REGULATION:2017 ACADEMIC YEAR:2020-2021

CHENNAI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY -I
Subject Title : Manufacturing Technology-I Title : LECTURE NOTES
Subject Code : ME8351 Unit : I
Year/ Sem : ​II/III Type :​ 100%Theory
UNIT I METAL CASTING PROCESSES

1 SAND CASTING PROCESS:

The process cycle for sand casting consists of six main stages, which are explained below.

1. Mold-making​ - The first step in the sand casting process is to create the mold for the casting. In an
expendable mold process, this step must be performed for each casting. A sand mold is formed by
packing sand into each half of the mold. The sand is packed around the pattern, which is a replica of
the external shape of the casting. When the pattern is removed, the cavity that will form the casting

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 remains. Any internal features of the casting that cannot be formed by the pattern are formed by
separate cores which are made of sand prior to the formation of the mold. Further details on
mold-making will be described in the next section. The mold-making time includes positioning the
pattern, packing the sand, and removing the pattern. The mold-making time is affected by the size of
the part, the number of cores, and the type of sand mold. If the mold type requires heating or baking
time, the mold-making time is substantially increased. Also, lubrication is often applied to the
surfaces of the mold cavity in order to facilitate removal of the casting. The use of a lubricant also
improves the flow the metal and can improve the surface finish of the casting. The lubricant that is
used is chosen based upon the sand and molten metal temperature.

2. Clamping​ - Once the mold has been made, it must be prepared for the molten metal to be poured. The
surface of the mold cavity is first lubricated to facilitate the removal of the casting. Then, the cores
are positioned and the mold halves are closed and securely clamped together. It is essential that the
mold halves remain securely closed to prevent the loss of any material.

3. Pouring​ - The molten metal is maintained at a set temperature in a furnace. After the mold has been
clamped, the molten metal can be ladled from its holding container in the furnace and poured into the
mold. The pouring can be performed manually or by an automated machine. Enough molten metal
must be poured to fill the entire cavity and all channels in the mold. The filling time is very short in
order to prevent early solidification of any one part of the metal.

4. Cooling​ - The molten metal that is poured into the mold will begin to cool and solidify once it enters
the cavity. When the entire cavity is filled and the molten metal solidifies, the final shape of the
casting is formed. The mold cannot be opened until the cooling time has elapsed. The desired cooling
time can be estimated based upon the wall thickness of the casting and the temperature of the metal.
Most of the possible defects that can occur are a result of the solidification process. If some of the
molten metal cools too quickly, the part may exhibit ​shrinkage​, cracks, or incomplete sections.
Preventative measures can be taken in designing both the part and the mold and will be explored in
later sections.

5. Removal​ - After the predetermined solidification time has passed, the sand mold can simply be
broken, and the casting removed. This step, sometimes called shakeout, is typically performed by a
vibrating machine that shakes the sand and casting out of the flask. Once removed, the casting will
likely have some sand and oxide layers adhered to the surface. Shot blasting is sometimes used to
remove any remaining sand, especially from internal surfaces, and reduce the ​surface roughness​.

6. Trimming​ - During cooling, the material from the channels in the mold solidifies attached to the part.
This excess material must be trimmed from the casting either manually via cutting or sawing, or using
a trimming press. The time required to trim the excess material can be estimated from the size of the
casting's ​envelope​. A larger casting will require a longer trimming time. The scrap material that
results from this trimming is either discarded or reused in the sand casting process. However, the
scrap material may need to be reconditioned to the proper chemical composition before it can be
combined with non-recycled metal and reused.

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2) TYPES OF PATTERN:

Split pattern:

These patterns are split along the parting plane (which may be flat or irregular surface) to
facilitate the extraction of the pattern out of the mould before the pouring operation. For a more
complex casting, the pattern may be split in more than two parts.
Follow board pattern
A follow board is not a pattern but is a device (wooden board) used for various purposes.
Match plate pattern:

A match plate pattern is a split pattern having the cope and drags portions mounted on opposite

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sides of a plate (usually metallic), called the "match plate" that conforms to the ​contour​ of the
parting surface.

