Chapter 7

Dirac Delta function

Masatsugu Sei Suzuki
Physics Department, SUNY at Binghamton
(Date: October 6, 2010)

Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac (8 August 1902 – 20 October 1984) was a British
theoretical physicist. Dirac made fundamental contributions to the early development of
both quantum mechanics and quantum electrodynamics. He held the Lucasian Chair of
Mathematics at the University of Cambridge and spent the last fourteen years of his life
at Florida State University. Among other discoveries, he formulated the Dirac equation,
which describes the behavior of fermions. This led to a prediction of the existence of
antimatter. Dirac shared the Nobel Prize in physics for 1933 with Erwin Schrödinger, "for
the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory."

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Dirac

The Dirac delta function (x) is a useful function which was proposed by in 1930 by
Paul Dirac in his mathematical formalism of quantum mechanics. The Dirac delta
function is not a mathematical function according to the usual definition because it does
not have a definite value when x is zero. Nevertheless, it has many applications in physics.

7.1 Dirac delta function

When f(x) is a well-defined function at x = x0,

 

  ( x  x0 ) f ( x)dx  f ( x0 )   ( x  x0 )dx  f ( x0 ) .
 

The Dirac delta function  ( x  x0 ) has a sharp peak at x = x0.

 ( x  x0 )  0 if x  x0 and +∞ if x  x0 ,
and

  ( x  x )dx  1 .

0

 ( x  x0 ) is a generalization of the Kronecker delta function.

7.2 Principle properties of the Dirac delta function

1.  ( x)   (  x) .

1
2.  (ax)   ( x) ( a  0) .
a

1
3.  [ g ( x)]    ( x  xn ) .
n g ' ( xn )

where g ( xn )  0 and g ' ( x n )  0 . Note that g ( x )  g ( xn )  g ' ( xn )( x  xn )  g ' ( xn )( x  xn )

around x  xn .

 [( x  xn )]
 [ g ( x)]   [ g ' ( xn )( x  xn )]    [ g ' ( xn )( x  xn )]   .
n n n g ' ( xn )

4. x ( x)  0 .

5. f ( x) ( x  a)  f (a) ( x  a) .

6.   ( x  y) ( y  a)dy   ( x  a) .

1
7.  ( x)  e dk . (Fourier transform)
ikx

2 

((Note)) The formula (7) is extensively used in physics.

7.3 Derivation of (1)  ( x)   ( x)


I1    ( x) f ( x) dx  f (0) .


By putting that y = -x, dy  dx ,

   
I 2    ( x ) f ( x )dx    ( y ) f ( y )( dy )    ( y ) f ( y ) dy  f (0)  I1 .
  

Thus we have

 (  x)   ( x) .

1
7.4 Derivation of (2)  (ax)   ( x)
a

(i) For a>0, we put y = ax.

 
y dy
I1    (ax) f ( x)dx    ( y ) f ( )
 
a a

1 1
 f (0)    ( x) f ( x)dx
a a 

1
Thus we have  (ax)   ( x) .
a

(ii) For a<0, we put y = ax.

 
y dy
I 2    (ax) f ( x)dx    ( y ) f ( )
 
a a
 
y dy 1 1
    ( y) f ( )   f (0)     ( x) f ( x)dx

a a a a 

1
Thus we have  (ax)    ( x) . Combining (i) and (ii), we get the final result:
a
1
 (ax)   ( x) .
a

7.5 Derivation of (4). x ( x)  0 .


I

 x ( x) f ( x)dx  0 f (0)  0 .
 1
7.6 Example of  [ g ( x)]    ( x  xn )
n g ' ( xn )

1
(i)  [( x  a)( x  b)]  [ ( x  a)   ( x  b)] .
ab

where a  b  0 .

((Proof))
g ( x)  ( x  a)( x  b) ,

g ' ( x)  2 x  a  b ,

then

1
 [( x  a)( x  b)]  [ ( x  a)   ( x  b)] .
ab

Another method to derive this equation is as follows.

 [( x  a)( x  b)]  [ [(a  b)( x  a)]   [( x  b)(b  a)]]

1
 [ ( x  a)   ( x  b)]
ab
.

