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UNIT 1:- CASTING PATTERNS

INTRODUCTION
In this process, components are produced by pouring molten metal into a
contoured cavity followed by cooling to a solid mass.

1. The cold solid mass represents the configuration of the cavity and is the
required shape of the component.

2. The components thus produced are called as casting.

3. The cavity compound to shape of the component is called mould.
4. The mould can be made of refractory material or metal.
5. The mould made out of refractory material is called sand moulds and that
of made out of metal is called metal moulds or dies.
6. Cooling of liquid metal to solid metal is termed as phase
transformation. The place where this activity is carried out is referred
to as foundry.
7. In short, casting process involves shaping of the metal by using a mould
cavity and hot metal.
8. In this process, the final shape is realized without using any other
mechanism unlike in other processes, except the conversion of liquid
metal to solid metal.

Steps involved in making a casting

1. Pattern
2. Mould preparation
3. Core making
4. Melting and pouring
5. Cleaning and Inspection

1. Pattern
A pattern is a replica of the object is to be cast. It is used to prepare a cavity into
which the molten metal is poured. A skilled pattern maker prepares the pattern
using wood, metal, plastic or any other material. Many factors like durability,
allowance for shrinkage and machining, etc., are considered when making a
pattern.

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2. Mould preparation
It involves for making a cavity by packing sand around a pattern enclosed in a
supporting metallic frame. When the pattern is removed from the mould an exact
shaped cavity remains into which the molten metal is poured. Gating and
risering are provided at suitable locations in the mould.

3. Core making
In some cases a hole or a cavity is required in the casting. This is obtained by
placing a core in the mould cavity. The shape of the core corresponds to the
shape of the hole required. The mould is cleaned & finished before metal
pouring.
4. Melting and pouring
Metals or alloys of the required composition are melted in a furnace and poured
in to the mould cavity. Many factors like temperature of molten metal, pouring
time, turbulence, etc should be considered while making & pouring.
5. Cleaning and Inspection
After the molten metal is solidified and cooled, the rough casting is removed
from the mould, cleaned and dressed (removing cores, adhered sand particles,
gating, risering system, fins, blisters, etc from the casting surface) and then sent
for inspection to check for dimensions or defects like blow holes, crakes, etc.

Procedure for making a casting

a. Mould box
It is usually a metallic frame used for making for holding a sand mould. The
mould box has two parts. The upper part is called “Cope” and the lower part
is called “Drag”.
b. Parting line
It is the zone of separation between a cope & drag position of the mould in
sand casting.
c. Sprue/Runner
It is a vertical passage through which the molten metal will enter the gate.
d. Pouring basin
The enlarge position of the sprue with its top into which the molten
metal is poured.

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e. Gate
It is a short passage way which carries the molten metal from the runner
sprue in to the mould cavity.
f. Riser
A riser or a feed head is a vertical passage that stores the molten metal and
supplies the same to the casting as it solidifies.
g. Mould cavity
The space in a mould that is filled with molten metal to form the casting upon
solidification.
h. Core
A core is performed by using a mass of sand placed in the mould cavity to
form hollow cavity in the castings.
i. Core print
It is a projection attached to the pattern to help for support and correct
location of core in the mould cavity.

Varieties Of Components Produced By Casting Process

Casting is the 1st step and the primary process for shaping any material. All
materials have to be cast before it is put in use.

The ingots produced by casting process are used as raw material for secondary
processes like machining, forging, rolling, etc.

To list the components produced by casting is an endless process, a few

major components produce by casting are given below:

a. Automotive sector: A few parts like brake drum, cylinder, cylinder

linings, pistons, engine blocks, universal joints, rocker arms, brackets,
etc.
b. Aircraft: Turbine blades, casting, etc.
c. Marine: Propeller blades
d. Machining: Cutting tools, machine beds, wheels and pulleys, blocks, table
for supports, etc.
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e. Agriculture & rail road equipments: Pumps and compressor, frames,

valves, pipes and fittings for construction.
f. Camera frame, parts in washing machine, refrigerator & air-conditioners
g. Steel utensil & a wide variety of products.

Following Are A Few Advantages And Limitations Of Casting Process.

Advantages:
* Casting is the basic and versatile (flexible) manufacturing process.
* Difficult shapes can be easily cast.
* Large, hollow & intricate shapes can be easily cast.
* Casting provides freedom of design with respect to shape, size and
quality of the product.
* Some metals that cannot be machined can be produced by casting to the
required shape.
* Heavy objects can be produced only by casting process.
* Controlled mechanical & metallurgical properties can be obtained.
* Casting process is most suitable for mass production.
* A large variety of alloying composition & properties can be obtained.
* Directional properties can be obtained in certain cases by controlled cooling.
 Parts with close dimensional tolerance & ready to use can be produced
by special casting methods.

Disadvantages OR Limitations


 Casting process is an elaborate process and involves operations.

It requires large infrastructure like casting section, melting, pattern,
 core section, cleaning, finishing, and inspection.

 Very high investment is required.

 Casting process is not economical & viable for small scale operations.

 The man power requirement is large.

 High care is required in handling chemicals and molten metal.

 The actual casting operation cannot be automated.

Generally, most operations may be casting or one of type i.e. mould has to
be prepared for each casting.

Great care is required in controlling the cooling rate to obtain defect free
 casting.

Very difficult to cast thin sections.

PATTERNS:
Definition: Pattern is a tool used to produce the mould cavity. It is a mould making
tool. The shape of the pattern is the same as that of the component or casting, but
the size will be slightly larger than the casting. Pattern is also referred to as the
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positive replica of the casting. A number or castings can be made using a single
pattern.
1.FUNCTIONS OF PATTERNS
The main purpose of a pattern is its use in molding. However, to produce a casting
successfully and render it suitable for further processing, the pattern may be required
to perform other functions besides producing a mold cavity. These are briefly
considered as follows:

Molding the Gating System

Good gating practice for castings generally requires that the system of channels and
feeding reservoirs (gates and risers) for introducing metal into the mold cavity be
attached to the pattern. The gating system may then obtain the benefits of machine
molding.
Establishing the Parting Line
On a flat pattern plate, the parting surface is a simple plane. Many castings, however,
require curved parting surfaces because of their shape, and these are established by
the pattern where match plate or cope and drag plates are used require that the parting
surface be cut by hand or that a follow bong or match be constructed for establishing
the parting surface in successive molds.
Making Core Prints
When a casting requires cores, provision is made on the pattern for core prints. Core
prints are portions of the pattern and mold cavity which serve to anchor the core in
proper position in the mold. The core prim is added to the pattern, but does not appear
on the casting because it is blocked off by the core.
Establishing Locating Points
The foundry, pattern shop, or machine shop employs locating points or surfaces on
the casting to check the casting dimensions. Machining operations may also use the
locating points in establishing the position of machined surfaces relative to the
balance of the casting.
Minimizing Casting Defects Attributable to the Pattern
Properly constructed, clean, and smooth surfaced patterns are a necessity in making
good castings. Patterns with rough, nicked surfaces and undercuts, loosely mounted,
and in a generally poor condition contribute substantially to defective castings
containing sand inclusions and other imperfections.
Providing for Ram-up Cores

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Sometimes a part of a mold cavity is made with cores which are positioned by the
pattern before the molding sand is rammed. The ram-up core then is held by the sand
which has been packed around it.
Providing Economy in Molding
The pattern should be constructed to achieve all possible savings in cost of the
casting. Here such items may be considered as the number of castings in the mold,
the proper size of the pattern plate to fit available. molding equipment, method of
molding, and other factors.

2.TYPES OF PATTERNS
There are various types of patterns depending upon the complexity of the job, the
number of castings required and the moulding procedure adopted.
Single piece pattern
These are inexpensive and the simplest type of patterns. As the name indicates, they
are made of a single piece as shown in Fig. 2.1 This type of pattern is used only in
cases where the job is very simple and does not create any withdrawal problems. It
is also used for applications in very small scale production or in prototype
development. This pattern is expected to be entirely in the drag. One of the surfaces
is expected to be flat which is used as the parting plane. If no such flat surface exists,
the moulding may become complicated with the necessity of a follow board as
explained later.

Fig. 2.1 Single piece pattern

Split pattern or two-piece pattern
This is the most widely used type of pattern for intricate castings. When the contour
of the casting makes its withdrawal from the mould difficult, or when the depth of
the casting is too high, then the pattern is split into two parts so that one part is in the
drag and the other in the cope. The split surface of the pattern is same as the parting
plane of the mould. The two halves of the pattern should be aligned properly by
making use of the dowel pins which are fitted to the cope half. These dowel pins

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match with the precisely made holes in the drag half of the pattern and thus align the
two halves properly as seen in Fig. 2.2.

Fig. 2.2 Split pattern

Gated pattern
This is an improvement over the simple pattern where the gating and runner system
are integral the pattern. This would eliminate the hand cutting of the runners and gates
and help in improving the productivity of a moulder.

Fig. 2.3 Gated pattern

Cope and drag pattern
These are similar to split patterns. In addition to splitting the pattern, the cope and
drag halves of the pattern along with the gating and risering systems are attached
separately to the metal or wooden plates along with the alignment pins (Fig.2.4).
They are called the cope and drag patterns. The cope and drag moulds may be
produced using these patterns separately by two moulders but they can be assembled
to form a complete mould. These types of patterns are used for castings which are
heavy and inconvenient for handling as also for continuous production.

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Fig.2.4 Cope and drag; pattern

Match plate pattern

These are extensions of the previous type. Here the cope and drag patterns along with
the gating and the risering are mounted on a single matching metal or wooden plate
on either side as shown in Fig. 2.5. On one side of the match plate the cope flask is
prepared and on the other, the drag flask. After moulding when the match plate is
removed, a complete mould with gating is obtained by joining the cope and the drag
together.
The complete pattern with match plate is entirely made of metal, usually
aluminium for its light weight and machinability. But when dimensions are critical,
the match plate may be made of steel with necessary case hardening of the critical
wear points. The pattern and gating are either screwed to the match plate in the case
of a flat parting plane or are made integral in case of an irregular parting p The casting
of a match plate pattern is done usually in plaster moulds, but sometimes sand mould
also used.

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Fig :- 2.5 Match plate pattern

When the cope and the drag patterns are similar, the pattern may be kept on
only one of the plate and is used for making both the drag as well as the cope. These
are generally used for small castings with higher dimensional accuracy and large
product The gating system is already made and attached to the match plate. Several
patterns can be fixed ty single match plate, if they are sufficiently small in size. These
patterns are used for machine mould They are expensive but since they increase
productivity, the additional cost is justified.
Loose piece pattern
This type of pattern is also used when the contour of the part is such that withdrawing
the pattern the mould is not possible. Hence during moulding the obstructing part of
the contour is held as a loose piece by a wire. After moulding is over, first the main
pattern is removed and then the loose pieces recovered through the gap generated by
the main pattern (Fig.2.6). Moulding with loose pieces a highly skilled job and is
generally expensive and therefore, should be avoided where possible.

Fig. 2.6 Loose piece pattern

Follow board pattern
This type of pattern is adopted for those castings where there are some portions which
are structurally weak and if not supported properly are likely to break under the force
of ramming. Hence the bottom board is modified as a follow board to closely fit the
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contour of the weak pattern and thus support it during the ramming of the drag.
During the preparation of the cope, no follow board is necessary because the sand
which is compacted in the drag will support the fragile pattern. An example is shown
in Fig. 2.7.

Fig. 2.7. Follow board pattern

Sweep pattern
It is used to sweep the complete casting by means of a plane sweep. These are used
for generating large shapes which are axi-symmetrical or prismatic in nature such as
bell shaped or cylindrical as shown in Fig. 2.8. This greatly reduces the cost of a three
dimensional pattern. This type of pattern is particularly suitable for very large
castings such as the bells for ornamental purposes used which are generally cast in
pit moulds

Fig. 2.8 Sweep pattern

Skeleton pattern
A skeleton of the pattern made of strips of wood is used for building the final pattern
by packing sand around the skeleton. After packing the sand, the desired form is
obtained with the help of a strickle as shown in Fig. 2.9. The type of skeleton to be
made is dependent upon the geometry of the workpiece. This type of pattern is useful
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generally for very large castings, required in small quantities where large expense on
complete wooden pattern is not justified.