The gates and runners are also mounted on the match plate, so that very little hand work is
required. This results in higher productivity. This type of pattern is used for a large number
of castings.
Piston rings of I.C. engines are produced by this process.
Sweep pattern:
A sweep is a section or board (wooden) of proper contour that is rotated about one edge to shape
mould ​cavities​ having shapes of rotational symmetry. This type of pattern is used when a casting
of large size is to be produced in a ​short​ time. Large kettles of C.I. are made by sweep patterns.
Loose piece pattern:
When a one piece solid pattern has projections or back drafts which lie above or below the
parting plane, it is impossible to with draw it from the mould. With such patterns, the projections
are made with the help of loose pieces. One drawback of loose feces is that their shifting is
possible during ramming.
Skeleton pattern:
For large castings having simple geometrical shapes, skeleton patterns are used. Just like sweep
patterns, these are simple wooden frames that outline the shape of the part to be cast and are also
used as guides by the molder in the hand shaping of the mould.
This type of pattern is also used in pit or floor molding process.

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4) TYPES OF CORE:

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5 MOULDING MACHINES:

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The importance and status of molding machinery in founding can be explained as follows in
accordance with H. Lohse: “Molding machines are machine tools in the field of ​sand​ molding
that use tools (​pattern​ plate, ​core box) to produce the work pieces (mold parts, mold halves, mold
cods, cores) from required materials (molding material, ​core​ molding material)”.

Molding machines must provide the following functions:

● Loading of the mold boxes and positioning on the ​pattern​ plate
● Filling of the molding material into the mold box (or mold chamber)
● Compaction​ (​solidification​ of the molding material)
● Demolding, i.e. Separation of the mold from the ​pattern​ and unloading of the mold
● Method or mechanism of separating the mold from the ​pattern​(demolding principle)
● Drive concept (manual, pneumatic, hydraulic operation of the ​molding machine​)
● Number of stations used for realizing the required work steps and stages for mold manufacturing
● Number of molding machines used in a molding plant (simplex, duplex machine)
● Molding method (boxless or box ​molding machine​)
● Method of ​compaction​ of the molding material
● Number of ​compaction​ stages (one-/two-stage)
● Type of connection established between the ​molding machine​ and the ​pattern​ device; the majority
of machines is equipped with a rigid connection, i.e. one machine is only intended for production
of one specified box size
● Mold parting​ design (machines with horizontal or vertical ​mold parting​ planes for boxless molds)

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6 CUPOLA FURNACE:

To begin a production run, called a 'cupola campaign', the furnace is filled with layers of coke and ignited with
torches. Some smaller cupolas may be ignited with wood to start the coke burning. When the coke is ignited,
air is introduced to the coke bed through ports in the sides called ​tuyeres​.
When the coke is very hot, solid pieces of metal are charged into the furnace through an opening in the top.
The metal is alternated with additional layers of fresh coke. ​Limestone​ is added to act as a ​flux​. As the heat
rises within the stack the metal is melted. It drips down through the coke bed to collect in a pool at the bottom,
just above the bottom doors. During the melting process a ​thermodynamic​ reaction takes place between the
fuel and the blast air. The ​carbon​ in the coke combines with the oxygen in the air to form ​carbon monoxide​.
The carbon monoxide further burns to form ​carbon dioxide​. Some of the carbon is picked up by the falling
droplets of molten metal which raises the carbon content of the iron. ​Silicon
carbide​ and ​ferromanganese​ briquettes may also be added to the charge materials. The silicon carbide
dissociates and carbon and silicon enters into the molten metal. Likewise, the ferromanganese melts and is
combined into the pool of liquid iron in the 'well' at the bottom of the cupola. Additions to the molten iron such
as ​ferromanganese​, ​ferrosilicon​, ​Silicon carbide​and other alloying agents are used to alter the molten iron to
conform to the needs of the castings at hand.
The operator of the cupola is known as the "cupola tender" or "furnace master". During the operation of a
tapped cupola (cupolas may vary in this regard) the tender observes the amount of iron rising in the well of the
cupola. When the metal level is sufficiently high, the cupola tender opens the "tap hole" to let the metal flow
into a ​ladle​ or other container to hold the molten metal. When enough metal is drawn off the "tap hole" is
plugged with a refractory plug made of clay.​[8]