(ii)  ( x  a )  2 a  x  a  .

((Proof))

 xa   xa
 ( x  a)        2 a  x  a  .
 x a 2 a

(iii)  ( x  a)  0.

((Proof))

1
g ( x)  x  a , g ' ( x)  ,
2 xa

1
 ( g ( x))   ( x  a)  2 x  a | x  a  ( x  a)  0 .
g ' (a )
(iv)  ( x2  a2 )  0 .

((Proof))
x
g ( x)  x2  a2 , g ' ( x)  ,
x2  a2

1 1
 ( x2  a2 )   ( x  a)   ( x  a)
g ' (a) g ' (a)
x2  a2 x2  a2
 | xa  ( x  a )  | x a  ( x  a )  0
a a .

7.7 Derivative of the Dirac function

 ( x ) f ( x ) dx  ( 1) m f ( m ) (0) .
(m)
1.


2.  ( m ) ( x )  ( 1) m  ( m ) (  x ) .

 ( x  y ) ( m ) ( y  a )dy   ( m  n ) ( x  a ) .
(m)
3.


4. x m 1 ( m ) ( x )  0 .

 
5.   ' ( x) f ( x)dx     ( x) f ' ( x)dx   f ' (0) .
 

6.  ' ( x)   ' ( x) .


7.   ' ( x  y ) ( y  a)dy   ' ( x  a) .


8. x ' ( x)   ( x) .

9. x 2 ' ( x )  0 .


i
10.  ' ( x)   ke dk .
ikx

2 
 

 ( x ) f ( x ) dx  ( 1) m f ( m ) (0)
(m)
7.8 Derivation of (1)


 ( x ) f ( x ) dx  ( 1) m f ( m ) (0) .
(m)



((Proof))

 

  ( x) f ( x)dx  (1)   ( x) f ( x)dx  (1) f (0) .

(m) m (m) m (m)

 

((Note)): in quantum mechanics, we use in general,

 

f ( x) g ( x ) dx  ( 1)  f ( x) g
(m) (m)
m
( x ) dx ,
 

since f ( n ) (  )  f ( n ) ( )  g ( n ) (  )  g ( n ) ( )  0 for n = 0, 1, 2, …..

7.9 Derivation of (8) x ' ( x)   ( x)

x ' ( x)   ( x) .

((Proof))

 

 x ' ( x) f ( x)dx  xf ( x) ( x)

d
   ( x)

 [ xf ( x)]dx
 
dx

d
    ( x)[ f ( x)  x f ( x)]dx

dx

    ( x) f ( x)dx


7.10 Properties of Dirac delta function (Mathematica)

Clear"Global`"

 DiracDeltax  x




 fx DiracDeltax  a  x  Simplify , a  0 &





fa

 fx DiracDeltax  x


f0


 fx DiracDelta   x  Simplify , a  0 &

 x
 a
a f0

 fx DiracDelta   x  Simplify , a  0 &

 x
a
Abs a f0


 x DiracDelta 'x  x




1

 fx DiracDelta 'x  x



f 0


 fx x DiracDelta 'x  x





f0
  fx DiracDelta ''x  x




f 0

Tablen,  fx DDiracDeltax, x, n  x, n, 1, 10  TableForm



f 0


f 0
1

f3 0
2

f4 0
3

f5 0
4

f6 0
5

f7 0
6

f8 0
7

f9 0
8

f10 0
9
10

 fx DiracDeltax  a x  b  x



fa  fb


Abs a  b

 fx DiracDeltax  1  x


3

f1


 fx DiracDeltax  4 x  3  x


2


f1  f3
1
2

 fx DiracDelta x  a   x  Simplify , a  0 &





2 a fa

7.11 Representative of Delta function

Representative as the limit of a kernel of an integral operator
 n 2 2
1.  n ( x)  e n x
( n  ) . (Gaussian)


1 sin(x)
2.  ( x)  lim . (Sinc sequence)
   x

1 1  cos(x)
3.  ( x)  lim . (Sinc squared)
   x 2

1  
4.  ( x)  lim  2 2 
. (Lorentzian, or resonance)
 0 
 x  

E ( x   )  E ( x)
5.  ( x)  lim .
 0 

where E(x) is the unit step function

E ( x)  1 if x>0 and 0 if x<0.