Fig. 2.9 Skeleton pattern

3.VARIOUS PATTERN ALLOWANCES AND THEIR IMPORTANCE:
Pattern has the same shape as that of the casting but the dimensions will be
generally more than that of the casting. This extra dimension from the required
value, given on the pattern is called as “allowances”. These allowances need to be
given on the pattern due to metallurgical and mechanical reasons. The different
types of allowances are;

a) Shrinkage allowance
b) Draft allowance
c) Machining allowance
d) Scale & Grinding allowance
e) Distortion allowance

a) Shrinkage allowance: All metals and alloys undergo decrease in volume

when cooled from liquid temperature to room temperature. This change in
volume of metal or alloy is called as “shrinkage”. Fig. 1 shows the variation
of shrinkage as a function of temperature. As the molten metal is cooled from
its superheat temperature, the volume starts decreasing continuously till it
reaches room temperature. This is a natural phenomenon. Shrinkage of metal
or alloy takes place in three stages viz. liquid to liquid, liquid to solid and
solid to solid. The first two are taken care of by providing risers in the
castings. The last one is taken care of by providing shrinkage allowance on
the pattern. This is also referred to as pattern shrinkage allowance. The value
of this depends on the nature of the metal or alloy. This allowance when given
on to the pattern, will increase its size. Pattern maker’s scale is available to
facilitate easy and direct measurement. Pattern shrinkage for some metals is:
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Cast steel 3-5 mm per 100mm length

Aluminu 3-4 mm per 100mm length
Cast iron 2-3 mm per 100mm length

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b) Draft allowance: It is the allowance given to the vertical surface of the

pattern to facilitate easy removal of the pattern from the mould cavity,
without causing any damage to the mould. This allowance depends on the
type of moulding. Fig. 2 and 2a, 2b & 2c shows the method of draft allowance
given in patterns. Damage is caused to the vertical pattern portions of the
mold, when there is no draft. Hence by giving taper or draft on the vertical
portions of the pattern there is no damage caused to the mould when the
pattern is lifted upwards.

c) Machining allowance: Most of the castings will have more than one surface
that needs machining. The dimensions get reduced after machining. Hence,
the size of the pattern is made larger than required. During machining, this
extra material on the casting is removed. This allowance depends on the
nature of the metal and the dimensions of the castings. Typical machining
allowances are:

Ex. Cast Iron 1-10 mm

Cast steel 3-12 mm
1.5-4.5
Aluminium mm
1.5-4.5
Alloys mm
Brass, Bronze,
etc 1.5-5 mm
d) Scale & Grinding allowance: Most of the castings undergo heat treatment
and due to higher temperatures scales are formed on the surface. This needs
to be removed by grinding operation. In addition, sometimes surface
roughness or imperfection needs to be removed by grinding operation.
Hence, the size of the casting is made slightly bigger than the required to
accommodate this. The magnitude of this extra allowance is 0.2 -3 mm.

e) Distortion allowance: Casting having shapes such as C, U and large plate,

loose their shapes during solidification. The loss of shape is referred to as
distortion. This is due to the shrinkage stresses present during solidification.
To take care of this, the pattern is given an allowance in the direction opposite
to the expected distortion. This is referred to as distortion allowance. More
or experience is essential is addition to the design knowledge in arriving to
this allowance. Fig. shows the distortion allowance

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4.Pattern Materials
Materials used for Patterns: Before selecting a particular material, a few factors
are to be considered, they are:

a) Number of castings to be produced.

b) Degree of accuracy and surface finish of casting required.
c) Shape and size of the casting.
d) Re-usability of pattern, so that they will provide a repeatable
dimensionally acceptable.
e) Type of mould material used- clay or resin.
Type of moulding selected – green sand moulding, investment process etc.
The following materials are used for making patterns: -
a) Wood – Well seasoned teak wood is used for the pattern. Wood is soft, light
and easy to work and takes the shape easily. Used for producing smaller
number of castings. Large and small patterns can be made. It wears out faster,
cannot withstand rough handling and can absorb moisture.
b) Metal – Is stronger than wood, but heavier than wood. Can maintain
dimensions accurately for a very long time. Does not absorb moisture. Used
to produce large number of castings. Has longer life. It is difficult to repair.
Bigger sized patterns cannot be made using this.
c) Wax – Is a low melting point material. Imparts good surface to the mould.
Can be recovered and used again and again. Used in investment casting
moulding. A combination of paraffin, wax, bees wax, etc. is used for making
the pattern.
d) Plastics – Plastic material is a compromise between wood and metal.
Thermosetting resins like phenolic resin, epoxy resin, foam plastic etc. are
used as materials for making pattern. It is strong and light in weight. Does

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not absorb moisture during its use and storage. Gives good surface finish to
castings. Thin sections are difficult to cast using plastics. Initially plastic
patterns have to be cast and finished to desired shape and size. This leads to
the increase in cost of the final cast product.
e) Plaster – Gypsum or plaster of Paris is another pattern material capable of
producing intricate castings to close dimensional tolerances. They are strong,
light in weight, easily shaped, gives good surface finish. However, they used
for small castings only. Plaster readily mixes with water and when allowed
sets and becomes hard. Normally plaster is used for producing master dies
and moulds.

BINDER: The sand used for preparing moulds is a mixture of silica sand ( of
all the various sand like zircon, olivine, magnesite etc., silica sand is the widely
used), binder and additives.

Moulding sand = Silica sand + Binder + Additives

A hard mould is the primary requirement is making any castings, and

binders serve the purpose. A binder is a material used to produce cohesion or
bind the sand particles (silica sand) together thereby imparting strength to the
sand. Clay binders (Bentonites) are the most widely used for bonding moulding
sands. But, clay activates or tends to bind sand particles only in the presence of
water (moisture). The amount of water added to clay should be based on
experimental trials because, if too little water is added, the sand will lack
strength as the bond between the sand is low. On the other hand, too much water
causes sand to reach semi liquid state thereby making it unsuitable for moulding.
In other words, for a given percentage of clay, there is an optimum percentage
of water that gives favorable properties to the moulding sand. For good
moulding sand, clay may vary in the range 6-12% and moisture from 3-5%.
Types of binders used in moulding sand: Binders are classified into two types:
a) Organic binders and
b) Inorganic binders.

Organic group of binders include:

 Dextrin – made from starch
 Molasses – a byproduct of sugar industry
 Cereal binders – gelatinized starch and gelatinized flour
 Linseed oil – a vegetable oil
 Resins – urea formaldehyde, phenol formaldehyde etc.

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Inorganic group of binders include:

 Clay binders – bentonite, fire clay, etc
 Portland cement
 Sodium silicate etc.

ADDITIVES:
Additives are generally added to develop certain new properties, or to enhance the
existing properties of the moulding sand. They do not form a compulsory
constituent to the moulding sand. However, its addition improves the quality of the
moulding sand and hence the casting obtained.
A few commonly used additives used and their properties are mentioned below:

(a) Sea Coal

It is a finely powdered bituminous coal.

Its addition ranges from 2-8% by weight of sand.

Enhances peeling property of castings.

Improves surface finish of castings

Prevents sand burn out.

(b) Silica Flour

It is pulverized silica added in ranges of 5-10% based on sand weight.

Resists metal penetration in the mould walls.

Improves surface finish.

(c) Wood Flour (Cellulose material)

It is a pulverized soft wood (fibrous material)

Added in ranges of 1-2% by weight of sand.

Controls sand expansion created by temper water.

Absorbs excess water and improves flowability of sand during

moulding process.
Improves collapsibility of moulds/cores.

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(d) Iron Oxide

Develops hot strength to moulding sand.

Aid in the thermal transfer of heat from the mould-metal interface

and provides stability to the moulds dimensional properties

SAND MOULDING PROCESSES AND MATERIALS

Sand Moulding: A mould is a cavity created using metal or refractory sand. The
shape of the cavity corresponds to the shape of casting except the dimensions. A
mould is referred to as the negative replica of the casting. Mould made of metal is
called as metal or metallic moulds and the ones made by using sand is called sand
moulds.
Sand moulds or non-metallic moulds:

Sand moulds are made using a mixture of refractory sand along with a binder,
additive and water.
This mixture is referred to as moulding sand.
A mould cavity is prepared using this moulding sand.
They are also referred to as non-metallic moulds or refractory moulds.
Moulding sands may be:

Natural sand:

Occur readily in nature and contains all the ingredients in the right proportion.
The sand can be directly used to prepare the mould.

Synthetic sand:
Are prepared by making different ingredients (sand, binder, water, etc.) in the
correct proportion and then used for preparing the moulds.

PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SAND: An important property of a

moulding sand is that, it should produce a sound casting, i.e. a good casting. To
achieve this, the moulding sand should possess the following desired
properties:
1.Flowability:
It is the ability of the sand to flow easily and cover all the contours on the
pattern, thus take the desired shape.
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The sand with good flowability gets compacted to a uniform density.

Energy during ramming gets easily transmitted through the sand if the flowability
is good.
Clay and water additions influence flowability.
Good moulding sand should have good flowability property.
2.Green Strength:
It is the strength of the sand when in moist condition or green condition (after
compaction).
A mould with adequate green strength will retain its shape, does not distort and
will not collapse while handling it.
A mould with adequate green strength resists metallostatic pressure and sand
erosion while molten metal is flowing in the mould.
Good moulding sand should have good green strength property.

3.Dry strength:
It is the strength of the sand when there is no moisture in the sand i.e. in the
dry condition.


Hence, a good moulding should be able to develop good dry strength.



By heating the mould to approximately 200oC, all the moisture in the sand can
be removed, the strength of such dried sand represents dry strength. 
Dry sand enhances strength of the mould.


Resistance to erosion is improved considerably. 



Shape of the mould is retained easily in the dry condition.



4.Hot Strength:
It is the strength of the sand mould at high temperature above 100oC i.e. if the hot
strength of sand is good at 200oC, it means that the sand has the necessary strength
when sand is heated and held at 200oC.


When molten metal is poured into the cavity, the mould gets heated up.


If the sand does not have sufficient strength at this temperature it will induce
casting defects.
Hence, sand should have adequate strength at elevated temperature.
5.Permeability:
It is the ability of the sand/mould to allow easy escape of gases/vapor through it.


When molten metal comes in contact with the mould and core surface,
moisture, binders and additives present in them produce gases and vapor.

These tend to go through vents and also pass through the mould surface. 


The sand surface should allow the gases/vapour to escape.



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If these are entrapped in the casting, defects will appear in the casting as
pores. Hence, good moulding sand should have good permeability. 


6.Collapsibility:
It is the ability of the moulding sand to collapse after the casting solidifies. It
should break down into pieces at the knock out and cleaning stages, easily. 


Easier the mould breaks, higher is the collapsibility property of the sand.


If the mould or core sand does not collapse easily, it may obstruct/restrict
the contraction of the solidifying casting and result in cracks/tear in the
casting.
Hence, the collapsibility of the sand should be good.
7.Bench line:
It is the ability of the moulding sand to retain its properties during its storage.


The sand should posses fairly good bench life.

A good moulding sand should have good bench life.
8.Coefficient of expansion:
Moulding sand should have very low expansion characteristics otherwise
sand expansion will occur.


Lower the value of expansion, lesser is the problem of expansion defects in

the mold. Lesser is the cracking tendency of the mold.


9.Adhesiveness:
It is the property of the moulding sand owing to which the surfaces of the mould
are held together.


It is because of this property that the sand sticks to the walls of the boxes.

A good moulding sand should have good adhesiveness.

10.Durability:
It is the ability of the sand to withstand repeated cycles of heating and cooling
and still retain its properties.


The sand should be reusable i.e. should be able to reclaim the sand. 

BASE SAND:

It is a mass of refractory grains. Grains are formed due to the withering action
of rocks. It is available in plenty in nature along sea beaches, deserts, etc. Base
sand refers to sand grains without any other ingredients. They are normally
oxides of elements.
Types of base sand:

1) Silica Sand
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2) Olivine Sand
3) Chromite Sand
4) Zircone Sand

Silica Sand: Silica sand is essentially silicon dioxide (SiO2) found in nature on the
bottom and banks of the rivers, lake and seashore. Silica deposits tend to have
varying degree of organic and mineral contaminants like limestone, magnesia, soda
and potash that must be removed prior to its use, otherwise which affects castings
in numerous ways.
Silica sand is available in plenty, less expensive and possess favorable
properties. But its high thermal expansion leads to certain casting defects; the
reason for which not being used in steel foundries. However, silica sand when
mixed with certain additives like wood flour, cereals, (corn flour) saw dust, etc.,
defects can be eliminated. These additives burn by the heat of the molten metal
thereby creating voids that can be accommodated the sand expansion.