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The cupola tender observes the furnace through the ​sight glass​ or ​peep sight​ in the tuyeres. Slag will rise to the
top of the pool of iron being formed. A slag hole, located higher up on the cylinder of the furnace, and usually
to the rear or side of the tap hole, is opened to let the slag flow out. The ​viscosity​ is low (with proper fluxing)
and the red hot molten slag will flow easily. Sometimes the slag which runs out the slag hole is collected in a
small cup shaped tool, allowed to cool and harden. It is fractured and visually examined. With acid refractory
lined cupolas a greenish colored slag means the fluxing is proper and adequate. In basic refractory lined
cupolas the slag is brown.
After the cupola has produced enough metal to supply the foundry with its needs, the bottom is opened, or
'dropped' and the remaining materials fall to the floor between the legs. This material is allowed to cool and
subsequently removed. The cupola can be used over and over. A 'campaign' may last a few hours, a day, weeks
or even months.
When the operation is over, the blast is shut off and the prop under the bottom door is knocked down so that
the bottom plates swing open. This enables the cupola remains to drop to the floor or into a bucket. They are
then quenched and removed from underneath the cupola

8 BLAST FURNACE:

A ​blast furnace​ is a type of ​metallurgical​ ​furnace​ used for ​smelting​ to produce industrial metals,
generally ​pig iron​, but also others such as ​lead​ or ​copper​. ​Blastr​ efers to the combustion air being
"forced" or supplied above atmospheric pressure.​[1]
In a blast furnace fuel (​coke​), ​ores​, and ​flux​ (limestone) are continuously supplied through the
top of the furnace, while a hot blast of ​air​ (sometimes with ​oxygen​enrichment) is blown into the
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lower section of the furnace through a series of pipes called ​tuyeres​, so that the ​chemical
reactions​ take place throughout the furnace as the material falls downward. The end products are
usually molten ​metal​ and ​slag​phases tapped from the bottom, and ​flue gases​ exiting from the top
of the furnace. The downward flow of the ore and flux in contact with an upflow of hot, carbon
monoxide-rich combustion gases is a ​countercurrent exchange​ and chemical reaction process.​[2]
In contrast, air furnaces (such as ​reverberatory furnaces​) are naturally aspirated, usually by the
convection of hot gases in a chimney flue. According to this broad definition, ​bloomeries​ for
iron, ​blowing houses​ for ​tin​, and ​smelt mills​ for ​lead​ would be classified as blast furnaces.
However, the term has usually been limited to those used for smelting ​iron ore​ to produce ​pig
iron​, an intermediate material used in the production of commercial iron and ​steel​, and the shaft
furnaces used in combination with ​sinter plants​ in ​base metals​ smelting.
Blast furnaces operate on the principle of ​chemical reduction​ whereby carbon monoxide, having a stronger
affinity for the oxygen in iron ore than iron does, reduces the iron to its elemental form. Blast furnaces differ
from ​bloomeries​ and ​reverberatory furnaces​ in that in a blast furnace, flue gas is in direct contact with the ore
and iron, allowing carbon monoxide to diffuse into the ore and reduce the iron oxide to elemental iron mixed
with carbon. The blast furnaces operates as a ​countercurrent exchange​ process whereas a bloomery does not.
Another difference is that bloomeries operate as a batch process while blast furnaces operate continuously for
long periods because they are difficult to start up and shut down. (See: ​Continuous production​) Also, the
carbon in pig iron lowers the melting point below that of steel or pure iron; in contrast, iron does not melt in a
bloomery.
Carbon monoxide also reduces ​silica​ which has to be removed from the pig iron. The silica is reacted
with ​calcium oxide​ (burned limestone) and forms a slag which floats to the surface of the molten pig iron. The
direct contact of flue gas with the iron causes contamination with sulfur if it is present in the fuel. Historically,
to prevent contamination from sulfur, the best quality iron was produced with charcoal.
The downward moving column of ore, flux, ​coke​ or charcoal and reaction products must be porous enough for
the flue gas to pass through. This requires the coke or charcoal to be in large enough particles to be permeable,
meaning there cannot be an excess of fine particles. Therefore, the coke must be strong enough so it will not be
crushed by the weight of the material above it. Besides physical strength of the coke, it must also be low in
sulfur, phosphorus, and ash. This necessitates the use of metallurgical coal, which is a premium grade due to
its relative scarcity.
The main chemical reaction producing the molten iron is:
Fe​2​O​3​ + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO​2​[64]
This reaction might be divided into multiple steps, with the first being that preheated blast air blown into
the furnace reacts with the carbon in the form of coke to produce ​carbon monoxide​ and heat:
2 C​(s)​ + O​2(g)​ → 2 CO​(g)​[65]
The hot carbon monoxide is the reducing agent for the iron ore and reacts with the ​iron oxide​ to
produce molten iron and ​carbon dioxide​. Depending on the temperature in the different parts of the
furnace (warmest at the bottom) the iron is reduced in several steps. At the top, where the temperature
usually is in the range between 200 °C and 700 °C, the iron oxide is partially reduced to iron(II,III)
oxide, Fe​3​O​4
9) SHELL MOULDING:

