Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 35 (2021) 102672

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jasrep

Hares, juvenile domesticates, structured deposition, and ritual in the

Neolithic court tomb at Parknabinnia, Ireland
Fiona Beglane a, b, *, Carleton Jones c
a
CERIS, School of Science, Institute of Technology, Sligo, Ireland
b
Consultant Zooarchaeologist, Ireland
c
School of Geography, Archaeology, and Irish Studies, Arts/Science Building, National University of Ireland Galway, University Road, Galway, Ireland

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The occurrence of animal remains in human mortuary assemblages presents problems of interpretation. Are they
Hare post-depositional natural inclusions or are they evidence of deliberate ritual practices? This study uses a
Dog contextual taphonomic approach to analyse a remarkable faunal assemblage from a Neolithic megalithic tomb in
Domesticate
Ireland. The Parknabinnia court tomb (Cl. 153) is located in the karstic limestone region known as the Burren,
Neonate
Fertility ritual
resulting in exceptional bone preservation. The excavation yielded substantial quantities of human and animal
Neolithic bone, with the faunal assemblage consisting of over 2000 identified specimens, and dominated by hare (Lepus
Megalith timidus hibernicus). Dating of these bones shows them to be contemporary with the human remains in the tomb.
Ireland This study found evidence for the deliberate deposition of both partly dismembered and whole hares in the tomb,
Contextual taphonomic analysis as well as the inclusion of young animals of various other species in the deposits. These findings are interpreted
as likely to be the result of rituals concerned with fertility and this is supported by a review of folklore associated
with hares and other lagomorphs.

1. Introduction
One of the hallmarks of the Neolithic period in Western Europe is the
appearance of large ritual and mortuary monuments, built of stone
(megaliths), or sometimes of earth and timber. These monuments are
varied and complex and appear to have been used for a variety of pur­
poses, but there are commonalities such as the inclusion of human re­
mains, and the desire to create lasting, large-scale monuments. Although
they are sometimes referred to as ‘tombs’, it is clear that they were much
more than that. This is shown not only by their architecture, but also by
their contents, and by the traces of varied activities that took place
within and around them (Jones, 2007; Müller et al., 2019; Scarre, 2002).
In addition to mortuary rituals, it seems likely that these monuments
served as locations for other intra-group rituals (Jones, 2007; cf.
Hencken, 1939; Waterman, 1965). As Neolithic people were farmers, the
annual cycle of arable and pastoral agriculture would have played a
structuring role in their rituals, and many megaliths are aligned on ce­
lestial events that coincide with seasonal changes. Intimately related to
this cycle, concerns about the continued fertility of the land and the
human community are likely to have figured prominently in rituals in
and around megaliths (Edmonds, 1999; Jones, 2007; Scarre, 2000). One
practice was the inclusion of animal remains in some of these tombs,
sometimes with an emphasis on young animals and/or hares (cf. Hart­
nett, 1957; McCormick, 2014; Pollard, 2006; Thomas and McFadyen,
2010). This was the case at the Parknabinnia megalith, where large
numbers of hare carcasses and some juvenile domesticates were
deposited. The current study uses a detailed contextual taphonomic
study of the remarkable faunal assemblage at Parknabinnia, along with
the wider context provided by folklore associated with hares and other
lagomorphs, to better understand the possible motivations behind the
inclusion of hares and juvenile domesticates in Neolithic mortuary
deposits.
2. Faunal remains from megalithic tombs
Faunal remains have frequently been found in megaliths and other
prehistoric burial locations. However, as various authors caution (e.g.
McCormick, 1985/6, 37; Thomas and McFadyen, 2010, 97), the stan­
dards of excavation and reporting in many earlier excavations would be
considered unacceptable today, with little, if any, focus on the strati­
graphic origins of faunal remains. Not all bones present are likely to be
primary deposits, and those of small mammals, birds and amphibians, in

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: beglane.fiona@itsligo.ie (F. Beglane).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102672
Received 6 February 2020; Received in revised form 6 November 2020; Accepted 10 November 2020
Available online 24 December 2020
2352-409X/© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
F. Beglane and C. Jones Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 35 (2021) 102672

particular, may be the natural remains of animals using a tomb as a nest Wychwood and at Lanhill yielded lagomorph bones, with three and one
or being brought in by predators (Jones, 1998, 308; McCormick, 1985, hare bones respectively found at these locations (Serjeantson, 2011).
89; 1985/6, 37; 2014; Thomas and McFadyen, 2010, 99; Weiss-Krejci,
2006, 38). This is borne out by the unexpected results of a recent pro­ 3. The site
gramme of radiocarbon dating of cattle and sheep/goat bone from a
number of Irish court tomb sites, all of which either gave results in the The Parknabinnia megalith, located in Co. Clare, is one of a small
second millennium AD or failed to yield a date (Schulting et al., 2012, 9- number of atypical court tombs in the north Munster region of western
11, 39). However, the authors (Schulting et al., 2012, 39) did also note Ireland (Fig. 1). These atypical court tombs are related to more typical
that several samples which failed did so because of insufficient collagen, examples further north in Ireland and also to monuments in Scotland
raising the possibility that these were older, potentially prehistoric and England (Jones, 2019). All court tombs appear to have been con­
bones that were less well-preserved. structed in the Early Neolithic (c. 3800 – 3600 BCE in Ireland); the era
Nevertheless, not all animal bones from prehistoric monuments are when farming was first practiced (Schulting et al., 2012).
intrusive. At the Irish Neolithic portal tomb of Poulnabrone, Co. Clare, Parknabinnia and the other north Munster atypical court tombs are
only 7 km distant from Parknabinnia, the majority of the faunal material modest-sized monuments. Parknabinnia is c. 13 m in length, and consists
was contemporary with the human remains, with cattle, sheep and hare of a short cairn surrounding a central gallery of two chambers, each
all yielding Neolithic dates (Schulting, 2014, Table 5.2). Interestingly, measuring approximately 1.5 × 1.5 m and arranged in a line with the
the Poulnabrone fauna were dominated by very young animals and entrance to the east-south-east (Fig. 2). This entrance is accessed via a
hares (McCormick, 2014, 154-7). Other Irish sites have also yielded narrow, straight-sided forecourt. When intact, the chambers would have
significant deposits of neonatal animals. At the Neolithic passage tomb been roofed, while the forecourt would have been un-roofed. Modest-
of Fourknocks, suckling pig were present (Hartnett, 1957), while at the sized megalithic monuments such as Parknabinnia appear to have
Chalcolithic wedge tomb of Labbacallee, cremated lamb bones were served as ritual foci for small-scale segmentary/tribal farming societies
recovered (Leask et al., 1936). In southern England, partial skeletons (Jones, 2019). A widespread pattern in court tombs and related monu­
and bones of young animals have frequently been found in Neolithic ments in Ireland and Britain was for primary inhumation in a collective
monuments (Pollard, 2006, 141-143; Thomas and McFadyen, 2010, tomb, with subsequent disturbance and rearrangement during later
102-103). Even when prehistoric dates are obtained, some faunal re­ burials (Beckett and Robb, 2006; Schulting et al., 2012), and this was
mains are likely to be the result of natural processes, however it is highly also the case at Parknabinnia.