Olivine sand: Olivine sand is typically used in non-ferrous foundries. With its
thermal expansion about half of that of silica sand makes it suitable for production
of steel castings also. But the high cost restricts its wide use.

Chromite sand: This is African sand with cost being much higher compared to
other sands. Due to its superior thermal characteristics, it is generally used in steel
foundries for both mould and core making.

Zircon sand: Zircon or zirconium silicate possesses most stable thermal properties
of all the above discussed sand. The choice for this type of sand arises when very
high temperatures are encountered and refractoriness becomes a consideration. But
the major disadvantage is that, zircon has trace elements of uranium & thorium
which is hazardous in nature, thereby restricting its use in foundries.

SAND CASTINGS
Molding processes where a sand aggregate is used to make the mold produce by far
the largest quantity of castings. Whatever the metal poured into sand molds, the
product may be called a sand casting.
Green-sand Molding
Among the sand-casting processes, molding is most often done with green. sand.
Green molding sand may be defined as a plastic mixture of sand grains, clay, water,
and other materials which can be used for molding and casting processes. The sand
20
[Type here]

is called "green" because of the moisture present and is thus distinguished from dry
sand. The basic steps in green-sand molding are as follows:
1. Preparation of the pattern. Most green-sand molding is done with match plate or
cope and drag patterns. Loose patterns are used when relatively few castings of a type
are to be made. In simple hand molding the loose pattern is placed on a mold board
and surrounded with a suitable-sized flask, as illustrated in Fig.

Fig 1 Drag half of mould made by hand. Drag is ready to be rolled over in preparation for making the cope

Fig 2 Cope mold rammed up the pattern shown in fig 1

2: Making the mold Molding requires the ramming of sand around the pattern. As the
sand is packed, it develops strength and becomes rigid within the flack Ramming
may be done by hand, as in the maple setup illustrated in Fig 31. Both cope and drag
ate molded in the same way, but the cope must provide for the sprue. The gating-
system parts of the mold cavity are simply channels for the entry of the molten metal,
and can be molded as Because of their importance, gating systems are consider.
3. Care setting. With cope and drag halves of the mold made and the pattern
withdrawn, cores are set into the mold cavity to form the internal surfaces of the
casting Core setting by hand is illustrated in Fig. 33, showing also a mold made by a
squeeze-molding machine, a match-plate pattern with attached gating, and an
irregular parting surface.
4. Closing and weighting. With cores set, the cope and drag are closed. The cope
must dually be weighted down or clamped to the drag to prevent it from floating
when the metal is poured.

Because of the nature of green-sand molding and molding sands, the process has
certain advantages and limitations. Advantages are:
1. Great flexibility as a production process. Mechanical equipment can be utilized for
performing molding and its allied operations. Furthermore, green and can be reused
many times by reconditioning it with water, lay, and other materials. The molding
process can be rapid and repetitive.
2 Usually, the most direct route from pattern to mould ready for pouring is by green
and molding
21
[Type here]

3. Economy: green-sand molding is ordinarily the least costly method of molding.

Limitations in the use of green-sand molding are:

1. Some casting designs require the use of other casting processes. Thin, long
projections of green sand in a mold cavity are washed away by the molten metal or
may not even be moldable. Cooling fins on air-cooled-engine cylinder blocks and
head, are an example. Greater strength is then required of the mold.

2. Certain metals and some castings develop defects if poured into molds. containing
moisture.
3. More intricate castings can be made by some other casting processes.
4. The dimensional accuracy and surface finish of green-sand castings may not be
adequate.
5. Large castings require greater mold strength and resistance to erosion than are
available in green sands

Dry-sand Molds
Dry-sand molds are actually made with molding sand in the green condition. The
sand mixture is modified somewhat to favor goo strength and other properties after
the mold is dried. Dry-sand moulding may be done the same way as green-sand
molding on smaller sizes castings. Usually, the mold-cavity surface is coated or
sprayed with mixture which, upon drying, imparts greater hardness refractoriness to
the mold. The entire mold is then dried in an oven at 300 to 650 F or by circulating
heated air through the mold. T time-consuming drying operation is one inherent
disadvantage of t dry-sand mold.

Core Sand or Core Molds

Sometimes molds are made entirely of an assemblage of cores. In place of patterns,
core boxes are used for making all parts of the mold. The cores are fitted together to
make the mold, being located by alignment bosses and holes. They usually are poured
without a flask surrounding the mold.
Core sands usually consist of mixtures of sand grains and organic binders
which develop great strength after baking at 250 to 650 F. Their strength after baking
makes it possible to cast metal around thin sand projections without having them
break or erode because of the hot-metal action. The baking operation and the core-
22
[Type here]

sand binders plus difficulties in reusing the sand makes the process costlier. This cost
is usually justified, however, in the intricate castings made by this process. Figure
illustrates intricate castings made in core-sand molds. Core-sand molds are also
sometimes made with dry molding sands on cement-bonded sands, where the great
strength and heat resistance of dry-sand mixture are required, as in large castings. A
process in which the molds do not require baking is known a sh air-set process. A
mixture of sand, liquid organic binders, and catalyst hardens with time by
polymerization of the liquid resins. Molding mainly done by pouring the free-flowing
sand mixture around the patter Vibration or ramming is sometimes used to obtain a
denser mold. L about 20 min or more, the mixture hardens, and the core box or patter
may be removed. The pieces are then ready for core assembly.

MOULDING MACHINES
Moulding machines are used to maintain mold quality, reduce
allowances, have reproducibility in molding, casting and to enhance
productivity.

The following are moulding machines, classified based on the method of ramming.

a. Jolt machine
b. Squeeze machine
c. Jolt-squeeze machine

23
[Type here]

a. Jolt Machine
The machine consists of a cylinder with two passages on for permitting
compressed air at the bottom and another for air to go out. A piston is located in
the cylinder and can move up and down. The piston carries a table at the top.
One the top of the table a pattern can be fixed and mould box can be placed
around it. A control panel is located near the machine to operate it. The machine
is located on a firm and rigid concrete base. A hopper carrying sand mixture is
located above the machine. By operating the lever compressed air can be made
to flow through the bottom of the piston.

Working operation:

First the moulding sand is filled into the box to cover the pattern. The pattern
is placed on the table. Moulding box is placed on to the table. Compressed air let into
the cylinder. Now the table starts moving upwards till the bottom of the piston reaches
the top portion. At top portion the air escapes out causing a drop in the pressure inside
the cylinder. Due to its own weight the table along with the box drops down. Again
the compressed air lifts the piston up till top point and the box is dropped downwards.

A jolting action is created. The process is repeated several times to achieve a

desired hardness in the mould. Sand is compacted more at the bottom due to jolting
action. Cope and drag boxes are prepared this way.
b. Squeeze Machine

It consists of a cylinder and piston assembly as in jolting machine. It has only

one opening in the cylinder connected by a twoway valve. Through this valve
compressed air can be let inside the cylinder or let out. Thus the piston can be lifted
or lowered inside the cylinder. The piston head carries a table on which the
platen/board corresponding to the inside cross section of the mould box is fixed. This
board when positioned above the box will squeeze the sand in it when the piston

24
[Type here]

moves upwards. The platen can be swung to one side for placing the mold box and
filling the sand.

Working operation

 First the mould box is kept on the table fixed with the pattern.

 Moulding sand is filled in the box at least 25% in excess of the box volume.

 The platen/board is brought in position above the box.

 Compressed air is then allowed inside the cylinder through the value.

 Now the piston will move upwards along with the box.

 The platen will squeeze the sand in the box during this period.

 Compacted sand will have more compaction on the top and less at the
bottom due to squeezing action.

 The air pressure is released now. The piston and box move down wards.

 The box is ejected out using ejector pins.

 One half of the mould is ready now.

 Similarly next half is done and assembled.

 Two machines placed side by side are used to prepare cope and drag molds.

 Suitable for small works and shallow boxes.

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[Type here]

C. Jolt and Squeeze Machine

Here both jolt and squeeze action are imparted to
the sand. Constructional features
 It consists of a piston (P) carrying a table (T)
 Piston is housed in a sleeve (S)
 Sleeve has an opening O1 at the top and another opening (O3) at the bottom
 Sleeve is housed in an outer casing (C) which has a firm base (B)
 The casing has 3 openings O2, O4 and O5
 Opening O4 is connected to the valve 1 referred to as Jolt valve
 Opening O5 is connected to valve 2 referred to as squeeze valve
 Opening O2 is the exhaust part and connects the opening O1 Valves
1 and 2 are connected to a pipe which in turn is connected to
compressed air supply.

The pattern for moulding can be mounted on the table and the moulding box can
be placed in position by using locating pins. A squeeze head at the top of the
machine is used to squeeze the sand in the mould box

Working Operations:
`To start with the piston and sleeve are in the bottom position. O1, O2 and
O3, O4 are connected and are in line. By opening the valve 1, compressed air is
made to pass through the opening O4, O3. Now the piston carrying the mould box
with sand mixture moves upwards till the bottom of the piston just move above the
opening O1. Suddenly the compressed air below the piston escapes out through
O1, O2, opening. This results in drop in the pressure inside the sleeve below the
piston. Due to this the piston drops downwards causing jolting action. The sand
gets compacted. Now the connection between O1, and the sleeve chamber is cut
off. Since the valve 1 connects O4, and O3, this will again increase the pressure
inside the sleeve. This once again lifts the piston upwards. When the bottom of the
piston crosses the opening O1, the pressure drops once again causing jolting. This
can be repeated several times. Now for bringing about squeezing action, valve 1 is
26
[Type here]

closed and valve 2 is opened. This results in establishing connection between valve
2 and opening O5. This causes increase in the pressure at the bottom of the sleeve.
Now the piston and the sleeve now get lifted upwards. The squeeze head is brought
in line with the mould box containing sand. This results in the squeezing action of
the sand against the squeeze head. Squeezing action can be repeated. By this
mechanism both jolting squeezing can be imparted to the sand in the mould. The
hardness of the mould will be uniform throughout from top to bottom.

MOULDING SAND MIXTURE INGREDIENTS FOR DIFFERENT SAND

MIXTURES

A moulding sand is a mixture of base sand, binder and additives. Ingredients for
dry sand mixture are similar to that of green sand.
a. Ingredients for Green Sand Mixture
Green sand mixture is composed of base sand, binder, moisture and additives.

Base Sand: Silica sand is used as the base sand. It possesses favourable properties,
inexpensive and can be reused many number of times. The amount of silica sand
added may vary depending on the requirements

Binder: Bentonite (clay binder) is the widely used binder for bonding sand
particles. It is activated in the presence of water. A best bond between the
sand can be obtained with bentonite varying from 6-12% and water 3-5%.

Additives: Additives are added in small quantities to develop certain new

properties or to enhance the existing properties of moulding sand. Sea coal,
silica flour, wood flour and iron oxide are commonly used additives.

b. Ingredients for No-bake sand mixture:

Of all the various no-bake sand mixture, viz., Furan system, Phenolic
urethane system, Alkyd system, sodium silicate binder system, etc.
Ingredients of Alkyd binder system which is one of the most widely used
binder system is discussed below.

Base sand: Silica sand is used as the base sand.

Binder: The alkyd binder system consists of

three parts: Part – A (binder)

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[Type here]

Part – B
(hardener) Part
– C (catalyst)

Part – A (binder): The binder is alkyd resin which is obtained by reacting

linseed oil with a polybase acid like iso-pathalic and solvents like turpentine,
kerosene or mineral spirit to improve flowability. Its addition ranges from 2-
5% based on weight of sand.

Part – B (hardener): The hardener is a reacted product between cobalt/lead

salts and napthanic acid. Its addition ranges from 5-10% based on weight of
binder.

