose is called trip generation. This the second component in the traditional four-
step transportation forecasting model. These generated trips from each zone is then
distributed to all other zones based on the choice of destination. Trip distribution
allocates person trips from zone to zone. For example, if there are 200 trips produced in
zone 1, where are they attracted?

There are a number of methods to distribute trips among destinations; and two such
methods are growth factor model and gravity model. Growth factor model is a
method which respond only to relative growth rates at origins and destinations and this
is suitable for short-term trend extrapolation. In gravity model, we start from
assumptions about trip making behavior and the way it is influenced by external factors.

*Transportation forecasting is the attempt of estimating the number of vehicles or people that will
use a specific transportation facility in the future. For instance, a forecast may estimate the number
of vehicles on a planned road or bridge, the ridership on a railway line, the number of passengers
visiting an airport, or the number of ships calling on a seaport. Traffic forecasting begins with the
collection of data on current traffic.

Growth Factor Model

Uniform growth factor. If the only information available is about a general growth rate
for the whole of the study area, then we can only assume that it will apply to each cell in
the matrix, that is a uniform growth rate. The equation can be written as:

Tij = f × tij
where f is the uniform growth factor tij is the previous total number of trips, Tij is the expanded
total number of trips.

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Advantages are that they are simple to understand, and they are useful for short-term planning.
Limitation is that the same growth factor is assumed for all zones as well as attractions.

Example
Trips originating from zone 1,2,3 of a study area are 78,92 and 82 respectively and
those terminating at zones 1,2,3 are given as 78,96 and 78 respectively. If the growth
factor is 1.3 and the cost matrix is as shown below, find the expanded origin-
constrained growth trip table.

Zone  1 2 3 Oi
1 20 30 28 78
2 36 32 24 92
3 22 34 26 82
Dj 78 96 78 252

Oi = trips originating at zone i

Dj =trips terminating at zone j

252 is the sum of trips originating at zone i also the sum of trips terminating at zone j.
(Oi = Dj)

Solution
Given growth factor = 1.3, Therefore, multiplying the growth factor with each of the cells
in the matrix gives the result as shown below.

Zone 1 2 3 Oi
1 26 39 36.4 101.4
2 46.8 41.6 31.2 119.6
3 28.6 44.2 33.8 106.2
Dj 101.4 124.8 101.4 327.6

Doubly constrained growth factor model

When information is available on the growth in the number of trips originating and
terminating in each zone, we know that there will be different growth rates for trips in
and out of each zone and consequently having two sets of growth factors for each zone.
This implies that there are two constraints for that model and such a model is called
doubly constrained growth factor model. One of the methods of solving such a model is
given by Furness who introduced balancing factors ai and bj as follows:

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Tij = tij × ai × bj
In such cases, a set of intermediate correction coefficients are calculated which are then appropriately
applied to cell entries in each row or column. After applying these corrections to say each row, totals for
each column are calculated and compared with the target values. If the differences are significant,
correction coefficients are calculated and applied as necessary.

The procedure is given below:

1. Set bj = 1
2. With bj solve for ai to satisfy trip generation constraint.
3. With ai solve for bj to satisfy trip attraction constraint.
4. Update matrix and check for errors.
5. Repeat steps 2 and 3 till convergence.

Example
The base year trip matrix for a study area consisting of three zones is given below.

Using the previous data

Zone  1 2 3 oi
1 20 30 28 78
2 36 32 24 92
3 22 34 26 82
dj 78 96 78 252

The productions from the zone 1,2 and 3 for the horizon year is expected to grow to 98,
106, and 122 respectively. The attractions from these zones are expected to increase to
102, 118, 106 respectively. Compute the trip matrix for the horizon year using doubly
constrained growth factor model using Furness method.

Zone  1 2 3 oi
1 20 30 28 98
2 36 32 24 106
3 22 34 26 122
dj 102 118 106 326

Solution

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The sum of the productions in the horizon year, ΣOi = 98+106+122 = 326. The sum of
the attractions in the horizon year, i.e. ΣDj = 102+118+106 = 326. They both are found
to be equal.