likely that some of these remains have been ritually deposited, and this is Within the chambers of the tomb, the matrix encountered was one of
supported when, for example, there is physical evidence of human loose stones and voids of varying sizes, interspersed with both animal
manipulation. and human bone and some artefacts. Very small amounts of un-
Hares (Lepus timidus hibernicus) and rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) compacted very dark brown/black organic silt loam were also encoun­
are both members of the order Lagomorpha, and although similar in tered, which had undoubtedly filtered down between the stones after
form they have different behavioural patterns. Rabbits live communally they were in-situ. In some places the base of the deposits was underlain
and create underground burrows. By contrast, hares rest in depressions by a light orange-brown clay loam that was probably an old ground
in vegetation that are known as ‘forms’, which provide shelter from the surface, and in others by the underlying limestone bedrock. It is likely
wind and concealment from predators (Cowan, 2008, 221). While hares
are native to Ireland, rabbits were introduced in the second millennium
AD by the Anglo-Normans (McCormick, 1991), and therefore, if rabbit
bones are found in Irish prehistoric contexts they must necessarily be
intrusive.
Since the early days of archaeological excavations in Ireland, lago­
morph remains have been noted from megalithic tombs, although most
have been interpreted as being intrusive, and therefore, in the majority
of cases they have not been quantified nor their exact location recorded
in publications. Lagomorph remains were recorded from excavations at
Moylehid passage tomb (Coffey 1896–1898), at Labbacallee wedge
tomb (Leask et al., 1936), at Audleystown court tomb (Jope, 1954, 55),
at Fourknocks passage tomb (Hartnett, 1957, 270-271), at the Carrow­
more passage tombs (Persson and Persson, 1980, 120-128), and at the
Ashleypark Linkardstown-type cist (Manning et al., 1985, 68; McCor­
mick, 1985, 89). Possibly the most significant results were from the
nearby Poulnabrone portal tomb, excavated in 1985–6, where a total of
407 hare bones were identified. Radiocarbon dating confirmed a
Neolithic date UBA-18816: 3340–3027 calBC for one of the hare bones
from Poulnabrone and Chalcolithic dates UBA-18809: 2336–2140 calBC
and UBA-18820: 2341–2057 calBC for two more (McCormick, 2014,
154-7; Schulting, 2014, Table 5.2).
Further afield, lagomorph bones have also been found in numerous
funerary contexts in Neolithic and Chalcolithic Iberia. Both rabbits and
hares are native to the region, adding complexity to the identification
and interpretation. The contexts in which they have been found range
from caves and pits to megaliths, and they are often associated with
reburied or with altered human remains (Duarte et al., 2004; Weiss-
Krejci, 2006). In addition, small lagomorph figurines, generally inter­
preted as rabbits, have been found accompanying human remains
(Thomas and Waterman, 2013; Valera et al., 2014). By contrast, only
two Neolithic barrow sites in southern Britain, at Ascott under Fig. 1. Site location.

2
F. Beglane and C. Jones
Fig. 2. Site plan.
that over the centuries during which the tomb was in use there were one
or more roof-collapse events that deposited the stones in the chambers.
However, rather than Neolithic people clearing out the rubble from the
collapse before continuing to use the tomb, it seems that further deposits
were placed amongst the rubble.
Twelve previously-obtained radiocarbon dates from inhumed human
bone from the two chambers at Parknabinnia indicate Neolithic use of
the tomb beginning in the first half of the fourth millennium BC and
ending in the first half of the third millennium BC (Schulting et al.,
2012). Determining whether there were distinct phases of use within
this time-span is made difficult by the porous nature of the chamber fills,
but stratigraphic analysis combined with Bayesian analysis of these
dates suggests four possible phases during the Neolithic. During Phase I,
inhumations were placed in both chambers. Using Bayesian modelling,
this is likely to have occurred between 3688 and 3379 cal BC and 3501 –
3246 cal BC (95.4% probability). In Phase II, modelled as occurring
between 3501 and 3246 cal BC and 3293 – 2910 cal BC (95.4% proba­
bility), it seems that much of the Phase I material was moved aside and
new inhumations were placed in the chambers. During Phase III access
to Chamber 2 was blocked off, probably between 3293 and 2910 cal BC
and 3014–2735 cal BC (95.4% probability). Further inhumations took
place in Chamber 1 during Phase IV, modelled as spanning
3014–2735 cal BC to 2903–2514 cal BC (95.4% probability). Two more
previously-obtained radiocarbon dates on two cremated human bone
samples have identified further small deposits during the Chalcolithic
and Early Bronze Age (Snoeck et al., 2020).
4. Methods
The Parknabinnia megalith was excavated by CJ over four summer
seasons from 1998 to 2001. As very little soil was present, each layer of
stones and finds was planned and then lifted to reveal the next layer,
before repeating the process. Soil was 100% sieved through 3 mm sieves
to maximise artefact and ecofact recovery. The nature of this matrix
necessitated assigning context numbers to many individual stones and to
areas of contiguous small stones and loose soil as well as to more
‘traditional’ archaeological contexts such as clusters of bones (Fig. 2).
Mammalian and amphibian faunal remains were identified using the
comparative collections held by FB and at the Institute of Technology,
3
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 35 (2021) 102672
Sligo and by reference to Hillson (1992), Schmid (1972) and Bailon
(1999). Hare and rabbit bones were separated by size based on com­
parison with adult reference specimens, as well as by cranial differences
(Callou, 1997). Unfused (juvenile) bones that were smaller than an adult
rabbit and also loose teeth and phalanges were classified as ‘lagomorph’.
Remains were quantified using a method modified from that described
by Davis (1992), using selected skeletal elements where at least 50% of
the diagnostic feature was present. This avoided the possibility of
counting the same element on multiple occasions. Elements quantified
were as follows: antlers and horncores where these join to the cranium
and at the distal end, parietal cranium and cranium at the maxilla if at
least one tooth was present, mandibular hinge or toothrow if at least one
tooth was present, loose teeth, atlas (VC1) and axis (VC2), scapula at the
glenoid process, pelvis at the ilium or ischium of the acetabulum, pa­
tella, calcaneus, astragalus, ulna at the articular surface and long bones
where at least 50% of the proximal or distal articulation was present. In
addition, due to the age and fragmentation of the bones, any other
identifiable domesticate remains were also recorded but not used for
MNI calculations. Ribs, and vertebrae, apart from the axis and atlas,
were only classified to size range, not taxa.