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Shell moulding​, also known as ​shell-mould casting​,[1]​ ​ is an expendable mold ​casting​ process
that uses a ​resin​ covered ​sand​ to form the ​mold​. As compared to ​sand casting​, this process has
better dimensional accuracy, a higher productivity rate, and lower labor requirements. It is used
for small to medium parts that require high precision.​[2]​ Shell mold casting is a metal casting
process similar to sand casting, in that molten metal is poured into an expendable mold.
However, in shell mold casting, the mold is a thin-walled shell created from applying a
sand-resin mixture around a pattern. The pattern, a metal piece in the shape of the desired part, is
reused to form multiple shell molds. A reusable pattern allows for higher production rates, while
the disposable molds enable complex geometries to be cast. Shell mold casting requires the use
of a metal pattern, oven, sand-resin mixture, dump box, and molten metal.
Shell mold casting allows the use of both ferrous and non-ferrous metals, most commonly using
cast iron, carbon steel, alloy steel, stainless steel, aluminum alloys, and copper alloys. Typical
parts are small-to-medium in size and require high accuracy, such as gear housings, cylinder
heads, connecting rods, and lever arms.
The shell mold casting process consists of the following steps:
Pattern creation - A two-piece metal pattern is created in the shape of the desired part, typically
from iron or steel. Other materials are sometimes used, such as aluminum for low volume
production or graphite for casting reactive materials.
Mold creation - First, each pattern half is heated to 175-370 °C (350-700 °F) and coated with a
lubricant to facilitate removal. Next, the heated pattern is clamped to a dump box, which contains
a mixture of sand and a resin binder. The dump box is inverted, allowing this sand-resin mixture
to coat the pattern. The heated pattern partially cures the mixture, which now forms a shell

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around the pattern. Each pattern half and surrounding shell is cured to completion in an oven and
then the shell is ejected from the pattern.
Mold assembly - The two shell halves are joined together and securely clamped to form the
complete shell mold. If any cores are required, they are inserted prior to closing the mold. The
shell mold is then placed into a flask and supported by a backing material.
Pouring - The mold is securely clamped together while the molten metal is poured from a ladle
into the gating system and fills the mold cavity.
Cooling - After the mold has been filled, the molten metal is allowed to cool and solidify into the
shape of the final casting.
Casting removal - After the molten metal has cooled, the mold can be broken and the casting
removed. Trimming and cleaning processes are required to remove any excess metal from the
feed system and any sand from the mold.
Examples of shell molded items include ​gear housings​, cylinder heads and connecting rods. It is
also used to make high-precision molding cores.

10) INVESTMENT CASTING:

T​he first step in investment casting is to manufacture the wax pattern for the process. The pattern
for this process may also be made from plastic; however it is often made of wax since it will melt
out easily and wax can be reused. Since the pattern is destroyed in the process, one will be

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needed for each casting to be made. When producing parts in any quantity, a mold from which to
manufacture patterns will be desired. Similar to the mold that may be employed in the ​expanded
polystyrene casting process​ to produce foam polystyrene patterns, the mold to create wax
patterns may be cast or machined. The size of this master die must be carefully calculated. It
must take into consideration shrinkage of wax, shrinkage of the ceramic material invested over
the wax pattern and shrinkage of the metal casting. It may take some trial and error to get just the
right size, therefore these molds can be expensive
Since the mold does not need to be opened, castings of very complex geometry can be
manufactured. Several wax patterns may be combined for a single casting. Or as often the case,
many wax patterns may be connected and poured together producing many castings in a single
process. This is done by attaching the wax patterns to a wax bar, the bar serves as a central sprue.
A ceramic pouring cup is attached to the end of the bar. This arrangement is called a tree,
denoting the similarity of casting patterns on the central runner beam to branches on a tree