Steps:

Find the balancing factors ai and bj

Fix bj = 1,
Find balancing factor ai (ai = Oi/oi )
Then find Tij = ai × tij

a1 = 98/78 = 1.26
a2 = 106/92 = 1.15
a3= 122/82 = 1.49

T11 = t11 x a1 = 20 x 1.26 = 25.2.

T21 = t21x a2 = 36 x 1.15 = 41.4 etc.

Multiplying a1 with the first row of the matrix, a2 with the second row and so on, matrix
obtained is as shown on the right side below.

Base year Horizon year

Zone  1 2 3 Oi Zone  1 2 3 oi
25. 35.2
1 20 30 28 78 1 37.8 98
2 8
41.
2 36 32 24 92 2 36.8 27.6 106
4
32. 50.6 38.7
3 22 34 26 82 3 122
8 6 4
Dj 78 96 78 252 dj 102 118 106 326

Zone  1 2 3 oi
1 25.2 37.8 35.28 98
2 41.4 36.8 27.6 106
3 32.78 50.66 38.74 122
101.6
dj 99.38 125.26  
2
Dj 102 118 106  

Next step:

Find bj = Dj/dj and Tij = tij x bj

For example,
b1 = 102 / 99.38 = 1. 03,

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b2 = 118/125.26 = 0.94 etc.,

T11 = t11 x b1 = 25.2 x 1.03 = 25.96 etc.

Also Oi = 25.96 + 35.53 + 36.69 = 98.18. The matrix is as

shown below:

Zone  1 2 3 oi Oi
1 25.96 35.53 36.69 98.18 98
2 42.64 34.59 28.7 105.9 106
3 33.76 47.62 40.29 121.7 122
bj 1.03 0.94 1.04    
Dj 102 118 106    

*T11 means trip from zone 1 of origin to zone 1 of destination.

*T12 means trip from zone 2 of origin to zone 2 of destination.

Resulting table
Zone  1 2 3 oi Oi
1 25.96 35.53 36.69 98.18 98
2 42.64 34.59 28.7 105.9 106
3 33.76 47.62 40.29 121.7 122
dj 102.36 117.74 105.7    
Dj 102 118 106    

The error can be computed as ;

Error = (oi – Oi) + ( dj – Dj)

Error = (98.18 – 98) + (105.7 – 106) + (121.7 – 122) + (102.36-102) + (117.74-118) +
(105.9 – 106) = 1.32

‘’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’

Advantages and limitations of growth factor model.

The advantages of this method are:
1. Simple to understand.
2. Preserve observed trip pattern.
3. useful in short term-planning.

The limitations are:

1. Depends heavily on the observed trip pattern.
2. It cannot explain unobserved trips.
3. Do not consider changes in travel cost.
4. Not suitable for policy studies like introduction of a mode.

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The decision to travel for a given purpose is called trip generation. These generated
trips from each zone is then distributed to all other zones based on the choice of
destination. This is called trip distribution. Trip distribution allocates person trips from
zone to zone. For example, if there are 200 trips produced in zone 1, where are they
attracted?

There are a number of methods to distribute trips among destinations; and two such
methods are growth factor model and gravity model. Growth factor model is a
method which respond only to relative growth rates at origins and destinations and this
is suitable for short-term trend extrapolation. In gravity model, we start from
assumptions about trip making behavior and the way it is influenced by external factors.

Definitions and notations

The trip pattern in a study area can be represented by means of a trip matrix or origin-
destination (O-D) matrix. This is a two dimensional array of cells where rows and
columns represent each of the zones in the study area. The cells of each row i contain
the trips originating in that zone which have as destinations the zones in the
corresponding columns.

If reliable information is available to estimate both Oi and Dj , the model is said to be

doubly constrained. In some cases, there will be information about only one of these
constraints, the model is called singly constrained.

Gravity Model

- Based on land use and transportation network

- Calibrated for many urban areas
- Simple
- Accurate

Some balancing factors,

Tij = AiOiBjDjf(cij )

Tij is the number of trips between origin i and destination j.