The number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of
elements (MNE) was calculated for each species. The minimum number
of individuals (MNI) was calculated taking into account the side of the
body, fusion, and tooth eruption and wear. In the case of dogs and pigs,
some groups of very young/neonatal material were clearly present and it
was possible to use visual inspection to further increase the calculated
MNI values to reflect this. Only one probable-rabbit bone was found,
which must post-date the introduction of this species in the second
millennium AD. This was from a clearly disturbed context, so that for the
purposes of analysis, all lagomorph bones were combined into a single
category of ‘hare’.
For cattle and pigs, fusion data was based on Silver (1963) and Reitz
and Wing (1999, 76) and toothwear per Grant (1982) and Higham
(1967) after Silver (1963). Dog fusion data was based on Newton and
Nunamaker (1985, Table C-1) and tooth development on Schmid (1972,
Table X). Hare fusion data was based on Cochard (2004), cited by Pel­
letier et al. (2015).
An overall visual assessment of preservation was made for the
assemblage, based on fragmentation, colour and weathering. Where
particular elements differed from the overall condition of the assem­
blage, this was noted. Evidence for chopping, cutting and sawing were
recorded, as was gnawing by canids and rodents and evidence for
burning. For unidentified fragments these aspects were only recorded
where obvious on a cursory inspection.
Six radiocarbon dates were obtained for the present study; two on
hare bones and four on dog bones. They are analysed in the present
study in conjunction with previously-obtained radiocarbon dates from
inhumed human bone (Schulting et al., 2012) and cremated human bone
(Snoeck et al., 2020) from the chambers of Parknabinnia.
5. Results
5.1. The human and animal remains
Parknabinnia contained the remains of multiple human individuals
(MNI = 20). There appears to have been a practice of successive in­
humations that were subsequently disturbed and re-arranged as new
burials were added. Adults predominated but adolescents, children, in­
fants and neonates were all present and amongst the adults, women were
more common than men (Beckett, 2011). Finds from the chambers
consisted of pottery, lithics and some bone artefacts (Jones, 2019).
The faunal assemblage included a total of 1683 identified elements
from mammals, 271 amphibian bones, 155 bird bones and 621 vertebra
and rib fragments that were identified only to size range. The mammal
elements were from cattle, sheep/goat, pig, dog, cat, hare, one possible
rabbit bone from an area of modern disturbance, and very small
F. Beglane and C. Jones Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 35 (2021) 102672

mammal (VSM) (Table 1). A total of 1259 hare bones and teeth domi­ Table 2
nated the assemblage, representing at least 38 individuals and spread Fusion data for hare bones sitewide.
across all phases and locations within the tomb, but often in clusters and Skeletal Age at fusion Number Number
often in association with deposits of human bone. The majority of the Element (Months) Fused Unfused
faunal material was found in Chambers 1 and 2 (within Trench D) and in Humerus dist 4 29 17
Trench C, with smaller quantities elsewhere (Fig. 2). As hares can Radius prox 4 23 12
reproduce multiple times within a single year and can give birth at any Tibia dist 4 34 38
time between January and October (Cowan, 2008, 226), ageing of hares Ulna 4 17 19
Femur prox 4 19 16
cannot be reliably used for seasonality analysis. Adult, sub-adult and Humerus prox 11 6 13
juvenile elements were present (Table 2); however there were few very Radius dist 11 10 16
small juvenile bones. The occurrence of the hare bones across all phases Femur dist 11 23 19
and locations in the tomb might be due in part to post-depositional Tibia prox 11 25 22
disturbance, but the close chronological and stratigraphical correla­
tions between hare bones dated as part of the current project and pre­
incorporation of this individual. The teeth recovered included four from
viously dated human bones in the deposits suggest that hare remains
a pre/neonatal calf, presumably the same individual. Two cattle teeth
were originally deposited together with human remains in distinct
aged 6–17 months, two teeth aged 15–30 months, and one tooth aged
phases (see below).
24–30 months were also identified, suggesting the presence of a juvenile
The faunal remains were also notable for a high proportion of dog
in its second year and a further juvenile in its third year of life.
elements and for a high proportion of juvenile pig and cattle elements. A
While it is possible that carnivores such as dogs or foxes created the
total of 218 dog bones were recovered, mainly from Chamber 1. While
animal bone assemblage as a result of hunting and scavenging, the ev­
the calculated MNI was 5, when visually inspected these could be further
idence for significant action by carnivores is slight, with only ten ele­
categorised by size and colour into at least nine individuals and four
ments showing signs of gnawing (0.37%). These were seven hare bones,
groups. Radiocarbon dating of bones from each of these groups (see
two puppy mandibles and a puppy metatarsal. Four of the seven hare
below) demonstrated that they ranged widely in date, however one litter
bones were pelvises, with the remainder being femurs. This is to be
of at least three large puppies from Chamber 1 were likely to be
expected since the fleshiest part of a hare is the area of the pelvis and the
contemporary with the Phase II (see below) hare and human bones in
upper portion of the back legs. The complex shape of the pelvic area
Chamber 2. These consisted of 61 elements from individuals aged be­
means that a carnivore would gnaw at this region to access the meat. It is
tween one and four months. The growth curve of puppies is such that
likely that these dog and hare elements were incorporated into the tomb
this age range spans c. 20% to 80% of adult height (Tudor, 2015). They
in a fleshed or at least a relatively fresh state, since dry bone would be of
had an approximate withers height of c.23 cm, similar to a modern adult
little value for food, and as detailed below, an anthropogenic rather than
Jack Russell terrier, suggesting that these elements came from what
natural origin is more likely.
would have become medium- or large-sized adult dogs. Two dog man­
dibles exhibited carnivore gnawing marks, suggesting that the chamber
5.2. Radiocarbon dates
was accessible after they were incorporated into the tomb.
There were also a high proportion of juvenile pig and cattle elements
In the present study, two radiocarbon dates were obtained from hare
present. There were 51 pig elements, concentrated mainly in Chamber 1
bones and four from dog bones. In Chamber 1, both hare bone sample
and Trench C, which was cairn material in the northeastern quadrant.