Part – C (catalyst): Methylene-diphenyl-Di-isocyanate commonly known

as MDI is used as catalyst to speed up the chemical reaction. It addition
ranges from 20-25% based on weight of binder.

CORES
Cores are used in the mould to produce mainly hollow castings. It is the only
method through which cavities can be produced in the casting without
machining.

Core sand is used to prepare the core. A core consists of base sand, a binder and
water if required. Special types of binders are used for the purpose. Core sand
is filled in a metal or wooden die then rammed to get the desired geometry of
the die. The shaped sand represents green core. This core gains strength after
suitable treatments, depending on the type of binder used.

TYPES OF CORES

Cores are classified based on:

a) Condition of i. Green sand - contains moisture

core: core
- Cores does not contain moisture,
ii. Dry sand core
core in the dried form

b) Binder used i. Resin bonded - contains resin as binder

core
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[Type here]

ii. Sodium silicate core - contains sodium

silicate as the binder
iii. Oil bonded
core - contains oil as binder
- contains urea/phenol
iv. Shell core formaldehyde
resin as binder
c) Hardening - uses co2 gas to harden the
process i. CO2 process sand
used ii. No bake oil - uses air to harden the sand
- uses heating to harden the
iii Furan no bake sand
- uses chemical reaction to
iv. Nishiyama harden the
Sand
- uses chemical reaction to
v. Fluid sand harden
the sand
d) Shape & position i. Horizontal core - core placed in horizontal
- core placed in vertical
position of the core ii. Vertical core position
iii. Balanced core - core hanging on one side
- core suspended from the
iv. Hanging core top.

Green sand core: A green sand core is composed of a mixture of silica sand,
binder (bentonite), moisture and additives. The preparation of green sand core
is similar to that used for green sand mould.

Dry sand core: The sand used for preparing a dry sand core is different from
that used for dry sand moulds. A dry sand core is composed of a mixture of

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silica sand and binder. The binder may be sodium silicate, Portland cement,
linseed oil, mineral oil, natural resins, etc.

Binder used : explained above.

Hardening process used : explained above

Shape and position of the core:

a. Horizontal core: The core is placed horizontally in the mould, it is known
as horizontal core. The core prints are provided at both ends of the core to rest
in the seats initially provided by the pattern. These core prints helps the core to
be securely and correctly positioned in the mould cavity.

b. Vertical core: When the axis of the core is vertical, it is known as vertical
core.
c. Balanced core: A balanced core is one that is supported from its
one end only. Such cores are used when the cavity required is only
to a certain depth.

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[Type here]

d. Hanging core: The core is supported from the top, the core hangs
vertically from the mould and the core may be provided with a hole for
molten metal to flow.

e. Drop core: Drop core is used when the axis of the desired hole does not
co inside with the parting line of the mould, i.e., the core is required to be
placed either above or below the parting line.

f. Kiss core: In some cases, pattern cannot be provided with core prints and
hence no seat will be available as a rest for the core. In such cases, the
core is held in position between the cope and the drag by the pressure
exerted from the cope on the drag. Such a core is called a kiss core and is
shown in fig.

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[Type here]

Ram-up core: When a core is to be placed in an inaccessible position, it is

difficult to place it after ramming the mould. The core used in this case is called
a ram-up core and is placed in the mould along with the pattern before ramming
fig.

BINDERS USED FOR CORES

Binders used for core making are of various types: each type used to provide
some desired property to a core for particular use or set of conditions. The core
binders commonly used are discussed below:

a) Binders that become firm at room

temperature. The binders that come
under this group include:
 Sodium silicate
Sodium silicate is mixed with silica sand to prepare a core of desired
shape and size. Vent holes are made in the core after which carbon-
dioxide gas is passed through it. The core hardens rapidly within a few
seconds after gassing is stopped.
 Port Land Cement
Port land cement is mixed with silica sand and water to prepare a core of
desired shape
after which it is made to set (dry) in a room for about 72 hours. The strength
develop with this binder is very high and hence, preferred for heavy steel and gray
iron castings.
 Rubber Cement (Rubber latex)
Bonding of cores with this binder is a patented process. Silica sand is
mixed with water, and then the rubber latex (obtained from plant) is
added. The core is rammed and allowed to harden at room temperature.

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 Synthetic resins (No bake binders)

Synthetic resins like phenol and urea formaldehyde are used as binders.
They are mixed with hardeners and/or catalyst to bring about a chemical
reaction. Strength development in cores takes place within a few minutes
after mixing.

b) Binder that become firm on baking

This group of binders does not develop their strength by chemical or
physical changes, rather they become hard on heating (baking). Binders
materials of this group include:
Vegetable oils ex. Linseed oil

Marine animal oil ex. Whale oil

Cereal binder
Dextrin made from starch
Molasses (by product of sugar industry)
Pitch (a coal tar product)

c) Binder that harden on cooling after being heated

A binder that softens on heating and hardens on cooling includes natural

resins like:
 Gum resins – obtained by tapping the living tree and distilling the gum.
 Wood resins – obtained from pine stump wood.
 Limed wood resins – these are wood resins treated with lime
 Coal tar resins – a product of coal tar industry.
d) Other binders
Clay binders – bentonite mixed with water.
Saw dust and wood floor – although not pure binders (they provide
little adhesive strength), they serve to improve the collapsibility of the
core.
Protein binders ex. Gelatin & glues.

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Testing Sand Properties

Sample preparation can be done by mixing various ingredients like sand,
clay and moisture. During mixing, the lump present in sand should be broken up
properly. The clay should be uniformly enveloped and the moisture should be
uniformly distributed.
The equipment used for preparation of moulding sand is known as Mueller.
This is of two types. (i) Batch Mueller- Consists of one/two wheels and equal
no. of blades connected to a single driving source. The wheels are large and
heavy. (ii) Continuous Mueller- In this type, there are two bowls with wheel
and ploughs. The mixture is fed through hopper in one bowl. After muelled, it is
moved to another bowl. This type of Mueller is suitable for large scale production.
Moisture Content
1st method - 50g of moulding sand sample is dried at 1050C to 1100C for
2hrs. The sample is then weighed. Wt. diff * 2= % of moisture content 2nd
method - Moisture teller can be used for measuring moisture content. The Sand
is dried suspending sample on fine metallic screen allowing hot air to flow
through sample. This method takes less time in comparison to the previous one.
3rd method - A measured amount of calcium carbide along with moulding sand
in a separate cap is kept in the moisture teller. Both should not come in contact
with each other. Apparatus should be shaken vigorously such that the following
reaction takes place.
CaC2 + 2H2O – C2H2 + Ca(OH)2
The acetylene coming out will be collected in space above the sand raising
the pressure. A pressure gauge connected to the apparatus would give directly the
amount of acetylene generated, which is proportional to the moisture present.
Clay Content
A 50g of sand sample is dried at 1050C to 1100C and is taken in a 1lt.
glass flask. 475ml distilled water and 25ml of a 1% solution of caustic soda
(NaOH 25g/l) is added to it. The sample is thoroughly stirred (5 mins). The
sample is then diluted with fresh water upto 150 mm mark and then left
undisturbed for 10mins to settle. The sand settles at bottom and the clay floats.
125mm of this water is siphoned off and again topped to the same level. The
process is repeated till water above the sand becomes clear. Then the sand is
removed and dried by heating. The difference in weight multiplied by 2 will give
the clay % of sand.
Sand Grain Size
For sand grain size measurement, the moulding sand sample should be free
from moisture and clay. The dried clay free sand grains are place on the top sieve

34
[Type here]

of sieve shaker (gradually decreasing mesh size). The sieves are shaken
continuously for 15 mins. After this the sieves are taken apart and the sand over
each sieve is weighed. The amount retained on each sieve is multiplied by the
respective weightage factor, summed up and then divided by the total mass f the
sample which gives the grain fineness number. GFN= ƩMi fi/ Ʃfi Mi=
multiplying factor for the ith sieve Fi= amount of sand retained on the ith sieve
Permeability
Rate of flow of air passing through a standard specimen under a standard
pressure is known as permeability number.
P=VH/pAT
V= volume of air= 2000cm3
H= height of sand specimen= 5.08cm
P= air pressure, 980Pa (10g/cm2)
A= cross sectional area of sand specimen= 20.268 cm2
T= time in min. for the complete air to pass through
Inserting the above standard values in the expression we get,
P= 501.28/ P.T Permeability test is conducted for two types of sands
(a) Green permeability – permeability of green sand
(b) Dry permeability – permeability of the moulding sand dried at 1050C
to 1100C to remove the moisture completely.
Strength
Measurement of strength of moulding sand is carried out on the universal
sand- strength testing M/C. The strength can be measured in compression, shear
& tension. The types of sand that can be tested are green, dry, core sands.
Green Compressive Strength
Stress required to rupture the sand specimen under compressive loading
refers to the green compressive strength. It is generally in the range of 30 to
160KPa.
Green Shear Strength
The stress required to shear the specimen along the axis is represented as
green shear strength. The range is 10 to 50 KPa.

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[Type here]

Dry Strength
The test is carried out with a standard specimen dried between 105 to
110°C for 2 hours. The range found is from 140 to 1800KPa.
Mould Hardness
A spring loaded steel ball (0.9kg) is indented into standard sand specimen
prepared. If no penetration occurs, then the hardness will be 100. And when it
sinks completely, the hardness will be 0 indicating a very soft mould.

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[Type here]

UNIT 2 MELTING PRACTICE

Introduction
Metals and alloys are converted to liquid state using an equipment (a
refractory lined metallic shell wherein this conversion takes place) called
“furnace”.
The source of heat provided to the furnace for the conversion of solid to
liquid is called as “melting furnace”.
Furnaces are selected based on the type of metal to be melted, quantity,
fuel used and quality of metal required, etc
CLASSIFICATION OF FURNACES
The melting furnaces used for melting various ferrous and non-ferrous metals
and alloys can be classified based on:

Fuel Metal melted Furnace used

Ø
Coke Cast iron Cupola
Ø
Non-ferrous Crucible/Pit furnace
(solid lump)
alloys

v
Oil (liquid) Non-ferrous § Crucible (pit) furnace
alloys § Open hearth
Electricity o Steel, cast iron Electric Arc furnace (Direct
o Non-ferrous arc)
alloys Resistance furnace
o Iron, steel
Induction furnace

37
[Type here]

Crucible Furnace.
Crucible furnaces are small capacity typically used for small melting
applications. Crucible furnace is suitable for the batch type foundries where the
metal requirement is intermittent. The metal is placed in a crucible which is made
of clay and graphite. The energy is applied indirectly to the metal by heating the
crucible by coke, oil or gas. The heating of crucible is done by coke, oil or gas.
In this type of furnace, the crucible kept on the pedestal (refractory
support) charged with the ingot, coke lumps are packed around the crucible and
ignited. Once it starts burning, blower is switched on, and then the coke is
charged slowly, till the coke reaches the level of crucible. A lid is placed on the
crucible and the blower is kept full blast. Metal starts melting and once it
reaches the desired temperature blower is switched off. Crucible is taken out,
and the molten metal is treated and poured.

OIL FIRED FURNACE

In this type of furnace, the crucible kept on the pedestal (refractory
support) charged with the ingot. A burner is situated at the bottom on one side.
Valves are provided to control the amount of air and oil supplied to the burner,
so that the flames can be controlled. The oil from the burner is ignited and the
desired flame is controlled by valves. After the metal melts and attains the
desired super heat, the crucible is taken out and the molten metal is treated and
poured.

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GAS FIRED FURNACE

Fire is created at the bottom using waste/coke/wood, etc. Gas is blown
through the burner. This will create a flame and heats the inside of the lining.
The burner is switched off and the crucible with ingots is placed. The burner
is switched on. Flame will sweep round the crucible and the flame is used to
melting. Once the metal reaches the desired temperature, the burner is
switched off and the crucible is taken out and the molten metal is treated and
poured.

INDUCTION FURNACE (IF)

It is the most popular furnace for carrying out melting operation with
simplicity. Good quality of melt can be obtained. It works on the principle of
induced emf as in the case of transformer. Molten metal acts as the secondary
and the current carrying conductor acts as the primary.
Principle of working

 Induction furnace works on the transformer principle

 Water cooled copper coil carrying current acts as the primary

 The metallic charge in the crucible acts as secondary

 Current induced in the charge is by electromagnetic induction

 The charge offers resistance to the flow of induced secondary current

39
[Type here]


 Due to this, heat is developed and the charge starts melting

Induction furnace is capable of melting all types of metals and
alloys from small quantities to large quantities (25 kg to 10T) very
 easily, conveniently and quickly.