The metal casting pattern is then dipped in a refractory slurry whose composition includes
extremely fine grained silica, water and binders. A ceramic layer is obtained over the surface of
the pattern. The pattern is then repeatedly dipped into the slurry to increase the thickness of the
ceramic coat. In some cases the pattern may be placed in a flask and the ceramic slurry poured
over it.
Once the refractory coat over the pattern is thick enough, it is allowed to dry in air in order to
harden.
The next step in this manufacturing process is the key to investment casting. The hardened
ceramic mold is turned upside down and heated to a temperature of around 200F-375F
(90C-175C). This causes the wax to flow out of the mold, leaving the cavity for the metal
casting.
The ceramic mold is then heated to around 1000F-2000F (550C-1100C). This will further
strengthen the mold, eliminate any leftover wax or contaminants and drive out water from the
mold material. The metal casting is then poured while the mold is still hot. Pouring the casting
while the mold is hot allows the liquid metal to flow easily through the mold cavity, filling
detailed and thin sections. Pouring the metal casting in a hot mold also gives better dimensional
accuracy, since the mold and casting will shrink together as they cool.
After pouring of the molten metal into the mold, the casting is allowed to set as the solidification
process takes place.

The final step in this manufacturing process involves breaking the ceramic mold from the
investment casting and cutting the parts from the tree.

11) PRESSURE DIE CASTING:

(A) HOT CHAMBER DIE CASTING:

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The hot chamber machine contains the melting pot, while the cold chamber melt pot is separate and the
molten metal has to be ladled into the shot sleeve. With the internal mechanism, it makes the hot chamber
the faster of the two processes. Other advantages of the hot chamber process include reduced porosity and
longer die life from utilizing alloys that do not erode or dissolve the machine when put under heat or high
pressure.
The injection mechanism of a hot chamber machine is immersed in the molten metal. The furnace is
attached to the machine by a metal feed system called a gooseneck.
The die is closed and the piston rises, opening the port, allowing molten metal to fill the cylinder.
Next, the plunger seals the port, pushing the molten metal through the gooseneck and nozzle into the die
cavity where it is held under pressure until it solidifies.
The die opens and the cores, if any, retract. The casting remains in only one die half – the ejector side.
The plunger then returns, allowing residual molten metal to flow back through the nozzle and gooseneck.
Ejector pins push the casting out of the ejector die. As the plunger uncovers the filling hole, molten metal
flows through the inlet to refill the gooseneck.

(B) COLD CHAMBER DIE CASTING:

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Unlike the hot chamber die casting process, cold chamber solves the corrosion problem by separating the
melt pot from the injector components. In the cold-chamber process, metal is transferred by ladle,
manually or automatically, to the shot sleeve. Actuation of the injection piston forces the metal into the
die—this is a single shot operation. This procedure minimizes the contact time between the hot metal and
the injector components, which helps to extend their operating life.

It is possible to cast lower melting point alloys using the cold chamber process but when you consider the
advantages of the hot chamber process it usually makes more economical sense to use the hot chamber
method for metals like zinc and magnesium.

During cold chamber die casting, the molten charge, which consists of more material than is required to
fill the casting, is ladled from the crucible into a shot sleeve where a hydraulically operated plunger
pushes the metal into the die. The extra material is used to force additional metal into the die cavity to
compensate for shrinkage, which takes place during solidification.

The main components of a cold chamber die casting machine are shown below. Injection pressure of over
10,000psi or 70,000KPa can be obtained from this type of machine.

The die is closed and the molten metal is ladled into the cold chamber shot sleeve.
The plunger pushes the molten metal into the die cavity where it is held under pressure until it solidifies.
The die opens and the plunger advances, to ensure the casting remains in the ejector die. Cores, if any,
retract.
Ejector pins push the casting out of the ejector half of the die and the plunger returns to its original
position.

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12) CENTRIFUGAL CASTING:

Centrifugal casting is a process that delivers castings of very high material soundness, and thus is the
technology of choice for applications like ​jet engine compressor cases​, ​petrochemical furnace tubes​,
many ​military products​, and other high-reliability applications.

In the centrifugal casting process, molten metal is poured into a spinning die. The die can be spinning
either on a vertical or horizontal axis depending on the configuration of the desired part. Ring and
cylinder type shapes are cast vertically; tubular shapes are made with the horizontal centrifugal process.
Either process may be used to produce multiple parts from a single casting. External structures and
shaping can be cast in place to significantly reduce post-processing including machining or fabrication.

Because of the high g-forces applied to the molten metal in the spinning die, less dense material,
including impurities, “floats” to the I.D. where it is subsequently removed by machining. Solidification is
managed directionally under pressure, from the O.D. to the I.D., avoiding any mid-wall shrinkage, leaving
a defect-free structure without cavities or gas pockets.