UBA-21205 (3622–3371 calBC) and the previously obtained human
Based on tooth eruption and wear these included one individual aged
bone sample GU-10577 (3650 – 3350 calBC) (Schulting et al., 2012)
3–7 weeks and one or two individuals aged 2–4 months, although the
were located in a generally amorphous spread of bone low down in the
potential for mixing of deposits due to the thin stratigraphy means that
fill of the chamber. They were both within 0.2 m of the north side of the
these latter teeth are probably the remains of a single individual. There
chamber, up against the north orthostat where the bone deposit was
was also evidence of a larger sub-adult present. Prior to modern hus­
relatively dense, possibly as a result of a ‘tidying up’ episode. It appears,
bandry, piglets were normally born during the spring, so that the piglets
therefore, that these hare remains are part of the Phase I deposits, the
were probably deposited in the late spring or early summer. There were
initial use-phase of the monument.
also 90 cattle elements identified. With the exception of a single second
The contexts in Chamber 2 can be divided into two major strati­
phalanx from an individual aged over 24 months, the remainder of the
graphic components. The first is a group of very tightly packed bones
bones were unfused and hence juvenile. Twenty four post-cranial ele­
pressed up against the south side of the chamber. Previously-obtained
ments were identified, with all but two coming from the cairn material
dates on human bone from this cluster place these bones in Phase I.
in Trench C. These seem to represent a single calf of 7–8 months gesta­
Secondly; there was a more dispersed spread of bone in the middle and
tion and hence 1–2 months premature at the time of its death (Sterba,
on the north side of the chamber. The configuration of the bones against
2004). Pre-modern cattle would also have generally given birth in
the south side makes it very likely that these were collected up from the
spring, suggesting a late-winter or early-spring date for the
middle of the chamber and placed there to make room for subsequent

Table 1
Number of Identified Specimens Present (NISP) by location and overall MNI. For pigs and dogs the bracketed figure gives the increased MNI after close examination of
the individual remains.
Cattle Sheep/Goat Pig Dog Cat Hare Frog VSM Total % of total in this location

Chamber 1 9 0 24 180 0 383 170 32 798 40.8

Chamber 2 2 1 2 21 0 203 10 5 244 12.5
Trenches A and B 12 0 2 1 0 147 6 0 168 8.6
Trench C 58 6 18 6 0 482 68 17 655 33.5
Trench D entrance 3 0 5 2 0 11 2 0 23 1.2
Trench D extension 4 0 0 8 0 12 8 1 33 1.2
Trench E 2 2 0 0 1 21 7 0 33 1.7
Total NISP 90 9 51 218 1 1259 271 55 1954 –
Sitewide MNI 3 2 2(3) 5(9) 1 38 – – – –

4
F. Beglane and C. Jones
deposits, which are represented by the more dispersed spread of bone. In
Chamber 2, the date from hare bone sample UBA-21206 (3310–2924
calBC) is nearly identical to the previously obtained date of human bone
sample GU-10572 (3350 – 2900 calBC) (Schulting et al., 2012). These
two bones again have a close stratigraphic relationship, as both were
from the more dispersed spread of bone in the middle and north of the
chamber. These dating and stratigraphic correlations indicate that hare
remains continued to be deposited in the monument during Phase II.
The 218 dog bones could be classified into four groupings. Radio­
carbon date UBA-33268 (3483–3104 calBC) from a single calcaneus
found in Chamber 1, which came from a group of at least three large
puppies shows that they are likely to have been contemporary with the
Phase II hare and human bones in Chamber 2. By contrast, radiocarbon
date UBA-35055 (2470–2206 calBC) from a single right femur from a
group of at least four neo/prenatal puppies showed that they were
Chalcolithic, while a fifth metacarpal from a large dog gave a Late
Bronze Age date, UBA-33267 (1006–845 calBC), and a second meta­
carpal from a medium-sized dog gave a modern date, UBA-35056.
In both Chamber 1 and Chamber 2, therefore, the radiocarbon dates
for the hares and humans suggest that they are contemporary with each
other and date to Phases I and II, and one group of large puppies also
appears to be contemporary with the hares and humans of Phase II.
5.3. Deposition of hare carcasses
Hare bones dominate the Parknabinnia faunal assemblage both in
Fig. 3. Survival of elements for hare in a) Trenches A, B, C and in b) Chambers 1 and 2 compared to the sitewide averages and to Pelletier et al. (2015).
5
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 35 (2021) 102672
terms of the number of identified specimens (NISP) and the minimum
number of individuals (MNI). They were common in both chambers and
also within the stones of the cairn (Trench C). Relatively small numbers
of elements were found elsewhere. Within the chambers, the radio­
carbon dates show that hare bones are contemporary with both the
Phase I and the Phase II deposits of human remains. It will be shown,
however that the hare bone elements are not distributed evenly
throughout the chambers, instead, while Chamber 1 shows a pattern
consistent with whole hare carcasses being deposited within the cham­
ber, Chamber 2 shows a pattern which is low in fore limbs.
The hare bones from Parknabinnia had been extremely well pre­
served in an enclosed, alkaline environment where they were protected
from weathering. Few had been trampled as they had often fallen into
gaps and crevices and had also been deliberately tidied into corners.
There was little evidence for carnivore scavenging, so that taking all of
these factors into consideration, good preservation of both the front and
hind limb bones was to be expected. Note that MNIs were calculated on a
sitewide basis and then separately for each area discussed. Pelletier et al.
(2015) conducted a study of hare bones that had become incorporated
into cave deposits at Regourdou, France, as a result of the cave being a
natural pitfall trap. For ‘layer 4′ they examined the relative proportions
of various skeletal elements compared to the MNI. This provides a
benchmark against which selective deposition of bodyparts can be
examined. Sitewide representation patterns relative to the overall MNI
(Fig. 3a) generally follow Pelletier et al. (2015), with similar percent­
ages of the head/neck, forelimbs and lower foot bones to those expected.
F. Beglane and C. Jones
There is slightly better preservation of the hind limbs than the front
limbs, but with much higher levels of representation for the astragalus
(ankle bone) than expected. Within the limitations of a smaller sample
size, results from the forecourt and cairn material in Trenches A and B
combined, and also from Trench C follow the general pattern of the
sitewide results (Fig. 3a), but with notably lower representation of the
forelimbs than the hindlimbs. Results from the two chambers (Fig. 3b)
show a similar pattern for the hindlimbs, however the forelimb repre­
sentations from the two chambers contrast with each other. In Chamber
1, the forelimb elements are numerous, on a par with the high levels of
representation found for the hind limbs. By contrast, in Chamber 2, the
forelimb bones are extremely scarce, with only approximately one third
as many elements present as expected using Pelletier et al. (2015).