Due to the induced emf caused, stirring of molten metal in the melting
process is the special feature, thereby gives excellent homogeneity in
 the composition

 The furnace houses a crucible inside copper coils.

 The crucible is formed by ramming refractory grains and sintering it

 A sheet of mica or asbestos separates the coil and the refractory

The outer shell of the furnace is made of mild steel

Types of Induction Furnace

The types of induction furnace are:
Core type I.F.
Core less type I.F.
In the first type the coils are surrounded by the molten metal.In the second type
the coils surround the molten metal.
Coreless type I.F.
The constructional features of coreless type I.F.

 The furnace consists of an outer cylinder steel shell and is hinged at

the bottom front side to facilitate tilting for pouring.
 The inner surface of the shell is covered with mica or asbestos and the
bottom surface is covered with refractory bricks.

40
[Type here]

 Next to the insulation layer hollow copper tube coils are present for the
entire height of the shell.
 These tubes carry current and are water cooled.
 A layer of insulation is provided to the coils.
 Compacted ramming refractory packing is provided above the bricks to
form the base.
 A thin steel (shell) former is provided on the top of the base.
 The annular space between the shell and the coil is rammed with the
ramming mass.
 The steel former holds the ramming mass surrounding it.
 The top of the furnace front ends in the form of lip or spout to
facilitate the metal to flow.
 The inside portion of the former determines the furnace capacity.
Working Principle
 The furnace works on the principle of a transformer in which the
copper coils acts as primary and the charge (scrap) as secondary.
 Sintering consists of passing low amperage current through the coil for
several hours.
 Due to this, emf is induced in the former and gets heated up.
 The former becomes red hot and this starts heating the ramming mass and
sinters.
 Slowly layer by layer of refractory mass gets sintered.
 The current is slowly increased and heating is continued for several hours.
 Loose thin scrap is slowly charged into the crucible.
 The scrap slowly starts melting and liquid metal pool is formed.
 After some time molten metal starts stirring and the stirring action is due to
the eddy current induced in the metal which will be flowing opposite to the
direction of main current.
 The stirring action or churning ensures homogeneous molten metal.
 Necessary alloying elements can be easily be added.
 The charge needs to be properly selected, since slag removal is difficult
due to stirring action.

Core Type Of Induction Furnace

Here the oil is surrounded by the metal. The principal of working is the
same as above. The furnace is not very popularly used in practice.

Core type induction furnace

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ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE

It is a versatile furnace used to melt mainly steel. It makes use of electric
current to generate the arc in the metal. The arc heats and melts the charge.
Melting using electricity as a source of energy is more common. This is because
electric furnace provides more flexibility and cleanliness in operation.
These are suitable for the production of high quality of steels. There are two
types of electric arc furnaces:
1. Direct Arc Furnace
2. Indirect Arc Furnace

Direct Arc Furnace

It consists of a steel shell, cylindrical in shape with a spherical or flat base,
which is mounted on rollers to enable tilting the furnace to tap out the molten
metal. The shell is lined with fire bricks. The roof is made of silica bricks. The
hearth is lined with basic material such as magnesite bricks. The charging may
be done either from the top or from the side. In top charging type the roof can
be swung along with electrodes, while in side charging type, a side door is
provided. A tapping hole with spout is provided to tap out the molten metal.
Generally, three electrodes are arranged in a triangular pattern. These
electrodes can be raised or lowered by mechanical or other automatic means.
This helps in setting the arc and to maintain the desired temperature. The
electric current (three phase) is led into the furnace through the three carbon or
graphite electrodes. The arc is struck between the electrodes and the charge.
The arc gives out high temperature (about 2000 to 5000oC) which melts the
charge below the electrodes. Gradually, a pool of molten metal forms below the
electrodes, which in turn melts the remaining metal in the furnace.

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The electrodes should have high electrical and low thermal conductivity,
good refractoriness and resistance to oxidation or chemical reaction also should
have good strength at high temperature. Usually graphite or amorphous carbon
is used as electrode material.
Then excess slag is removed from the slag door. The molten metal is then
tapped into the ladle and taken for teeming.
Indirect Arc Furnace
Fig. shows an indirect arc electric furnace used for melting small quantities of
ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
The furnace consists of a cylindrical or barrel shaped shell lined with a
refractory material. The shell is mounted on rollers and can be titled through
180o. This facilitates for easy pouring. Also, the rollers provide rocking action
to the furnace that speeds the melting rate.

Two carbon electrodes are mounted along the horizontal axis and can be
automatically adjusted for maintaining proper arc column. A charging door
and pouring spout serve their purpose.

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Working
 The ingot steel scrap and alloy metals and fluxing agents are charged into
the furnace.
 On supplying the necessary current and voltage, an arc is struck between
the two non-consumable carbon electrodes. The electrodes are brought
closer together and maintained, so that the arc remains between them.
 The charge melts by radiation from the heat produced by the arc and also
by conduction from the heat absorbed by the refractory lining.
 Once the metal melts, the furnace is rotated (set to rock to and fro). This
helps the refractory lining to get heated up and also the molten metal
exposed to a larger area of the heated lining. Rocking stirs the molten
metal homogenously.
 When the liquid metal reaches the desired temperature, the furnace is
tilted mechanically and the metal is tapped in ladles and poured into the
moulds.

CUPOLA FURNACE
Cupola is a vertical cylindrical shape type furnace. It works on counter current
principle. Charge materials will be descending downwards. Flue gases will be
ascending upwards. Thereby exchange of heat between the rising gases and the
descending charge takes place efficiently. Coke lumps are used as the fuel. Lime
stone is used as flux material. Coke, lime stone and metal charge are charged into
the cupola in the same sequence with a definite ratio.

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Construction

 It consists of a cylindrical steel shell of large H/D (height to diameter)

ratio supported on legs at the bottom.
 It has two semi-circular steel doors hinged at the bottom and it can
opened or closed as required.
 The inside shell is lined with fire clay refractory bricks.
 The entire structure is placed vertical on a rigid concrete base.
 When the doors are closed and clamped the furnace bottom is prepared
by ramming sand mixed with fire clay on top of the door.
 Immediately above this, an opening is provided on the circumference of
the shell and is called metal hole.
 A small channel is provided corresponding to this using steel plate
and refractory material is called metal spout.
 Through this spout, molten metal is drawn from the furnace.
 Opposite to the metal spout, another hole is provided in the shell to tap the
slag.
 Slightly above this a wind box is provided around the shell.
Numbers of holes are provided in the steel shell (covered by the
 wind box).
 These are called tuyers.
 The wind box is connected to a blower through which the air is made to
enter.
 This blast of air enters the inside portion of the lined shell radially inwards.
 This air provides necessary oxygen for combustion process.
 Far above the wind box a charging platform is provided to facilitate
storing of charges and movement of operators.
 Close to the platform, a charging door is provided with a hood or spark
arrestor.
 This ensures arresting of the sparks emanating from the furnace.
 To facilitate easy operation and reduce the projection of furnace above
the ground, a pit of 3-4 feet is dug below the ground to house the furnace.
 The height of the coke inside the cupola from bottom and up to the wind
box is referred as coke bed height.
Working
a. Starting the Cupola
 Before starting the cupola, the bottom doors are closed and locked.
 On this door, sand bed is prepared and the metal spout is closed with a clay
slug.
 Burning wood splinters are dropped from the door of the furnace.
Slowly wood pieces starts burning and some more wooden pieces are
dropped.

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 When this also catches fire, coke pieces are dropped from top.
 The coke pieces slowly catches fire, ignite and become red hot.

b. Charging cupola

Now coke lumps are dropped continuously into the furnace up to the wind box
level. The wind blast is slowly turned on supplying air for combustion. This
results in the burning of coke pieces continuously. Now alternate layers of coke,
flux (lime stone) and metal (iron) charges are dumped inside the furnace till the
inside portion of the furnace is filled up to the charging door. The blast of air is
increased and kept at maximum. The air enters the furnace through tuyers. Coke
not only acts as fuel but also act as burden until melting occurs. Lime stone act
as flux and protects the metal against excessive oxidation.
c. Melting
As the temperature inside the furnace reach very high value the coke
burns off, lime stone fuses and metal charge melts and trickles of 1liquid metal
starts dropping down to bottom of the furnace. Molten metal collects at the
bottom and accumulates. The external charging of the furnace is continued.
Just above the tuyers in the wind box, maximum temperature is attained and
this zone is referred to as superheating zone. Here the molten is heated to
above its melting point, hence referred to as super heat. Above this zone, the
actual melting of metal takes place.
This zone is called melting zone. This zone is approximately 2 times
that of super heat zone. Above this zone and upto the charging door is the
preheating zone. Here the metal charge, lime and coke will be preheated.
Above the door and upto the hood region is the stack zone. Only flue gases
escapes through this zone.
As the cold charges are moving downwards the hot flue gases will be
ascending. This results in very good heat exchange between the two. Charges gain
heat and the flue gases lose heat. This phenomenon is referred to as Counter
Current Principle. The charging of cupola is continued and the molten metal
gets accumulated and the slag formed also accumulates above the molten metal
due to density difference.

d.Tapping slag and molten metal

The slag door is kept open always and when the slag level inside the
furnace reaches the slag spout, slag starts coming out continuously. This is an
indication that the molten metal is ready for tapping. This should happen at
around 15 minutes after full blast of air to the furnace. The bottle green color
of slag also suggest that the molten metal quality is good. Now the metal spout
is opened and molten metal is tapped into the ladle and collected. The furnace
operation is continued and the molten metal is continuously tapped.
The furnace is stopped by stopping charging.

e. Dropping down the bottom

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After tapping the molten metal completely from the furnace, the bottom
doors are dropped down.
The slag drops out of the furnace. After cooling, the necessary patchwork of
lining is done before the next melting operation. The ratio of coke : metal is
referred to as coke to metal ratio, for a good coke it should be anywhere between
1:8 to 1:10 by weight. The percentage of lime stone is around 5-7% of the metal
charge. Inside Lined diameter of cupola determines the melting capacity of the
cupola. It may vary from approximately 68 to 275 cm. Cupola is specified by the
quantity of molten metal that can be melted per hour.
Example: 10 tons / hour, means 10 tons of cast iron is melted in 1 hour.
Cupola is used to produce cast iron. Cupola is the most popular and widely used
furnace in a foundry.
ZONES IN CUPOLA
The various zones in a cupola are shown in fig. The height of the furnace can be
divided into various zones for study purpose and observe how the melting process
is taking place.
* Well Zone
It is the portion situated between the rammed sand bottom and just below
the bottom edge of the tuyers. The molten metal is occupied in this zone.
* Combustion Zone
The combustion zone or oxidizing zone is situated from the bottom edge of
the tuyers. In this zone where rapid combustion takes place due to which a
lot of heat is generated in the furnace. The temperature in this zone varies
from 1550oC – 1850oC.
* Reduction Zone
Reduction zone or protection zone is the portion located from the top of
the combustion zone to the top of coke bed. In this zone, some of hot CO2
gas moving upward through the hot coke gets reduced to CO. In other
words, reduction of CO2 to CO occurs in this zone. Due to reduction, the
temperature reduces to around 1200oC in this zone.
* Preheating zone
The portion occupied from the top surface of the melting zone to the
charging door is called “preheating zone”. The hot gases rising upwards
from the combustion and reducing zone gives its heat to the charge before

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passing out of the furnace. Thus the charge is preheated before descending
downwards.
Open Hearth Furnace
The Open hearth Furnace is used for the production of steel and produces
most of the steel used today. This process is slow requiring 10-14 hours per
batch. The open hearth furnace is a large shallow bath with either an acid or
basic lining. The bath is frequently made to tilt in order that the molten metal
may be poured. The hearth is enclosed by a steel casing lined with special fire
brick and with charging doors in front, at both ends of the hearth are openings
for air and gas. The mixture of air and gas burns over the hearth, and the flame
is directed down to the metal. The very hot gases from the hearth go to special
chambers of chequered brickwork before escaping through the chimney. The
direction of flow of the gas and air is reversed every 15 mins. The incoming gas
and air then pass through the hot brickwork and are pre-heated. The gas used is
usually coal gas, but where natural oil is plentiful this may be used instead. Oil
is not pre-heated. The charge that goes into the open hearth furnace is;
 Pig iron 50% (from the blast furnace)
 Lime 20% removes the impurities
 Steel Scrap 20% reduces cost and recycles
 Iron ore of Mill Scale 10% oxidize the unwanted elements

Metal Refining
Refining of metal is one of the processes which involves the separation of
impurities like sand particles, other metals etc. from the metal of choice.
Therefore, refining of metal comes under the science of studying the metal’s
physical and chemical properties, called Metallurgy.