6. 2 ( x)  1   2 cos(nx) .
n 1


7. 2 ( x)  e
n  
inx
.


8. 2 ( x)   eikx dk .



9.  ( x)   cos( kx )dk .


7.12 Gaussian
 n 2 2
 n ( x)  e n x
, ( n  )


((Mathematica))

Clear"Global`"

fx_, n_ : Exp n 2 x 2 

n

Integratefx, n, x, , , Assumptions  n  0

1

f1  PlotEvaluateTablefx, n, n, 200, 1000, 200,

x,  0.005, 0.005,
PlotStyle  TableHue0.2 i, Thick, i, 0, 5,
PlotPoints  100,
PlotRange   0.005, 0.005, 0, 700,
AxesLabel  "x", "n x";

f2 
GraphicsTextStyle"n  200", Red, 10,  0.0001, 110,
TextStyle" 400", Yellow, 10, 0, 220,
TextStyle" 600", Green, 10, 0, 330,
TextStyle" 800", Blue, 10, 0, 450,
TextStyle" 1000", Purple, 10, 0, 560;

Showf1, f2, PlotRange  All

dn x

1000

500
800
400

600
300

400
200

= 200
n100

x
- 0.004 - 0.002 0.002 0.004

Fig. n is changed as a parameter; n = 200, 400, 600, 800, and 1000.

7.13 Sine sequence function

1 sin(x)
 ( x)  lim .
   x

The sine sequence function at an finite value of , has a peak (/) at x = 0, and becomes
zero at x = /.
dx
500
1500

4001300

1100
300
900

700
200
h = 500
100

x
- 0.010 - 0.005 0.005 0.010

- 100
Fig.  is changed as a parameter;  = 500, 700, 900, 1100, 1300, and 1500.

7. 14 Lorentzian

n 1
 n ( x)  , ( n  )
 1  n2 x2
 dn x

1600
500

1400
400
1200

1000
300

800

200600

400
100
n = 200

x
- 0.004 - 0.002 0.000 0.002 0.004 
Fig. n is changed as a parameter; n = 200, 400, 600, 800, 1000, 1200, 1400, and 1600.

7.15 -sequence function
A step function with the height n and the width (1/2n) centered at x = 0.

7.16 Proof

1 sin(x)
Here we show that  ( x)  lim .
   x

using the knowledge of the Fourier transformation.

((Proof))
Using the formula derived from the Fourier transform, we have
   
2
2 ( x)   e dk  lim  e dk  lim 2 cos(kx)dk  lim sin(x) ,
ikx ikx
      x
  0

or

sin(x)
 ( x)  lim .
  x

((Note))

sin(x)
lim   ( x) .
  x

This implies that

 
sin(x )
I  dx    ( x ) dx   . (  )

x 

We put y = x. Then we have

  
sin(x) dy sin( y ) sin y
I   dx     dy  ,

x 
 y 
y


which is independent of  and is equal to . Note that

 
sin y  cos y  i sin y  1  e iy
 dy

y
  dy 
  iy
   dy
 i  y
.


eix
Using the Cauchy theorem, we calculate   dx x ,
Consider the path integral


eix eiz eiz
P dx   dz   dz  2i Re s ( z  0)  2i .

x C1 z C2 z

The contour integral around the path C2: ( z  Re i )

  
eiz Rei i (Re i )
C2 z dz  0 Rei ide  0 ide  i  deiR cos  e  R sin   0 ,
i ( R cos   iR sin  )

The contour integral around the path C1: ( z  e i ) ,

eiz e i 
0
i ( e i )
0 0

C1 z  ei ide  ide  i  d i ,

i (  cos   i sin  )
dz 


or

 
eix sin x
P dx  i  i  dx ,

x 
x

or


sin x
 dx

x
 .