Despite these differences, in both cases the relative frequency of each
bone follows the overall pattern found by Pelletier et al. (2015) within
that particular region of the body.
If whole hares were deposited then the pattern seen in Chamber 1 is
to be expected. This chamber follows the general form of Pelletier et al.
(2015) within each region of the body, and in having good preservation
of the forelimb bones, but overall has slightly better-than-expected
preservation in both limbs. This is probably a result of the protected
environment in which the material was preserved. By contrast, there is
an under-representation of forelimb bones in Chamber 2, with only
approximately one third of the numbers expected by Pelletier et al.
(2015), and a little over a quarter of those expected by comparison with
Chamber 1. One possibility is that many of the hares deposited in
Chamber 2 were first killed and then partly skinned, with the feet
remaining attached to the skin. They were then disjointed and the front
limbs removed, but leaving the front feet intact. The remainder of the
carcasses, including the skins and feet, were then deposited in the tomb
and the forelimbs were taken away for some other purpose. However,
they were not deposited in Chamber 1, because if that were the case then
the proportion of forelimbs in Chamber 1 would be expected to be even
higher and to far exceed the hindlimb representation.
As noted above, outside the chambers, forelimb elements from
forecourt and cairn material in Trenches A, B and C are low-to-average
of those across the site as a whole, and as a result are intermediate be­
tween those of Chambers 1 and 2. There are two likely possibilities to
explain this finding. There is evidence for periodic collapses of the roof
of the tomb so one option is that following collapses there were attempts
made to clear out the chambers, resulting in bones being moved outside,
however human bone is rare in these outer areas, so this seems unlikely.
Also, in this case it would also be expected that small, difficult-to-collect
foot bones would be under-represented in Trenches A, B and C, however
they are well represented compared to the sitewide average, and to
Pelletier et al.’s (2015) model. More likely, therefore, is that not all hares
used in rituals were deposited inside the chambers. Instead, some whole
hares and some partly-disarticulated hares were deposited in or on the
front parts of the cairn and the forecourt during ritual activities. This is
supported by the distribution of the faunal material, with the material
from Trenches A, B and Trench C, at the front of the tomb yielding 42.1%
of the faunal remains while Trench E, to the rear of the monument,
yielded only 1.7% of the material (Table 1).
6. Discussion
The faunal assemblage from Parknabinna has three significant ele­
ments: firstly the dominance of hare, with at least 38 individuals present
on the site, concentrated in the two chambers and in the north-eastern
quadrant of the cairn (Trench C). Secondly, the lack of hare forelimbs,
particularly in the inner Chamber 2 and, to a lesser extent, in the fore­
court and cairn material, and finally the dominance of young pig, dog
and cattle elements among the bones of the domesticated species.
Since hares are common in the Burren an obvious question is the
degree to which their bones may be natural intrusions, possibly through
the use of the tomb as a den for carnivores. This is because, as described
6
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 35 (2021) 102672
above, Irish hares do not generally burrow or take shelter in enclosed
spaces (Cowan, 2008, 221), and the tomb does not form a pitfall, so that
the likelihood of a large number of hares dying naturally in and around
the megalith is extremely low. Potential predators include wolf, fox, dog,
lynx, wildcat, stoat and golden eagle (Cowan, 2008, 228; Montgomery
et al., 2014, Table 1). Although the remains of at least nine dogs were
found, evidence for significant carnivore action is slight, with only small
numbers of bones showing signs of gnawing (0.37%). In combination,
the ecological data, the pattern of contemporaneity with the human
remains, and the differential treatment of particular body parts certainly
suggest that the hare remains from Parknabinnia were deposited in acts
of ritual significance.
This interpretation is given further support by evidence for ritual
deposits of hares at other prehistoric monuments in the local area.
Mention was made above of the inclusion of middle Neolithic and
Chalcolithic hares and of very young animals of other species at the
nearby Poulnabrone portal tomb (Schulting, 2014). Unfortunately, this
was excavated in the mid-1980s and it is not possible to directly
compare the results with those from Parknabinnia since little detail of
the hare remains was published, with no fusion data or MNI calculated.
A table of NISP by element for those hare bones found within the
chamber was published, and this was compared to results from Par­
knabinnia and from Pelletier et al. (2015). This shows that all parts of
the hare carcasses seem to have been present at Poulnabrone, with el­
ements from the front and hind limbs approximately equally repre­
sented, and a similar overall pattern to Pelletier et al. (2015).
The Poulnabrone results resonate with the findings from another
nearby site, Glencurran Cave, with all three sites, Parknabinnia, Poul­
nabrone, and Glencurran, located within 7 km of each other. At Glen­
curran Cave, excavations revealed remarkable deposits 45 m from the
entrance into the cave, with neonatal lambs, calves, and piglets, as well
as perforated cowrie and periwinkle shells, Late Bronze Age pottery,
adult human bones, including some dated to the Late Bronze Age, a 2 –
4 year old Late-Bronze-Age child, and a neonatal child, as well as five
adult hares, one of which produced a Neolithic date. The wide spread of
dates presents difficulties in assigning a consistent meaning to these
deposits, but as the excavator pointed out, the possible associations with
fertility, birth, and the spring season, including possible associations of
caves and cowrie shells with female anatomy, are multiple (Dowd, 2009;
pers. comm.). The inclusion of hares in these deposits certainly suggests
that a belief system that correlated hares with fertility and regeneration
was present in the locale in prehistory.
Parknabinnia also contained the bones of young domesticated ani­
mals, namely the Neolithic puppy remains as well as the undated re­
mains of at least two piglets, the latter species probably deposited in late
spring or early summer, and a prenatal calf, probably deposited in late
winter or early spring. In contrast, very few elements from adult do­
mesticates were recovered, with the adult dogs being much later in date.
While it would be fascinating to compare patterns of age and sex of
human remains associated with the various animal species, this is not
possible due to the disarticulation, mixing and rearrangement of all the
remains found. However, the concentration of dog and pig elements in
the chambers and of cattle in the cairn material of Trench C hints at
differences in the way these species became incorporated into the tomb.
While the chambers are the focus of the site, the cairn material of Trench
C contained the majority of the cattle remains as well as substantial
quantities of hare bones, suggesting that not all rituals took place inside
the tomb. Since the chambers are relatively small, only selected in­
dividuals may have has access to the interior, while more communal
rituals would necessarily have taken place outside.