The methods for refining metals vary according to the type and use of the
metals. Refining merely refers to as purification. Thus, metal refining removes
the gangue particles or matrix from the metals obtained through the various
reduction processes and gives a pure or refined metal.

The process of metal refining is carried out after the extraction of metal.
The metals’ refining process involves adding some substances that can confer
desirable characteristics to the metals. Here, we will discuss the meaning,
properties, types, occurrences of metals and its different refining processes.

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Methods For Refining Of Metal

The impurities like unwanted metals, non-metals, an unreduced oxide of a

metal, flux, slag etc. from the crude metals are eliminated to produce pure
metals. The following methods are generally employed in the metal refining:

1. Liquation
2. Polling
3. Distillation
4. Electrolytic refining
5. Zone refining
Liquation

In liquation, the easily fusible metals or the metals with a low melting point like
tin, lead etc. are commonly used. The process mainly involves the following
steps that can be summarized into:

1. Pouring of impure metal: In this step, pass the impure metals over the sloping
hearth of the reverberatory furnace.
2. Heating: Then, heat the metal at a temperature little above the melting point.
3. Drain off: Drain out the refined or pure metal by leaving the infusible
impurities.
Polling

In the process of polling, stir the impure molten metal with the help of
bamboo. The hydrocarbons will reduce the metal oxides present as an impurity.
This method can refine metals like copper (Cu) and tin (Sn).

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Distillation

By the process of distillation, volatile metals like Zinc (Zn) and Mercury
(Hg) or the metals possess a very low boiling point are generally used. The
metal easily vaporizes by leaving behind the impurities. In this, heat the impure
metal at a temperature above its melting point in a reverberatory furnace. Then,
reconvert the vapours into the metal after the separation of gangue particles.

Electrolytic Refining

It is the most widely used method, as it can be used to purify many metals. It
works on the principle of electrochemical properties of the metals.
The impure metal is of an anode, pure metal is of a cathode, and the
electrolytic solution contains the salt of the same metal used.
Under the electric field, the metals’ impurities get dissolved from the anode (gets
thinner), after which the pure metals get deposited at the cathode (gets thicker).
The impurities generally deposit at the anode base as sludge or anode mud.

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Zone Refining

William pfann first gave this method. Some inert gases are filled in the
container to which the impure metals are kept inside. Then, place a circular
heater at the top of the rod.

The impure metals heat up due to the circular heater. The pure metal
crystallizes, and later it is cooled by the shifting of the heater to the next zone.
The molten impurities will then move to the next zone along with the heater,
which we can collect or separate from the last zone.

Inoculation of Metal
Inoculation may be defined as addition of inoculant to molten metal in
order to modify structure of metal after solidification and properties of cast
metal or alloy. Action of inoculants is not just only simple alloying effect.
Nucleation is an integral effect of inoculation. It is partially caused by addition
of nuclei to the melt. A nucleus is a particle of matter which acts as Centre to
start graphitizations/crystallization.

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It is applied late in melting operation/process. Some commonly applied

inoculation treatments
are :
(i) Grain and constituent refinement
Alloys Typical inoculants
Steel ––– Al, Ti
Aluminium base –––––––– Ti, B, Nb, Zr
Magnesium base ––––––– C, Zr
Mg – Al –––––––– C
(ii) Refinement and eutectic modification
Alloys Typical inoculants
Al - Si –––––––––– Na
Cast iron (inoculation) ––––– Si, C
Cast iron (S.G. iron structure – Mg, Ce
Effects Of Inoculation
 Aluminium in controlled amount is added in steel to produce fine grain size
and special distribution of inclusions. This improves mechanical (especially
impact) properties and response of metal to heat treatment.
Titanium (0.2%) or boron (0.02%) are added at final stage of casting of light
alloys (Al) reduce the cast grain size from 0.1 inch (2.5 mm) in dia to as small
as 0.005 (0.125 mm) in dia.
 When iron and nickel are added in small percentages to aluminium bronze,
it prevents the formation of a coarse crystalline structure.
 Carbon is added in small amounts to molten Mg - Al alloys for grain
refinement.
 Zirconium is added in small amount to magnesium alloys (without any
aluminium) for grain refinement.
 Eutectic structure of Al-Si alloys is modified by adding sodium in small
quantity or treating with sodium salts. Sodium treatment ensures fine dispersion
of Si and higher physical properties.

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 Inoculation of molten cast iron

– modifies structure or graphite formation
– change in graphite type obtained by inoculation of molten iron.
– improves mechanical and physical properties
– reduces inherent section sensitivity of grey cast iron
– makes material tougher, more predictable and less susceptible to
changes in chemical composition.
– In graphitization inoculation of grey cast iron, inoculant favours
graphite formation. prevents (undercoding) chilling and avoids formation of
white iron in thin sections.
 Common graphitizers are ferrosilicon, nickel silicon, Ca–Mn – Si and Si –
Mn – Zr.
 Quantity of graphitizer (inoculant) should be such that it can add 0.5 – 1.0%
silicon to the molten iron.
 Graphitizers produce more effect when added to the molten metal in laddle
than when included in the furnace metal charge.
 If normal grey iron is inoculated with silicon at the time of pouring, the
austenite – graphite eutectic grain size and graphite flake distribution can be
controlled.
 In another treatment, when magnesium or cerium is added in the molten iron,
the result is the spheroidal graphite structure and a ductile iron.
 Near about 0.04% residual magnesium changes graphite, flakes into
spheroids with huge improvement in mechanical properties of the resulting
iron.
Metal Handling
Molten metal is a serious hazard in melting pouring applications of metal casting.
Workers who execute tasks with or near the molten metal are highly prone to
risks, such as coming in contact with metal splashes or be exposed to
electromagnetic radiation.
Some of the circumstances that may increase the risk of hot metal splashes are -
 Charging a furnace with impure or moist scrap metal and alloys
 Using damp tools, molds or other material when touching the molten metal

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 Pouring or tipping the molten metal into a holding furnace or ladle

 Slagging or skimming processes
 Pouring the molten metal from ladles into molds
Extreme caution should be taken to ensure that the metal or metal slag does not
come in contact with water, as it may result in an explosive reaction or ejection
of molten metal with catastrophic effects.
Molten metal also emits electromagnetic radiation in the furnace and pouring
areas. Foundry workers are primarily endangered to infrared and UV radiation.
Workers and other visiting people with medical implants, plates, joints or similar
objects should move into the induction furnace region with care as the magnetic
fields of the melting process may cause a charge in the metallic implant. People
with cardiac pace makers are especially at risk and should be restrained from
entering the induction furnace or touching the equipment.
Health consequences of molten metal
Splashes of the molten metal and the radiant heat during the melting and pouring
process may result in serious burns on the body. Sparks from molten metal may
also affect the eyes. Vulnerability to infrared and ultraviolet rays may result in
the damage of eyes including cataract.

Control measures
There are several measures and options, which can be adopted alone, or in
combination, to prevent or minimize the risks associated with the handling of
molten metal in foundries.

Mechanical control measures

The risks associated with the molten metal can be reduced or minimized by
implementing mechanical controls. Barriers and other protecting covering,
including the mobile shields should be used or set up to protect workers against
the splashes of molten metal and electromagnetic radiation.

Administrative control measures

Administrative controls include the development and inclusion of safe working
practices and procedures.
Some of common examples of administrative control measures for molten metals
include -
 Keep all the combustible materials and volatile liquids at a safe distant place from
the melting and pouring areas.

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 Make sure that the molten metal does not come in contact with water or other
contaminants. All charge materials, ladles and other equipment, which may come
in contact with the molten metal should be totally dry.
 Restrain the unauthorized access by barriers and signages to the furnace and
pouring areas.
 Restrain the workers and other personnel from wearing synthetic clothing,
including undergarments while entering the furnace and pouring regions.
 Ensure proper use and maintenance of personal protective equipment.

Personal protective equipment

Personal protective equipment are a must to reduce or eliminate the risks
associated with the handling of molten metal in foundries. These may include -
 Heat resistant protective clothing - headgear, footwear, face shields, aprons, fire
retardant spats, coats and gaiters
 Eye protection with side shields

Special UV and infra-red glasses

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SPECIAL MOULDING AND CASTING PROCESS

Shell moulding, also known as shell-mould casting, is an expendable mold
casting process that uses a resin covered sand to form the mold. As compared to
sand casting, this process has better dimensional accuracy, a higher productivity
rate, and lower labor requirements. It is used for small to medium parts that
require high precision. Shell mold casting is a metal casting process similar to
sand casting, in that molten metal is poured into an expendable mold. However,
in shell mold casting, the mold is a thin-walled shell created from applying a sand-
resin mixture around a pattern. The pattern, a metal piece in the shape of the
desired part, is reused to form multiple shell molds. A reusable pattern allows for
higher production rates, while the disposable molds enable complex geometries
to be cast. Shell mold casting requires the use of a metal pattern, oven, sand-resin
mixture, dump box, and molten metal.

Shell mold casting allows the use of both ferrous and non-ferrous metals, most
commonly using cast iron, carbon steel, alloy steel, stainless steel, aluminum
alloys, and copper alloys. Typical parts are small-to-medium in size and require
high accuracy, such as gear housings, cylinder heads, connecting rods, and lever
arms.
The shell mold casting process consists of the following steps:

1. Pattern creation - A two-piece metal pattern is created in the shape

of the desired part, typically from iron or steel. Other materials are
sometimes used, such as aluminum for low volume production or
graphite for casting reactive materials.
2. Mold creation - First, each pattern half is heated to 175-370 °C (350-
700 °F) and coated with a lubricant to facilitate removal. Next, the
heated pattern is clamped to a dump box, which contains a mixture
of sand and a resin binder. The dump box is inverted, allowing this
sand-resin mixture to coat the pattern. The heated pattern partially
cures the mixture, which now forms a shell around the pattern. Each
pattern half and surrounding shell is cured to completion in an oven
and then the shell is ejected from the pattern.
3. Mold assembly - The two shell halves are joined together and
securely clamped to form the complete shell mold. If any cores are
required, they are inserted prior to closing the mold. The shell mold
is then placed into a flask and supported by a backing material.

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4. Pouring - The mold is securely clamped together while the molten

metal is poured from a ladle into the gating system and fills the
mold cavity.
5. Cooling - After the mold has been filled, the molten metal is
allowed to cool and solidify into the shape of the final casting.
6. Casting removal - After the molten metal has cooled, the mold can
be broken and the casting removed. Trimming and cleaning
processes are required to remove any excess metal from the feed
system and any sand from the mold.

INVESTMENT MOLDING:
Castings can be made from an original wax model (the direct method) or from
wax replicas of an original pattern that need not be made from wax (the indirect
method). The following steps describe the indirect process, which can take two
to seven days to complete.