Oi is the total number of trips between originating in zone i.

Dj is the total number of trips attracted to zone j.

Where:

Ai and Bj are the balancing factors,

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 f(cij ) is the generalized function of the travel cost. This function is called deterrence
function because it represents the disincentive to travel as distance (time) or cost
increases.

Some of the versions of this function are:

f(cij ) = e –βcij

f(cOJ) = c −n ij

f(cij ) = c −n ij × e –βcij

The first equation is called the exponential function, second one is called power function
where as the third one is a combination of exponential and power function. The general
form of these functions for different values of their parameters is as shown in figure.

As in the growth factor model, here also we have singly and doubly constrained models.
The expression Tij = AiOiBjDjf(cij ) is the classical version of the doubly constrained
model. Singly constrained versions can be produced by making one set of balancing
factors Ai or Bj equal to one. We will limit our discussion to doubly constrained models.

The model has the functional form,

Tij = AiOiBjDjf(cij )

ΣiTij = ΣiAiOiBjDjf(cij)

But ΣiTij = Dj

Therefore, Dj = ΣiAiOiBjDjf(cij)

Finding the balancing factor Bj,

1
Bj = ΣiAiOif (cij)

Bj depends on Ai which can be found out by the following equation:

1
Ai =
ΣjBjDjf (cij)

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*Both Ai and Bj are interdependent. Therefore, through some iteration procedure
similar to that of Furness method, the problem can be solved.

Example

The productions from zone 1, 2 and 3 are 98, 106, 122 and attractions to zone 1,2 and
3 are 102, 118, 106.

O-D Matrix

Zone  1 2 3 Oi
1 T11 T12 T13 98
2 T21 T22 T23 106
3 T31 T32 T33 122
Dj 102 118 106 326
*T11 means trip from zone 1 of origin to zone 1 of destination.
*T12 means trip from zone 2 of origin to zone 2 of destination.

Zone 1: Origin = 98
Destination = 102 Zone 2: Origin = 106
Destination = 118

Zone 3: Origin =122

Destination = 106
Solution:

1.Prepare the function f(Cij)

The cost matrix is as shown.

Zon
e 1 2 3
1 1.0 1.2 1.8
2 1.2 1.0 1.5
3 1.8 1.5 1.0

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f(Cij) = generalized function of travel cost.

The function f(cij) is defined as,

f(Cij ) = 1/C2 ij
The cost matrix is as shown below

f(Cij) T11 = 1/12 = 1.00,

f(Cij)T12 = 1/1.22 = 0.69

f(Cij)T13 = 1/1.82 = 0.31, etc. …..

The function f(Cij) can be written in the form of matrix as,

Zone 1 2 3
1.0
1 0 0.69 0.31
0.6
2 9 1.00 0.44
0.3
3 1 0.44 1.00

2.Prepare the computation parameters of Ai:

Set Bj = 1, and find Ai.

Create a table for the solution:

i j Bj Dj f(cij) BjDjf(cij) Sum of BjDjf(cij) Ai =1/sum BjDjf(Cij)

  1 1.00 102 1.00 102.00    
1 2 1.00 118 0.69 81.42 216.28 0.00462
  3 1.00 106 0.31 32.86    
  1 1.00 102 0.69 70.38    
2 2 1.00 118 1.00 118.00 235.02 0.00425
  3 1.00 106 0.44 46.64    
  1 1.00 102 0.31 31.62    
3 2 1.00 118 0.44 51.92 189.54 0.00528
  3 1.00 106 1.00 106.00    

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3. Prepare the computation parameters of Bj:

Tabulate the resulting data:

Sum of Bj=1/sum
i j Ai Oi f(cij) AiOif(cij) AiOif(cij) AiOif(Cij)
  1 0.00462 98 1.000 0.45276    
1 2 0.00425 106 0.690 0.31085 0.96292 1.0385
  3 0.00527 122 0.310 0.19931    
  1 0.00462 98 0.690 0.31240    
2 2 0.00425 106 1.000 0.45050 1.04580 0.9562
  3 0.00527 122 0.440 0.28289    
  1 0.00462 98 0.310 0.14036    
3 2 0.00425 106 0.440 0.19822 0.98152 1.0188
  3 0.00527 122 1.000 0.64294    