Significantly, these associations and possible beliefs do not seem to
be restricted to the immediate locale. In England, Thomas and
McFadyen (2010) found that neonatal and juvenile domesticates were
also common in the Cotswold-Severn tombs, and, as with the deposits at
Poulnabrone and Glencurran, this focus on the deposition of juveniles
during the spring months may indicate a connection to rituals associated
F. Beglane and C. Jones
with the coming of spring and/or the changing of the seasons, again
linking back to the concepts of fertility, birth and renewal. Moving
further afield, it was noted above that both lagomorph bones and figu­
rines have been found in a variety of Neolithic and Chalcolithic mor­
tuary contexts in Iberia. In fact, lagomorph bones have been found in a
large percentage of these contexts and the frequency of their occurrence
has been interpreted as evidence for intentional inclusion, again prob­
ably related to concepts of fertility (Weiss-Krejci, 2006). In a similar
vein, Valera et al. (2014) note that contexts in which the Neolithic
lagomorph figurines are found are almost exclusively funerary, and they
argue that their standardised form suggests that they have a common
meaning, probably linked to birth, fertility, and especially regeneration.
The main period of use of these figurines seems to have been the second
half of the 4th millennium BC; correlating well with the mid- and late-
4th millennium BC dates for the Parknabinnia hare and puppy bones.
Lagomorphs appear in the folklore and beliefs of a wide variety of
cultures, from China to Ireland and Scandinavia to Africa, as well as
among the pre-Contact peoples of the Americas (e.g. Thomas and
Waterman, 2013). While caution must be used when relating modern
folklore to prehistoric archaeology, the widespread interest in these taxa
and the commonalities of ideas suggest that there is merit in examining
these beliefs. In many cases, hares and rabbits are interchangeable in
similar stories and traditions, depending on the species present in that
area, and so it is worth considering both.
Many of the folkloric connotations of hares are essentially negative.
In some cultures they are considered to be such bad luck that they are
only alluded to rather than being specifically named (Boyle, 1973, 322-
323). Lagomorphs often appear as tricksters or as crafty individuals, an
association found, for example, in India, among the Khoikhoi of south­
ern Africa, in the US, Nordic countries and in the west of Ireland (Boyle,
1973, 320-321; Nildin-Wall and Wall, 1993; Thomas and Waterman,
2013, 120). This association has come down to the modern world in the
forms of Brer Rabbit and Bugs Bunny, both of whom live by their wits
and trickery (Ellis, 2002, 69). Another negative motif is that of the hare
as the animal form of a witch, found in Wales, Ireland, (Boyle, 1973,
315; Ní Dhuibhne, 1993), and Nordic countries (Nildin-Wall and Wall,
1993). In many cases the witch, often an old woman, transforms into a
hare to suckle milk from cattle belonging to a neighbour. If the neigh­
bour injures her in her animal form, usually on the hind leg, then, when
she transforms back into a human, she can be identified by the injury
sustained (Ní Dhuibhne, 1993). Of possible relevance to the current
study, although a hare is not mentioned, is a local folklore tale that
explains the origin of a small branching waterfall, the ‘Seven Streams’,
located just 4 km from Parknabinnia, as being the result of a woman
using trickery to milk a magical ‘cow of plenty’ into a sieve that the cow
could never fill (Jones, 2018; Westropp, 1895).
By contrast with these negative connotations, hares also have posi­
tive aspects. The most famous of these today is the Easter Bunny, who
was originally a hare rather than a rabbit. Easter takes place after the full
moon that follows the spring equinox (Heilbron, 1999) and is a time to
celebrate spring and new birth, but also, within Christianity, of rebirth.
Lagomorphs are often associated with the moon and with lunar god­
desses (De Mello, 2012, 290) and, due to their reproductive capabilities
(Cowan, 2008, 227) are often identified as symbols of fertility and
fecundity (Valera et al., 2014). Bede, writing in the eighth century,
argued that Easter was named after Eostre, the Saxon goddess of the
dawn, who may have been a fertility goddess, however little is known of
her (Boyle, 1973, 323), and there is nothing to connect her directly to
hares (Billson, 1892, 446-447). Nevertheless, hare hunts and hare con­
sumption are both attested in various European countries at Eastertime
(Billson, 1892, 441-444). One possible connection may be the idea of a
hare hunt as a metaphor for sexual pursuit (Boyle, 1973, 324; Ní
Dhuibhne, 1993), linking to the use of lagomorphs as fertility symbols.
Lagomorphs have been associated with medicine and with healing
amulets across a wide variety of cultures, in particular in the use of
‘lucky’ hare or rabbit’s feet as charms to ward off sickness or evil
7
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 35 (2021) 102672
(Billson, 1892, 456; Boyle, 1973, 324-325; Thomas and Waterman,
2013). For example, Marcellus of Bordeaux, writing around AD400
recommended that cutting off the foot of a rabbit and binding it to a
patient would give a ‘marvellous remedy’ (Choyke, 2010, 200). Simi­
larly, in 1584 Reginald Scot described the use of a lagomorph foot to
prevent cramp or arthritis (Ellis, 2002, 58).
The folklore associated with hares demonstrates some of the breadth
of belief, but also some of the commonalities across areas of Europe and
further afield. At Parknabinnia, hare carcasses were deposited, but in
some cases, forelimbs appear to have been selectively removed before
deposition of the remainder of the carcass. This suggests a ritual practice
in which that particular portion of the body was important. While recent
folklore focuses on the hindlimb, this nevertheless suggests that these
forelimbs may have been taken for display, possibly as totemic symbols,
or possibly as charms for good luck, healing, or to ward off evil. What
comes through repeatedly, however, in both the folklore and the
archaeological associations is a focus on fertility and regeneration.
7. Conclusions
While some faunal remains in some megalithic tombs are natural
inclusions, contextual taphonomic analysis and dating of the faunal re­
mains from the Parknabinnia court tomb has revealed patterns that are
best interpreted as the result of deliberate deposition in a ritual context.
The deposition of hares and young animals suggests periodic springtime
rituals involving animal dismemberment and offerings with a focus on
fertility and renewal, and this interpretation is supported by hare folk­
lore. This study provides a more robust context within which to interpret
other occurrences of hares and young animals in Neolithic megaliths and
other ritual contexts, particularly in Ireland and elsewhere along the
Atlantic façade. Both the archaeology and the folklore of this region
suggest a widespread focus on fertility and renewal, and identify lago­
morphs as ritually significant species in both prehistoric and more recent
times across the geographical region.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Neil Reid for his input on hare ecology, as
well as Thor McVeigh, Alice Choyke and Reuven Yeshurun for help in
tracking down relevant literature and Richard Thomas and Marion
Dowd for access to unpublished material. We are also very grateful to
the editors and reviewers for their helpful comments and suggestions on
the paper. Excavation was supported by the Royal Irish Academy.