1. Produce a master pattern: An artist or mould-maker creates an original

pattern from wax, clay, wood, plastic, or another material.[4]
2. Create a mould: A mould, known as the master die, is made to fit the master
pattern. If the master pattern was made from steel, the master die can be
cast directly from the pattern using metal with a lower melting point.
Rubbermoulds can also be cast directly
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from the master pattern. Alternatively, a master die can be machined

independently— without creating a master pattern.[4]

3. Produce wax patterns: Although called wax patterns, pattern materials

may also include plastic and frozen mercury.[4]Wax patterns can be
produced in one of two ways. In one process, the wax is poured into the
mold and swished around until an even coating, usually about 3 mm (0.12
in) thick, covers the inner surface of the mould. This is repeated until the
desired pattern thickness is reached. Another method involves filling the
entire mould with molten wax and letting it cool as a solid object.[citation
needed]
If a core is required, there are two options: soluble wax or ceramic.
Soluble wax cores are designed to melt out of the investment coating with
the rest of the wax pattern; ceramic cores are removed after the product has
hardened.[4]

4. Assemble wax patterns: Multiple wax patterns can be created and

assembled into one large pattern to be cast in one batch pour. In this
situation, patterns are attached to a wax sprue to create a pattern cluster, or
tree. To attach patterns, a heating tool is used to slightly melt designated
wax surfaces, which are then pressed against each other and left to cool
and harden. As many as several hundred patterns can be assembled into a
tree.[4][5] Wax patterns can also be chased, which means parting lines or
flashings are rubbed out using the heated metal tool. Finally, patterns are
dressed (by removing imperfections) to look like finished pieces.[6]
5. Apply investment materials: The ceramic mould, known as the
investment, is produced by

repeating a series of steps—coating, stuccoing, and hardening—until a

desired thickness is achieved. Coating involves dipping a pattern cluster
into a slurry of fine refractory material and then draining to create a
uniform surface coating. Fine materials are used in this first step, also
called a prime coat, to preserve fine details from the mould. Stuccoing
applies coarse ceramic particles by dipping patterns into a fluidised bed,
placing it in a rainfall-sander, or by applying materials by hand. Hardening
allows coatings to cure. These steps are repeated until the investment
reaches its required thickness—usually 5 to 15 mm (0.2 to 0.6 in).
Investment moulds are left to dry completely, which can take 16 to 48
hours. Drying can be accelerated by applying a vacuum or minimizing
environmental humidity. Investment moulds can also be created by placing
the pattern clusters into a flask and then pouring liquid investment material

from above. The flask is then vibrated to allow entrapped air to escape and
help the investment material fill any small voids.[4][7] Common refractory
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materials used to create the investments are: silica, zircon, various

aluminium silicates, and alumina. Silica is usually used in the fused silica
form, but sometimes quartz is used because it is less expensive.
Aluminium silicates are a mixture of alumina and silica, where commonly
used mixtures have an alumina content from 42 to 72%; at 72% alumina
the compound is known as mullite. During the primary coat(s), zircon-
based refractories are commonly used, because zirconium is less likely to
react with the molten metal.[7] Prior to silica, a mixture of plaster and
ground up old molds (chamotte) was used.[8] The binders used to hold the
refractory material in place include: ethyl silicate (alcohol-based and
chemically set), colloidal silica (water-based, also known as silica sol, set
by drying), sodium silicate, and a hybrid of these controlled for pH and
viscosity.

6. Dewax: Once ceramic moulds have fully cured, they are turned upside-
down and placed in a furnace or autoclave to melt out and/or vaporize the
wax. Most shell failures occur at this point because the waxes used have a
thermal expansion coefficient that is much greater than the investment
material surrounding it—as the wax is heated it expands and introduces
stress. To minimize these stresses the wax is heated as rapidly as possible
so that outer wax surfaces can melt and drain quickly, making space for
the rest of the wax to expand. In certain situations, holes may be drilled
into the mold before heating to help reduce these stresses. Any wax that
runs out of the mold is usually recovered and reused.
7. Burnout preheating: The mold is then subjected to a burnout, which heats
the mold to between 870 °C and 1095 °C to remove any moisture and
residual wax, and to sinter the mold. Sometimes this heating is also used
to preheat the mould before pouring, but other times the mould is allowed
to cool so that it can be tested. Preheating allows the metal to stay liquid
longer so that it can better fill all mould details and increase dimensional
accuracy. If the mold is left to cool, any cracks found can be repaired with
ceramic slurry or special cements.
8. Pouring: The investment mold is then placed open-side up into a tub
filled with sand. The
metal may be gravity poured or forced by applying positive air pressure
or other forces. Vacuum casting, tilt casting, pressure assisted pouring
and centrifugal casting are methods that use additional forces and are
especially useful when moulds contain thin sections that would be
otherwise be difficult to fill

9. Divesting: The shell is hammered, media blasted, vibrated, waterjeted, or

chemically dissolved (sometimes with liquid nitrogen) to release the

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casting. The sprue is cut off and recycled. The casting may then be cleaned
up to remove signs of the casting process, usually by grinding.

Gravity die casting or Permanent mould casting

It is referred to as Gravity Die Casting or Permanent Mould Casting. The
process makes use of a metallic mould to produce the casting. Two halves of the
dies are used to produce the casting. The die halves are cleaned well first. Then
the dies are preheated. The dies are coated with a refractory mould coating. The
die halves are closed and clamped. Molten metal is then poured into the cavity
via sprue/pouring cup and allowed to solidify under gravity or atmospheric
pressure. Metal is then allowed to cool. After solidification, casting is removed
by opening the mould/die halves. The molten metal cools faster in metal moulds
than in sand moulds. Section >6mm thickness can only be cast.

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Pressure die casting

Here also a permanent mould in two halves is used to produce castings,
repeatedly. But external pressure is used to force the molten metal into the mould
cavity. Hence much thinner castings can be produced as compared to gravity
castings. It can be further classified as Low Pressure Die Casting (LPDC) and
High Pressure Die Casting (HPDC).
Low Pressure Die Casting (LPDC) process:
Here a pressure of approximately 1N/mm2 is applied on the molten metal
during solidification. Die halves are closed and molten metal is poured into the
mould cavity and pressure is applied immediately. After few minutes, the die is
opened and the casting is removed

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Construction:
Consists of a crucible positioned inside a resistance type electric furnace. Metal
ingots are placed inside the crucible and current is passed through the coils.
Temperature of the molten metal is maintained constant. The entire crucible and
furnace is housed inside a metal chamber. The lid of the crucible is closed with
asbestos lined hollow plate with an opening for passing air through the plat. The
plate has holes extended to the inside of the crucible. A refractory tube enters the
molten bath and connects the die cavity. Whenever compressed air is passed
through the opening the molten metal is pushed upwards through the pipe into the
die. After the metal cools casting is removed from the die. Thin castings can be
made.

High Pressure Die Casting (HPDC) process

A pressure of 7-500 N/mm2 is applied on the molten metal during
solidification. Very thin and intricate castings can be made. Very high mechanical
properties, good surface finish castings can be produced. Section thickness, 6mm
can easily be produced. Any metal or alloy can be cast. Very large number of
castings can be produced in a single die.
High pressure die castings can be
classified into:
1. Cold chamber die-casting process
(CCDP)
2. Hot chamber die-casting process (HCDP)
In CCDP, molten metal is poured outside the die chamber and then forced
into the die. There will be a drop in the metal temperature by the time it reaches
the die cavity. A separate melting unit is used to prepare the molten metal. In
HCDP, molten metal is carried through a unit which a submerged in the molten
metal itself. And the molten metal is forced into the die cavity. Hence, the metal
does not loose any temperature at all.
Cold Chamber die casting process (CCDP)
It consists of a cylinder and a plunger arrangement. One
end of the cylinder is connected to the movable die. A fixed die engages the
moveable die. The moveable die and cylinder move together. The cylinder has an
opening on the periphery. Through this opening the molten metal is poured inside
the cylinder. As and when the plunger moves towards the die, the molten metal
is forced into the die with high pressure. The dies are separated after few seconds.
By the help of an ejector solidified casting is removed. Process is repeated.

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 Dies in closed position. Molten metal poured into the cylinder

 Plunger pushes the metal into the die out.
 Moveable die and plunger moves out.
 Ejector pushes the casting out of the die.
 Dies close and ready for the next casting
Very high pressure 20-200 N/mm2 is applied through the plunger.

Hot Chamber die casting process (HCDP)

i) Using compressed air

It consists of a goose neck chamber housed in a melting pot. Melting pot

holds liquid metal and is heated by a furnace. The goose neck has a nozzle end
which connects the die opening. The die is closed and the goose neck chamber
draws molten metal from the melting pot. Now compressed air is allowed into the
goose neck chamber. This forces molten metal into the die cavity. The molten
metal solidifies after few seconds. The die is opened and the solidified casting is
ejected out. The die is ready for the next cycle.

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ii. Using a plunger:

 It consists of a melting pot with a goose neck secured on to brick lining.
 The pot is heated from outside.
 A burner is located which supplies flame for heating the pot.
 Molten metal enters the goose neck chamber through the inlet.
 The goose neck portion of the chamber ends as nozzle and connects the
opening of the dies (fixed end).
 The die is closed to start with.
 The goose neck chamber draws molten metal from the pot. Goose neck
connects the die.
 Now the plunger moves down forcing molten metal into the die
cavity. Plunger is withdrawn after few seconds.
 After few seconds the metal solidifies. The die is opened and casting is
taken out.
 The die is ready for the next casting.
 Burner keeps the metal at a constant temperature always, in the pot. Refer
Fig. 10

Centrifugal casting
Centrifugal casting is a process in which the molten metal is poured and
allowed to solidify in revolving mould. The centrifugal force due to the
revolving mould holds the molten metal against the mould wall until it
solidifies.

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The material used for preparing moulds may be cast iron, steel, sand or graphite
(for non-ferrous castings). The process is used for making castings of hollow
cylindrical shapes. The various centrifugal casting techniques include:

a. True centrifugal casting

b. Semi-centrifugal casting and
c. Centrifuge casting.

a. True Centrifugal Casting:

True centrifugal casting is used to produce parts that are symmetrical about
the axis like that of pipes, tubes, bushings, liners and rings. The outside shape
of the casting can be round, octagonal, hexagonal, etc. but the inside shape
perfectly (theoretically) round due to radially symmetric forces. This
eliminates the need for cores for producing hollow castings.

1. The mould of the desired shape is prepared with metal and the walls
are coated with a refractory ceramic coating.
2. The mould is rotated about its axis at high speed in the range of
300-3000 rpm. Measured quantity of molten metal is poured into
the rotating mould.
3. The centrifugal force of the rotating mould throws the liquid metal
towards the mould wall and holds the molten until it solidifies.
4. The casting cools and solidifies from its inner surface towards the axis
of rotation of the mould thereby promoting directional solidification.
5. The thickness of casting obtained can be controlled by the amount of
liquid metal being poured.

Note: The mould can be rotated horizontally or vertically. When the mould
is rotated about a horizontal axis, a true cylindrical inside surface is
achieved, if rotated on a vertical axis; a parabolic inside surface is achieved.

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Cores and gating / risering systems are not required for this process.

b. Semi Centrifugal Casting

It is a process to produce solid castings and hence requires a core to
produce hollow cavities. A simple cylindrical pipe casting is produced in
true CF method. Gear blanks, wheels, pulleys are produced. CF force is
used to force the molten metal to get the shape in the casting. A speed of
300-500 rpm is employed. Cope and drag moulds are made in sand and
fixed on to the casting machine. Core is also assembled. The riser extended
to the top surface acts as pouring basin. The mould is kept rotating and
molten metal is poured Molten metal gets thrown outward forcing it
against the mould wall. Molten metal solidifies and casting shape is
formed. After cooling, casting is taken out. A fresh mould box is kept and
the process is repeated.

Centrifugal Casting
A number of castings whose axis is away from the axis of rotation
can be made each time Any casting shape that can be created in the sand
mould can be formed in this process. A number of mould impressions are
grouped around a central sprue and subjected to CF force due to rotation.
Small castings are done by this method.

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Plaster Casting
Plaster Mold Casting (also known as plaster casting) is a metal casting process
which is similar to the sand casting process, except the molding material is
Plaster of Paris instead of sand.
Plaster mold casting process is generally used for casting non-ferrous metals.
Few important things about the plaster mold casting process.

 By using a plaster casting process, small castings of around 30 grams as

well as large castings of around 45 kg can also be manufactured.
 The components like gears, fittings, toolings, lock components, valves, and
ornaments can be manufactured using a plaster casting process.
 Plaster Casting is used to manufacture the castings from aluminum,
magnesium and copper based alloys.

Plaster Mold Casting Process (Steps)

The steps involved in plaster mold casting process are mentioned below.