4. Compute the Trips produced in zone i and attracted to zone j (Tij

Tij = AiOiBjDjf(cij )

For example:

Trips from zone 1 to zone 1(T11):

Ai = 0.00462,
Oi = 98,
Bj = 1.0385,
Dj =102
f(Cij) = 1.00

T11 = 0.00462 x 98 x 1.0385 x 102 x 1.00 = 47. 96 zone 1 to zone 1

T12 = 0.00462 x 98 x 0.9562 x 118 x 0.69 = 35.24
T23 =0.00425 x 106 x 1.0188 x 106 x 0.44 = 21.40

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 Final Table
Zone 1 2 3 Ai Oi Oi'
1 47.96 35.24 15.157 0.00462 98 98.357
2 32.96 50.83 21.4 0.00425 106 105.19
3 21.14 31.919 69.43 0.00527 122 122.489
Bj 1.0385 0.9562 1.0188   326 326.036
Dj 102 118 106 326    
105.98
Dj' 102.06 117.989 7 326.036    

Note:

Oi is the actual productions from the zone and Oi’ is the computed ones. Similar is the
case with attractions also. Dj is the actual productions from the zone and Dj’ is the
computed ones.

Compute the error:

Error = (Oi – Oi’) + ( Dj – Dj’ )

Error = |98 − 98.407| + |106 − 105.19| + |122 − 122.489| + |102 − 102.11| + |118 − 117.989|
+ |106 − 105.987| = 2.03

CALIBRATED GRAVITY MODEL

The gravity model is much like Newton's theory of gravity. The gravity model assumes
that the trips produced at an origin and attracted to a destination are directly
proportional to the total trip productions at the origin and the total attractions at the
destination. The calibrating term or "friction factor" (F) represents the reluctance or
impedance of persons to make trips of various duration or distances. The general
friction factor indicates that as travel times increase, travelers are increasingly less likely
to make trips of such lengths. Calibration of the gravity model involves adjusting the
friction factor.

*An important consideration in developing the gravity model is "balancing" productions

and attractions. Balancing means that the total productions and attractions for a study
area are equal.

Definitions

Centroids-- Imaginary points within zones from which all departing trips are assumed to
originate and at which all arriving trips are assumed to terminate.
Cordon Line—An imaginary line that denotes the boundary of the study area.
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Friction Factor-- A mathematical factor that is used to describe the effort that is required
to travel between two points.
Link-- An element of a transportation network that connects two nodes. A section of
roadway or a bus route could be modeled as a link.
Modal Choice Analysis-- The process used to estimate the number of travelers who
will use each of the available transportation modes (train, car, bus) to reach their
destination.
Nodes-- Nodes are points at which links terminate. Links may terminate at destinations
or at intersections with other links. Routes-- Pathways through a network. Routes are
composed of links and nodes.
Study Area-- The region within which estimates of travel demand are desired.
Trip-- The journey between one point and another.
Trip Assignment Analysis-- The process used to estimate the routes (for each mode)
that will be used to travel from origin to destination. This process yields the total number
of vehicles or passengers that a particular route can expect to service.
Trip Distribution Analysis-- The process used to determine the number of produced
trips from each zone that will be attracted by each of the remaining zones.
Trip Generation Analysis-- A data collection and analysis process that is used to
estimate the number of trips that each zone will produce and attract.
Urban Growth Boundary (UGB)-- An imaginary boundary that encloses all of the land
that is expected to be developed at some.