Radiocarbon dating was funded by the Royal Irish Academy; Queen’s
University, Belfast; Institute of Technology, Sligo and National Univer­
sity of Ireland, Galway. We wish to express our sincere thanks to all the
funding bodies. FB gratefully acknowledges the support provided by the
Centre for Environmental Research Innovation and Sustainability.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102672.
References
Bailon, S., 1999. Fiches d’osteologie animale pour l’archeologie. APDCA, Antibes.
Beckett, J., 2011. Interactions with the dead: a taphonomic analysis of burial practices in
three megalithic tombs in county Clare, Ireland. Eur. J. Archaeol. 14, 394–418.
https://doi.org/10.1179/146195711798356719.
Beckett, J., Robb, J., 2006. Neolithic burial taphonomy, ritual and interpretation in
Britain and Ireland: a review. In: Gowland, R., Knusel, C. (Eds.), The Social
Archaeology of Funerary Remains. Oxbow, Oxford, pp. 57–80.
Billson, C.J., 1892. The Easter hare. Folklore 3, 441–466. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1253567.
Boyle, J.A., 1973. The hare in myth and reality: a review article. Folklore 84, 313–326.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/1259837.
F. Beglane and C. Jones
Callou, C., 1997. Diagnose différentielle des principaux éléments squelettiques du lapin
(genre Oryctolagus) et du lièvre (genre Lepus) en Europe occidentale. Centre de
Recherches Archéologiques du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris.
Choyke, A., 2010. The bone is the beast: animal amulets and ornaments in power and
magic. In: Campana, D., Crabtree, P., deFrance, S., Lev-Tov, J., Choyke, A. (Eds.),
Anthropological approaches to zooarchaeology: complexity, colonialism, and animal
transformations. Oxbow, Oxford, pp. 197–209.
Cochard, D., 2004. Les léporidés dans la subsistance paléolithique du sud de la France.
Université Bordeaux.
Coffey, G., 1896-1898. On a Cairn Excavated by Thomas Plunkett, M.R.I.A., on Belmore
Mountain, Co. Fermanagh, Proc. R. Irish Acad. 4, 659-666. https://www.jstor.org/
stable/i20490497.
Cowan, D.P., 2008. Order Lagomorpha: Rabbits and hares. In: Harris, S., Yalden, D.W.
(Eds.), Mammals of the British Isles: Handbook, 4th Edition. The Mammal Society,
Southampton, pp. 200–239.
Davis, S.J.M., 1992. A rapid method for recording information about mammal bones
from archaeological sites, Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 19/92.
De Mello, M., 2012. Animals and society: an introduction to human-animal studies.
Columbia University Press, New York.
Dowd, M., 2009. Middle and Late Bronze Age Ritual Activity at Glencurran Cave, Co.
Clare. In: N. Finlay, N., McCartan, S., Milner, N., Wickham-Jones, C. (Eds.), From
Bann Flakes to Bushmills, Prehistoric Society Research Paper 1. Oxbow, Oxford, pp.
89-100.
Duarte, C., Evangelista, L.S., Lago, M., Valente, M.J., Valera, A.C., 2006. Animal remains
in Chalcolithic funerary context in Portugal: the case of Perdigões (Reguengos de
Monsaraz, Alentejo). In: Weiss-Krejci, E., Duarte, C., Haws, J. (Eds.), Animais na Pré-
história e arqueologia da Península Ibérica, Actas do IV Congresso de Arqueologia
Peninsular (Faro, 14 a 19 de Setembro de 2004). Promontoria Monográfica 03., Faro:
Universidade do Algarve, pp. 47-55.
Edmonds, M., 1999. Ancestral geographies of the Neolithic: landscape, monuments and
memory. Routledge, London and New York.
Ellis, B., 2002. Why is a lucky rabbit’s foot lucky? body parts as fetishes. J. Folklore Res.
39, 51–84. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3814831.
Grant, A., 1982. The use of tooth wear as a guide to the age of domestic ungulates. In:
Wilson, B., Grigson, C., Payne, S. (Eds.), Ageing and sexing animal bones from
archaeological sites, British Archaeological Reports 109, British Series, pp. 91-108.
Hartnett, P.J., 1957. Excavation of a passage grave at Fourknocks, Co., Meath. Proc. R.
Irish Acad. 58C, 197–277.
Heilbron, 1999. The sun in the church. Sciences 39, 29–35. https://doi.org/10.1002/
j.2326-1951.1999.tb03438.x.
Hencken, H.O.N., 1939. A long cairn at Creevykeel, Co. Sligo. J. R. Soc. Antiquaries Irel.
69, 53–98. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25510182.
Higham, C.F.W., 1967. Stockrearing as a cultural factor in prehistoric Europe. Proc.
Prehist. Soc 33, 84–106. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0079497X00014067.
Hillson, S.W., 1992. Mammal bones and teeth. University College London, London,
Institute of Archaeology.
Jones, A., 1998. Where eagles dare: landscape, animals and the Neolithic of Orkney. J.
Mater. Cult. 3 (3), 301–324. https://doi.org/10.1177/135918359800300303.
Jones, C., 2007. Temples of stone: exploring the megalithic tombs of Ireland. Collins
Press, Cork.
Jones, C., 2018. Landscape, time and folklore. In: Fenwick, J. (Ed.), Lost and Found III –
Rediscovering more of Ireland’s past. Wordwell, Dublin, pp. 233–244.
Jones, C., 2019. The north Munster atypical court tombs of western Ireland: social
dynamics, regional trajectories and responses to distant events over the course of the
Neolithic. In: Müller, J., Hinz, M., Wunderlich, M. (Eds.), Megaliths - Societies -
Landscapes. Early Monumentality and Social Differentiation in Neolithic Europe.
Habelt Verlag, Bonn, pp. 983–1004.
Jope, M., 1954. Animal remains from the chambers in the Audleystown cairn. In:
Collins, A.E.P., Morton, W.R.M., Scott, J.H. (Eds.), The excavation of a double
horned cairn at Audleystown, Co. Down. Ulster Journal of Archaeology Third Series,
vol. 17, pp. 7–56. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20567428.
Leask, H.G., Price, L., C.P., M., Bailey, K.C., 1936. The Labbacallee megalith, Co. Cork,
Proc. R. Irish Acad. 43C, 77-101. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25515993.
Manning, C., O’Sullivan, V.R., Kaar, G.F., Curtin, W.A., McCormick, F., Kennan, P.S.,
Collins, J., Cooney, G., Brindley, A.L., Lanting, J.N., Mook, W.G., 1985. A Neolithic
burial mound at Ashleypark, Co., Tipperary. Proc. R. Irish Acad. 85C, 61–100.
Montgomery, W.I., Provan, J., Marshal McCabe, A., Yalden, D.W., 2014. Origin of British
and Irish mammals: disparate post-glacial colonisation and species introductions.