 First of all, the powdered form of Plaster of Paris (POP) is mixed with
water in order to form the plaster.
 In the next step, the POP and water mixture is mixed with additives like
talc and silica floor.
 These additives are added during the plaster molding process which
increases the setting time and improves the strength of the mold.
 In this mixture, the gypsum is around 70 to 80%, while the additives are
around 20 to 30%.
 This mixture is then poured over the casting pattern.
 The slurry is kept for around 20 to 25 minutes so that it sets properly before
removing the pattern.
 The pattern used for the plaster molding process is either made up of plastic
or metal.
 Wood patterns are not preferred as wood shows a tendency to warp when
it remains in contact with the moist plaster for a longer time.
 After this, the mould is separated from the pattern and it is baked at
temperature between 120 °C to 260 °C. The baking is done for several
hours which removes the moisture content from the mold and it also gives
strength to the mold.
 Two halves of the mold are assembled with each other and finally the
molten metal is poured in the mold cavity.

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 The molten metal is allowed to solidify and after this, the final casting
becomes ready.
You can see the final casting component that is manufactured by using a plaster
mold casting process. (See below image).

The components having thickness ranging from 0.25 mm to 1 mm can also be

manufactured by this process.

Having said that, let’s discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the plaster
mold casting process.

Advantages of Plaster Mold Casting

Advantages of Plaster mold casting are mentioned below.

1. By using plaster mold casting, the components having thickness upto 0.6
mm can be manufactured.
2. Manufacturing of complex shapes is possible at less cost, because this
process produces minimum scrap material.
3. Good geometric accuracy can be obtained by using a plaster casting
process.
4. Smooth surface finish can be obtained.
Disadvantages of Plaster Mold Casting

Disadvantages of Plaster mold casting are mentioned below.

1. The plaster mold can not handle temperatures higher than 1200 °C.
2. The materials having higher melting point cannot be casted using the
plaster molding process.

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3. The manufacturing of each component takes more time as the mold

preparation and setting of plaster consumes more time.
4. If the moisture content is more in the mold, then it will cause casting
defects. And if the moisture content is less, then it will possess less
strength.
5. Cooling of molten metal takes more time, because the plaster mold has less
thermal conductivity as compared to sand molds.
6. Because of the longer time for solidification, the production rate is slow.
7. The stability of plaster is less as compared to the stability of sand. So, there
should be enough monitoring of factors like plaster composition, pouring
procedure, etc, otherwise mold can damage, shrink upon drying, may have
poor surface finish, it may develop cracks or it may fail completely.
8. This process is used only for casting non-ferrous metals like aluminum,
copper, zinc, and magnesium.
9. Plaster mold can not be reused.
Applications of Plaster Mold Casting

Applications of Plaster mold casting are mentioned below.

1. Plaster mold casting is used in manufacturing industries for casting non-

ferrous metals like zinc, magnesium, aluminum and copper based alloys.
2. Parts like valves, gears, tooling, lock components, etc. can be
manufactured by using a plaster mold casting process.
3. Lighter components having weight 30 grams to the heavier components
weighing 45 kg can be manufactured using a plaster casting process.

Slush casting
 Castings with external features having aesthetic value are made by this
technique.
 Castings will be hollow inside and wall thickness may be non-uniform.
 Core is not required for the purpose.
 Ex. Lamp posts, statues, toys, etc are produced by this method.
 Molten metal is poured into the metal mould.
 After few seconds the mould is inverted and the molten metal is
drained out into a container.
 A thin layer of solidified metal is formed in the mould.
 The mould is opened.
 The thin layered hollow casting is taken out.

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UNIT 3
SOLIDIFICATION OF CASTING

INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDIFICATION

Solidification is the process by which substance undergoes phase

transformation from liquid state to solid state. Water converting to ice is a simple
example of solidification process. In a casting process, as the molten metal
(liquid) is poured into the mould cavity, it begins to cool. When the temperature
drops below the freezing point (melting point) of the material, solidification
starts.
As known, all metals shrink during change of phase from liquid to solid
state. However different metals at different rates and as such proper
understanding of the solidification mechanism are essential to prevent defects due
to shrinkage of metal. Further, during solidification, the atoms in the material are
re-arranged leading to change in the microstructure of the material. The change
in the microstructure results in changes in the properties of the material like
strength, toughness, ductility, etc. By controlling the solidification process
suitably, the microstructure, and hence the properties of the material can be
altered as desired.

Volumetric Shrinkage In Casting

In metal casting, there are lots of kinds of parameters to consider, in the
phase of mold and casting system design. One of these parameters is shrinkage.
Shrinkage is one of the most important parameters to consider to obtain
successful casting operations such as the sand casting of metal alloys.

In the most basic approach, shrinkage is the phenomenon that occurs

because of the contraction of material with the decreasing temperature. It has a
very specific mechanism in terms of metal casting and it needed to be understood
for successful casting processes.

The solidification of metals in casting molds takes place by starting to

solidify from mold walls. But before that, the liquid must give some heat energy
to the surroundings to lower the pouring temperature to the level of melting
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temperature. During this temperature decrement in the liquid phase, the

decrement of the volume of the liquid metal takes place. When the solidification
starts, the temperature is not decreased for pure metals and decreased for metal
alloys. But the liquid phase, changes into the solid phase. So, solidification
shrinkage takes place at this time. There is another contraction because of the
phase change. In general, the solid-state of the material is denser than the liquid
phase.
After the completion of solidification of metal, temperature decrement
goes on lowering up to room temperature. Another decrement of volume takes
place for cast metal. This is the shrinkage phase for the solid-state. Because of
these shrinkage steps in casting molds, ‘shrinkage cavities’ occur inside the cast
metal. These shrinkage cavities are major problems in terms of the mechanical
properties of produced parts from cast metal.

During the design process of all mold and casting systems of a metal part,
shrinkage is considered in different means. The first solution to volumetric
change due to the shrinkage phenomenon in casting operations; designing the
mold cavity patterns higher in volume compared with the original part. This
shrinkage ratio is calculated by engineers, and patterns are designed bigger than
original parts, to obtain exact dimensions after solidification.

Solidification Of Pure Metals

pure metals have a constant melting temperature. This melting temperature

of metals is also equal to the freezing temperature. But if we take a look at the
solidification inside a sand casting, it has a quite original solidification
mechanism.

When the liquid metal pouring inside a sand mold, it has a liquid form and the
temperature of this liquid metal is higher than the melting temperature to prevent
the solidification inside gatings. When the mold cavity inside the sand casting is
filled with liquid metal, the solidification process starts.

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Fig 3.1 Temperature-time curve of pure metals(Src: Fundamentals Of Modern

Manufacturing).

The solidification of liquid metal can be expressed with the above diagram
showing the temperature and time relation of solidifying pure metals. As you
from the diagram, pouring temperature is the highest temperature and the
beginning of the casting. When the liquid pure metal fills the mold cavity, cooling
will begin. When the freezing temperature is reached after a time passed, the
solidification of metal starts from the outer surface of the mold.

From the interface of mold wall and liquid metal, the solidification of liquid
metal starts. After the formation of a thin solid film, this film thickens with the
passing time and gives up the ‘latent heat of fusion’ of metal through the mold
walls.

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Sections of pure metal near the mold wall will have fine grains in
structure because of the rapid cooling of these sections. These grains are
randomly oriented and they grow with the passing time.

Fig 3.2 Dendritic growth of metals inside molds(Src: Fundamentals Of Modern

Manufacturing

When the solidification goes into the inner sections of the mold, these
grains will turn into spikes that are oriented inside the mold. Up to the full
solidification of pure metal, these spike grains will turn into long branches that
are oriented inside the mold. These long branches of molecular structures unite
in the innermost section of the mold cavity. This molecular structure is illustrated
above. This solidification phenomenon of metals is called dendritic growth.

The time that is passed between the starting of freezing and the ending of
it, called ‘local solidification time.’ In this time section, solidification of pure
metal takes place but the temperature is constant. When the pure metal is
completely solidified, solid cooling starts up to room temperature. Total
solidification time’ refers to the time between pouring and complete cooling of
pure metal in sand casting operations.

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Rate Of Solidification Of Castings

A reservoir of liquid metal, called riser is used to compensate for the

shrinkage that takes place from the pouring temperature up to solidification. In
this respect, grey cast iron is an interesting exception where solidification occurs
in two stages.

The shrinkage associated with the first stage may well be compensated by
the expansion that takes place during the second stage, and as such, a riser may
not be necessary. To ensure that the riser does not solidify before the casting, we
should have an idea of the time taken by the casting to solidify.

Moreover, the placement (location) of the riser can be judiciously chosen

if an estimate of the time taken by the casting to solidify up to a certain distance
from the mould face is available.

The heat rejected by the liquid metal is dissipated through the mould wall.
The heat, released as a result of cooling and solidification of the liquid metal,
passes through different layers. The temperature distribution in these layers, at
any instant, is schematically shown in Fig 3.3

Fig 3.3 Temperature distribution in different layer

The thermal resistances which govern the entire solidification process are
those of the liquid, the solidified metal, the metal-mould interface, the mould, and
the ambient air. These five different regions are indicated by the numbers 1 to 5
in Fig 3.3. The solidification process is quite complicated especially when
complex geometry, freezing of alloys, or temperature dependence of thermal
properties is considered.

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Solidification Of Alloys

Solidification begins when the temperature drops below the liquidus, TL, and is
complete when it reaches the solidus, TS (Fig 3.4 ).

Within this temperature range, the alloy is in a mushy or pasty state with columnar
dendrites (close to tree). Note the liquid metal present between the dendrite arms.

Dendrites have 3-D arms and branches (secondary arms) which eventually
interlock, as can be seen in Fig. 3.5.

Fig 3.4 Schematic illustration of alloy solidification and temperature distribution in the
solidifying metal. Note the formation of dendrites in the mushy zone.

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Fig 3.5 Solidification patterns for gray cast iron in a 180-mm square casting. Note that after 11 minutes of
cooling, dendrites reach each other, but the casting is still mushy throughout. It takes about two hours for this
casting to solidify completely. (b) Solidification of carbon steels in sand and chill (metal) molds. Note the
difference in solidification patterns as the carbon content increases.

The width of the mushy zone (L & S) is an important factor during solidification.
It is described by the freezing range as:

Freezing range = TL - TS (3.1)

™ It can be seen in Figure 3.1 that pure metals have no freezing range, and that
the solidification front moves as a plane front without forming a mushy zone.

™ In alloys with a nearly symmetrical phase diagram, the structure is generally

lamellar, with two or more solid phases present, depending on the alloy system.

™ When the volume fraction of the minor phase of the alloy is less than about
25%, the structure generally becomes fibrous. These conditions are particularly
important for cast irons.

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™ For alloys, a short freezing range generally involves a temperature difference

< 50o C, and a long freezing range > 110o C.

™ Ferrous castings generally have narrow mushy zones, whereas aluminum and
magnesium alloys have wide mushy zones.

Grain Structure Of Cast Metal

The grain structure of a pure metal cast in a square mold is shown in Fig
3.6 At the mold walls (usually at room temp), the metal cools rapidly and
produces a solidified skin (or shell) of fine equiaxed grains (approx. equal dims.
in all dirs.)

The grains grow in a direction opposite to that of the heat transfer out
through the mold. Those grains that have favorable orientations grow
preferentially away from the surface of the mold producing columnar grains (Fig.
3.7).

As the driving force of the heat transfer is reduced away from the mold
walls, the grains become equiaxed and coarse. Those grains that have
substantially different orientations are blocked from further growth. Such grains
development is known as homogeneous nucleation, meaning that the grains grow
upon themselves, starting at the mold wall.

Fig 3.6 Schematic illustration of three cast structures of metals solidified in a square
mold: (a) pure metals; (b) solid-solution alloys; and (c) structure obtained by using
nucleating agents.

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Fig 3.7

Solidification Shrinkage

Because of their thermal expansion characteristics, metal usually shrink

during solidification and while cooling to room temperature. Shrinkage, which
causes dimensional changes and (sometimes) cracking, is the result of the
following three sequential events

Contraction of the molten metal as it cools prior to its solidification.

Contraction of the metal during phase change from liquid to solid (latent
heat of fusion).

Contraction of the solidified metal as its temperature drops to ambient

temperature, which is the largest potential amount of shrinkage.

The amount of contraction during the solidification of various metals is

shown in Table .

Gray cast iron expands, because graphite has a relatively high specific
volume, and when it precipitates as graphite flakes during solidification, it causes
a net expansion of the metal.

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