7.18 Fourier transformation-I

 Fourier transformation and inverse Fourier transformation (definition)


1
F (k )   f ( x )e dx ,
ikx

2 


1
 F ( k )e
 ikx
f ( x)  dk .
2 

From these definitions, we have

 
1 1
  f ( )e
ik
e  ikx dk d  f ( x ) ,
2  2 

or

  
1 1
f ( x) 
2 

df ( )  dkeik (  x ) 

2  df ( )2 (  x) ,


or


1
e
ik (  x )
 (  x)  dk .
2 

7.19 Fourier transformation II

We consider the Fourier transform of  ( x   ) .


1 1 ik
F (k )    ( x   )e dx  e .
ikx

2  2

The inverse Fourier transform is

  
1 1 1 ik  ikx 1
 F (k )e dk   e
ik ( x  )
 (x   )   ikx
e e dk  dk .
2  2  2 2 

7.20 Fourier transform III

We consider the Fourier transformation of f(x) = 1.


1 1
F (k )  e dx  2 ( k )  2  ( k ) ,
ikx

2  2

or
 

e dx  2 ( k ) ,
ikx



or

e dk  2 ( x) ,
ikx



7.20 Definition of the Dirac delta function

((Mathematica))

Clear"Global`"

FourierTransform 1, k, x  Simplify

2  DiracDeltax

7.21 Shape of the step function

The derivative of the step function H(x) with respect to x, yields the Dirac delta
function.

H ' ( x)   ( x) ,

where H(x) = 1 for x>0 and 0 for x<0.

Hx
1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

x
-1 1 2 3

In other words,

x
H ( x)    (t )dt .


We choose the Gaussian delta function.

 n 2 2
 n ( x)  e n x
. (n→∞)


Then we have

1
H n ( x)  [1  erf (nx )]
2

where erf(x) is the error function.

Hx
1.0

0.8

0.6

750
0.4

500
0.2

n = 250
x
- 0.02 - 0.01 0.01 0.02

Fig. n is changed as a parameter; n = 250, 500, and 750.

7.22 Shape of '(x)

We consider the shape of '(x) using the Gaissian delta function

n 2 2
 n ( x)  e n x
. (n→∞)


The derivative of  n (x) with respect to x is given by

n 2 2
 n ' ( x)  e n x
( 2 n 2 x ) . (n→∞)


2
This function has a odd function with respect to x and has a local maximum (= n 2 )
e
1
at x   .
2n
 dn 'x105

500 1.0
400

0.5
300
200
n = 100 x
- 0.004 - 0.002 0.002 0.004

- 0.5

- 1.0

Fig. n is changed as a parameter; n = 100, 200, 300, 400, and 500.

APPENDIX Mathematrica

Properties of the Dirac function

from Michael Trott's book

rule1 
 f_x_ Derivative_DiracDeltax_   1 Derivative  f x  DiracDeltax ,
DiracDeltax_  c_ f_x_  f c  DiracDeltax  c , x n_. DiracDelta c_  x_  c n ,
x_ ^ n_. Derivative_DiracDeltax_ 
 1 ^ n      n   Derivative  n DiracDeltax 


f_x_ DiracDelta_ x_   1 fx DiracDeltax,

DiracDelta c_  x_ f_x_  fc DiracDeltax  c, xn_. DiracDelta c_  x_  cn ,
 1n   DiracDeltanx
x_n_. DiracDelta_ x_  
  n 