Quaternary Science Review 98, 144–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
quascirev.2014.05.026.
McCormick, F., 1985. ’The animal bones. In: Manning, C., O’Sullivan, V.R., Kaar, G.F.,
Curtin, W.A., McCormick, F., Kennan, P.S., Collins, J., Cooney, G., Brindley, A.L.,
Lanting, J.N., Mook, W.G. (Eds.), Neolithic burial mound at Ashleypark, Co.,
Tipperary, vol. 85C. Proc. R. Irish Acad., pp. 89–94. https://www.jstor.org/stable/
25506126.
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 35 (2021) 102672
McCormick, F., 1985/6. Faunal remains from prehistoric Irish burials, Journal of Irish.
Archaeology 3, 37–48.
McCormick, F., 1991. The effect of the Anglo-Norman settlement on Ireland’s wild and
domesticated fauna. In: Crabtree, P.J., Ryan, K. (Eds.), MASCA Research Papers in
Science and Archaeology. Supplement to Volume 8., MASCA The University Museum
of Archaeology and Anthropology. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
pp. 40–52.
McCormick, F., 2014. The faunal remains. In: Lynch, A. (Ed.), Poulnabrone: an early
Neolithic portal tomb in Ireland. DAHG Archaeological Monograph No. 9, Dublin,
pp. 154–157.
Müller, J., Hinz, M., Wunderlich, M., 2019. Megaliths - Societies - Landscapes. Early
Monumentality and Social Differentiation in Neolithic Europe. Proceedings of the
International Conference in Kiel 16-20 June 2015, Habelt Verlag, Bonn.
Newton, C.D., Nunamaker, D.M., 1985. Textbook of small animal orthopaedics.
Lippencott, Hagerstown MD.
Ní Dhuibhne, É., 1993. The old woman as hare: structure and meaning in an Irish legend.
Folklore 104, 77–85. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1260797.
Nildin-Wall, B., Wall, J., 1993. The witch as hare or the witch’s hare: popular legends
and beliefs in Nordic tradition. Folklore 104, 67–76. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1260796.
Pelletier, M., Royer, A., Holliday, T., Maureille, B., 2015. Hares and rabbits at Regourdou
(Montignac-sur-Vézère, Dordogne, France): paleontological and taphonomic studies
of two naturally-occurring bone accumulations. Paleo 26, 161–183. http://journals.
openedition.org/paleo/3029.
Persson, P.O., Persson, E., 1980. Appendix 1: the osteological analysis of the cremated
and unburnt bone material at the megalithic cemetery at Carrowmore, Co. Sligo,
Ireland. In: Burenhult, G. (Ed.), The archaeological excavation at Carrowmore Co.
Sligo, Ireland. Excavation seasons 1977-79. Theses and papers in north-European
archaeology 9. University of Stockholm, Stockholm, pp. 117–129.
Pollard, J., 2006. A community of beings: animals and people in the Neolithic of southern
Britain. In: Serjeantson, D., Field, D. (Eds.), Animals in the Neolithic of Britain and
Europe, Neolithic Studies Group Seminar Papers 7. Oxbow, Oxford, pp. 135–148.
Scarre, C., 2000. Stones with character: animism, agency and megalithic monuments. In:
O’Connor, B., Cooney, G., Chapman, J. (Eds.), Materialitas: working stone, carving
identity. Oxbow, Oxford, pp. 9–18.
Scarre, C., 2002. Monuments and landscape in Atlantic Europe: perception and society
during the Neolithic and early Bronze Age. Routledge, London.
Schmid, E., 1972. Atlas of Animal Bones. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Schulting, R.J., 2014. The dating of Poulnabrone. In: Lynch, A. (Ed.), Poulnabrone: an
early Neolithic portal tomb in Ireland, DAHG Archaeological Monograph No. 9,
Dublin, pp. 93-113.
Schulting, R.J., Murphy, E., Jones, C., Warren, G., 2012. New dates from the north and a
proposed chronology for Irish court tombs. Proc. R. Irish Acad. 112C, 1–60.
Serjeantson, D., 2011. Review of animal remains from the Neolithic and Early Bronze
Age of southern Britain 4000BC–1500BC. English Heritage, Portsmouth.
Silver, I.A., 1963. The ageing of domestic animals. In: Brothwell, D., Higgs, E. (Eds.),
Science in Archaeology. Thames and Hudson, London, pp. 250–268.
Snoeck, C., Jones, C., Pouncett, J., Goderis, S., Claeys, P., Mattielli, N., Zazzo, A.,
Reimer, P., Lee-Thorp, J., Schulting, R., 2020. Isotopic evidence for a change in
mobility and landscape use patterns between the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age in
western Ireland. J. Archaeolog. Sci.: Rep. 30, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jasrep.2020.102214.
Sterba, O., 2004. Prenatal development of metacarpus and metatarsus of cattle. Acta
Veterinaria (Brno) 73, 405–412. https://doi.org/10.2754/avb200473040405.
Thomas, J.T., Waterman, A.J., 2013. Down the rabbit hole: the significance of Late
Neolithic lagomorph figurines in anthropological perspective. Archaeol. Rev.
Cambridge 28, 113–131.
Thomas, R., McFadyen, L., 2010. Animals and Cotswold-Severn long-barrows: a re-
examination. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 76, 95–113. https://doi.org/1
0.1017/S0079497X00000463.
Tudor, M., 2015. Rottweiler growth chart [Online]. Available: http://www.karma
srottweilers.com/rottweilers-information/rottweiler-growth-chart/[Accessed 25
January 2020].
Valera, A.C., Evangelista, L.S., Castanheira, P., 2014. Zoomorphic figurines and the
problem of human-animal relationship in the Neolithic and Chalcolithic southwest
Iberia. Menga. Revista de prehistoria de Andalucía 15–41.
Waterman, D.M., 1965. The court cairn at Annaghmore, Co., Armagh, Ulster.
J. Archaeol. 28, 3–46. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20627414.
Weiss-Krejci, E., 2006. Animals in mortuary contexts of Neolithic and Chalcolithic Iberia.
In: Weiss-Krejci, E., Duarte, C., Haws, J. (Eds.), Animais na Pré-história e arqueologia
da Península Ibérica, Actas do IV Congresso de Arqueologia Peninsular (Faro, 14 a
19 de Setembro de 2004). Promontoria Monográfica 03. Universidade do Algarve,
Faro, pp. 35–45.
Westropp, T.J., 1895. The cow legend of Corofin, Co. Clare. J. R. Soc. Antiquaries Irel.
25, 227–229. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25508239.