Where:
Tij = trips produced at iand attracted at j
Pi = total trip production at i
Aj = total trip attraction at j
F ij = a calibration term for interchange ij, (friction factor) or travel time factor ( F ij =C/tij n )
C= calibration factor for the friction factor
Kij = a socioeconomic adjustment factor for interchange ij
i = origin zone
n = number of zones

Note:

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Before the gravity model can be used for prediction of future travel demand, it must be
calibrated. Calibration is accomplished by adjusting the various factors within the gravity model
until the model can duplicate a known base year’s trip distribution. For example, if you knew the
trip distribution for the current year, you would adjust the gravity model so that it resulted in
the same trip distribution as was measured for the current year.

Example:

The following information comes from trip generation.

Productio
  n Attration   K factor   F (Friction factor)
zone (P) (A) zone 1 2 3 zone 1 2 3
1 550 440 1 1.04 1.15 0.66 1 0.876 1.554 0.77
2 600 682 2 1.06 0.79 1.14 2 1.554 0.876 0.77
3 380 561   3 0.76 0.94 1.16   3 0.77 0.77 0.876

Zone 1
Zone 2

P1 A1 P2 A2

Zone 3
P3 A3
Required:
Distribute the process using the calibrated gravity model.

STEPS:

1) Get the sum of P and A

  Production Attration
zone P A
1 550 440

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 2 600 682
3 380 561
Sum 1530 1683

2) Adjust the A values. Production values are more reliable than A values.

Factor = 1530/1683 = 0.91

col 1 col 2 col 3 col 4 col 5

col 3 x col
  Production Attration Adjustment 4
zone P A factor Adj A
1 550 440 0.91 400
2 600 682 0.91 620
3 380 561 0.91 510
Sum *1530 1683   *1530

3) Apply the gravity model formula to P and A using the friction and K tables.

Row 1: Trips along Row 1 are T11, T12,T13

AjFijKij

zone 1 2 3 P
1 T11 T12 T13 550
2 T21 T22 T23 600
3 T31 T32 T33 380
A 400 620 510 1530

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A1F11K11 = 400 x 0.876 x 1.04 = 364

A2F12K12 = 620 x 1.554 x 1.15 = 1108

A3F13K13 = 510 x 0.77 x 0.66) = 259

AjFijKij = A1F11K11 + A2F12K12 + A3F13K13 = 1731

Computations of trips:

Using the above formula for Tij,

Production P1 =550

T11 = 364/1731 (550) = 116

T12 =1108/1731 (550) =352

T13 =259/1731 (550) = 82

Row 2: Trips are T21 T22 T23

A1F21K21= 400 x 1.554 x 1.06 = 659

A2F22K22 =620 x 0.876 x 0.79 = 429

A3F23K23= 510 x0.77 x 1.14 = 448

Sum = 1535

Computations of trips:

Using the above formula for Tij,

Production P2 = 600

T21 = 659/1535 (600) = 258

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T22 = 429/1535 (600) = 168

T23 = 448/1535 (600) = 175

Row 3: Trips are T31 T32 T33

A1F31K31= 400 x 0.77 x 0.76 = 234

A2F32K32 =620 x 0.77 x 0.94= 449

A3F33K33= 510 x0.876 x 1.16= 518

Sum = 1201

Computations of trips:

Using the above formula for Tij,

Production P3 = 380

T31 = 234/1201 (380) = 74

T32 = 449/1201 (380) =142

T33 = 518/1201 (380) = 164

zone 1 2 3 A P
T1
1 1 T12 T13 550 550
T2
2 1 T22 T23 600 600
T3
3 1 T32 T33 380 380

Tabulate the result:

zone 1 2 3 P
1 116 352 82 550
2 258 168 175 600
3 74 142 164 380
A 400 620 510
Acal. 448 662 421
       
  400/448 620/662 510/421

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 factor 0.89 0.94 1.21

First Iteration
zone 1 2 3 P
1 103 331 99 550
2 230 158 212 600
3 66 133 198 380
A 400 620 510
Acal. 399 622 509

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

SEATWORK:

Trip Generation

1.Solve the following problem using this trip generation model.

The following coefficients were derived from a regression model.

B1= 1.5, B2 = 0.90, B3 = 1.2

If there are 800 office employees, 500 industrial employees, and 400 retail employees,
how many trips are going from work to home?