eq1  fx DiracDelta 'x . rule1

 DiracDeltax f x

eq2  fx DiracDelta ''x . rule1

DiracDeltax f x

eq3  fx DiracDelta '''x . rule1

 DiracDeltax f3 x

Technique of pure function

F  Functionx , Cosx 
Functionx, Cosx

Fx
Cosx

G  Functionx , x 4  x 2  1

Functionx, x4  x2  1

Gx

1  x2  x4

G ' x

 2 x  4 x3

G ''x

 2  12 x2

eq11  eq1 . f  G

  2 x  4 x3  DiracDeltax

eq12  eq1 . f  F
DiracDeltax Sinx
 eq31  eq3 . f  G
 24 x DiracDeltax

x DiracDelta 'x . rule1

 DiracDeltax

fx DiracDeltax  b . rule1

DiracDelta b  x fb

hx DiracDelta 'x . rule1

 DiracDeltax h x

x4 DDiracDeltax, x, 4 . rule1

24 DiracDeltax

x2 DDiracDeltax, x, 2 . rule1

2 DiracDeltax

h  Functionx , x 4  3 x 3  2 x 

Functionx, x4  3 x3  2 x

fx DDiracDeltax, x, 3 . rule1 . f  h

  18  24 x DiracDeltax

Comment

x4  3 x3  2 x DDiracDeltax, x, 3 . rule1

2 x  3 x3  x4  DiracDelta3 x

x3 DDiracDeltax, x, 3 . rule1

 6 DiracDeltax

7.22 Delta function in the spherical and cylindrical coordiunates

How is the delta function represented in curvilinear coordinates? First we refer to the
basic integration property

  (r  r' )d r  1
3

V
when r' is in the volume V. We also recall that

 ( x, y , z )
d 3r  dq1dq2 dq3  h1h2 h3 dq1dq2 dq3  h(q)dq1dq2 dq3
 (q1 , q2 , q3 )

where Jacobian determinant is defined as;

x x x
q1 q 2 q3
 ( x, y , z ) y y y
h( q )  
 (q1 , q 2 , q3 ) q1 q 2 q3
z z z
q1 q 2 q3

Accordingly, we must have

1
 (r  r ' )   (q1  q1 ' ) (q2  q2 ' ) (q3  q3 ' )
h( q )

(a) Spherical coordinate

1
 (r  r ' )   (r  r ' ) (   ' ) (   ' )
r sin 
2

1
 2  (r  r ' ) (cos  cos  ' ) (   ' )
r
1
 2  (r  r ' ) (    ' ) (   ' )
r

where   cos  , since

 (cos   cos  ' )   [(   ' )( sin  ' )]

1
  (   ' )
sin  '
1
  (   ' )
sin 

(b) Cylindrical co-ordinate

1
 (r  r ' )   (    ' ) (   ' ) ( z  z ' )

REFERENCE:
J. Schwinger et al, Classical Electrodynamics (Perseus Books, Reading, MA, 1998).
______________________________________________________________________
APPENDIX

Derivation of Green’s function

1
2  4 (r ) ,
r

where

r  ( x, y , z ) , r  x2  y 2  z 2 .

We consider a sphere with radius  (   0)

1 1 1 1
 dr   r   dr r   da   r   da(n   r )

where

r x y z
r  x2  y2  z 2 , n  er  ( , , ) , da  nda
r r r r

and

1 r 1 r 1
  3, n   rˆ  (  3 )   2
r r r r r

1
  ( )  0 except at the origin.
r

We now consider the volume integral over the whole volume (V - V') between the surface
A and the surface of sphere A' (volume V', radius   0) . We note that the outer surface
and the inner surface are connected to an appropriate cylinder.
 1
Since   ( )  0 over the whole volume V - V' we have
r

Using the Gauss's law, we get

1 1

V V '
dr     dr 2
r V V ' r
1 1
  da(n   )   da ' (n' )  0
A
r A' r

or

1 1 1
 da(n   r )    da' (n' r )   da' (n   r )
A A' A'

where n'  n  r̂ and dr is over the volume integral. Then we have

1 1 1
 da(n   r )   da( r
A
2
)  4 2
2
 4  4  dr (r )

Using the Gauss's law, we have

 1 1
 da(n   r )   dr(   r )  4  dr (r)
A V V

or

1
  4 (r ) .
r

or

1
( )   (r ) .
4r

((Mathematica))
Clear"Gobal`";

Needs"VectorAnalysis`"

SetCoordinatesCartesianx, y, z
Cartesianx, y, z

r1  x, y, z; r  r1.r1

x2  y2  z2

Grad    Simplify
1
r

 
x2  y2  z2 32 x2  y2  z2 32 x2  y2  z2 32
x y z
, ,

Laplacian   Simplify
1
r
0