2. Growth factor model

Given that a zone has 385 households with car and 170 households without car and the
average trip generation rates for each groups is respectively 4.0 and 1.5 trips per day.
Assuming that in the future, all household will have a car, with an increase in population
and income of 12% and 18% respectively find the growth factor and future trips from
that zone.

3. Use the model on page 7.

Variable Zone A Zone B

H 10100 15100
Eoff 8500 10500
Eoth 3300 5300
Eret 20200 1800

From the tabulated data, determine the following

a) What are the number of person trips originating in and destined for each city?

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b) Normalize the number of person trips so that the number of person trip origins = the
number of person trip destinations. Assume the model for person trip origins is more
accurate.

4.Use Regression method

The trip rate (y) and the corresponding household sizes (x) from a sample are shown in table
below. Compute the trip rate if the average household size is 3.25 (Hint: use regression method).

  Household size(x)
1 2 3 4
trips 1 3 4 5
per 3 4 5 8
 day 3 5 7 8

Answer: y = 0.837+ 1.533X

When average household size =3.25, number of trips becomes,

y = 0.837+ 1.533(3. 25) = 5.819

Trip Distribution

5. Uniform growth factor. If the only information available is about a general growth
rate for the whole of the study area, then we can only assume that it will apply to each
cell in the matrix, that is a uniform growth rate. The equation can be written as:

Tij = f × tij

Trips originating from zone 1,2,3 of a study area are 78,92 and 82 respectively and
those terminating at zones 1,2,3 are given as 78,96 and 78 respectively. If the growth
factor is 1.5 and the cost matrix is as shown below, find the expanded origin-
constrained growth trip table.

Zone  1 2 3 Oi
1 20 30 28 78
2 36 32 24 92
3 22 34 26 82
Dj 78 96 78 252

6. Doubly constrained growth factor model

The productions from the zone 1,2 and 3 for the horizon year is expected to grow to
103, 111, and 127 respectively. The attractions from these zones are expected to
increase to 107, 123, 111 respectively..

Base year

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 Zone  1 2 3 oi
1 25 30 28 83
2 36 32 24 92
3 22 39 26 87
dj 83 101 78 262

a) Compute the trip matrix for the horizon year using doubly constrained growth
factor model using Furness method
b) Determine the error

6. Generalized function of travel cost, f(Cij

Given the cost matrix below. Prepare the matrix for the generalized function of travel
cost.

The cost matrix is as shown.

Zon
e 1 2 3
1 1.2 1.4 1.9
2 1.4 1.2 1.7
3 1.9 1.7 1.2

7. Gravity model :The productions from zone 1, 2 and 3 are 103, 111, 127 and
attractions to zone 1,2 and 3 are 107, 123, 111.

O-D Matrix

Zone  1 2 3 Oi
1 T11 T12 T13 103
2 T21 T22 T23 111
3 T31 T32 T33 127
Dj 107 123 111 341

The cost matrix is as shown.

Zon
e 1 2 3
1 1.3 1.5 1.9
2 1.5 1.3 1.8
3 1.9 1.8 1.3

a) Prepare the function f(Cij)

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b) Prepare the computation parameters of Ai:
c) Prepare the computation parameters of Bj:
d) Compute the Trips produced in zone i and attracted to zone j (Tij
e) Determine the error
___________________________________________________________________

Sample Problem.
Elements of Transportation Process.

_____________________________________________________________________
References:
1.Introduction to Transportation Engineering 8.2 Tom V. Mathew and K V Krishna Rao
2.Handbook of Transportation Engineering 1st Edition
by Myer Kutz
3.Transportation engineering by Kanna & Justo and Environmental engineering by S.K
garg vol. 1&2
4.https://www.google.com/search?
q=trip+distribution+example&oq=trip+distribution&aqs=chrome.2.69i59j69i57j69i59l3j69i
60l3.10499j0j7&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8
5.https://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/tvm/1100_LnTse/204_lnTse/plain/plain.html

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