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13) CO2 MOULDING PROCESS:

Carbon dioxide molding is a sand casting process that employs a molding mixture of sand and
liquid silicate binder. The molding mixture is then hardened by blowing carbon dioxide gas
through it. This method offers a great deal of advantages over other forms of sand molding. It
reduces production time as well as fuel costs and reduces the number of mould boxes required for
making moulds. This process also offers a great deal of accuracy in production.

At VJP, we utilize these various advantages of carbon dioxide casting to the benefit of the customer.
By speeding up the casting process and offering economical solutions, we improve the productivity
and profitability of our customers' business.

Features

● High accuracy molding systems incorporating the gas carbon dioxide as a catalyst.

Advantages

● Provides good dimensional tolerances through strong core and mold

● Provides excellent casting surface finishes
● Generally used for high-production runs
● Accommodates a wide range of core and mold sizes.

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 ● When used for making cores, the CO2 process can be automated for long durations &
speedy production runs.

Applications

● Ideal for casting applications where speed and flexibility is paramount

14) STIR CASTING PROCESS:

15)CASTING DEFECTS:

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16) Pattern materials :

The common materials of which the patterns are made are the following :
1) Wood :
It is the most common material used for pattern making because of the following ​Advantages​ :
(i) It is cheap and available in abundance.
(ii) It can be easily shaped into different forms and intricate designs.
(iii) Its manipulation is easy because of lightness in weight.
(iv) Good surface finish can be easily obtained by only planning and sanding.
(v) It can be preserved for a fairly long time by applying proper preservatives like shellac varnish.
On the other hand, it has certain d ​ isadvantages​ ​also as follows:
(i) It wears out quickly due to its low resistance to sand abrasion. As such, a wooden pattern cannot
stand a long constant use.
(ii) It is very susceptible to moisture, which may lead to its warping or splitting. This needs its
careful storing in a dry place and the application of preservatives.
(iii) Its life, owing to the above reasons, is short as compared to other pattern materials. This
confines its use to such cases only when a small number of castings are required.
2) Metals :
Metals are used with advantage, as pattern material, only when the number of castings to be made
is very high and a closer dimensional accuracy is desired. They have a much longer life than wooden
patterns and eliminate the inherent disadvantages of wood to a great extent.
But they also carry the following D​ isadvantages​ :
(i) They are costlier than wood and, therefore, cannot be used with advantage, where a smaller
number of castings is to be made.

(ii) For giving different shapes and fine surface finish they need machining. This again adds to their
cost.
(iii) Most of them are very heavy and in case of large castings the weight of the pattern always
poses a problem in its manipulation.

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(iv) A large number of them have a tendency to get rusted.
3) Plaster :
Plaster of Paris or gypsum cement is advantageously used as a pattern material since it can be
easily casted into intricate shapes and can be easily worked also. Its expansion can be easily
controlled and it carries a very high compression strength. Its specific use is in making small
patterns and core boxes involving
intricate shapes and closer dimensional control. A marked feature of this cement is that contrary to
the action of metals, it expands on being solidified. Thus, if a cement of proper coefficient of
expansion is selected, the effect of shrinkage of casting can be automatically neutralized.

4) Plastics :
Plastics are gradually gaining favor as pattern materials due to their following specific characteristics
:
1. Lightness in weight.

2. High strength.

3. High resistance to wear.

4. High resistance to corrosion due to moisture.

5. Fine surface finish.

6. Low solid shrinkage.

7. Very reasonable cost.

The plastics used as pattern materials are thermosetting resins. Phenolic resin plastic and foam
plastic suit best for this purpose. For making the pattern, first the moulds are made, usually from
plaster of Paris. The resin is then poured into these moulds and the two heated. At a specific
temperature, the resin solidifies to give the plastic pattern.

5) Wax :
Wax patterns are exclusively used in investment casting. For this a die or metal mould is made in
two
halves into which the heated wax is poured. The die is kept cool by circulating water around it. As
the wax
sets on cooling, the die parts are separated and the wax pattern taken out.

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17) PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SAND:

1. Porosity or Permeability​:
It is the ability of sand by which it allows the gases to pass through it easily.
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Some gases gets dissolved in molten metal and when this molten metal starts to solidify, these
dissolved gases comes out of the molten metal and try to escape out of the moulding sand. If the sand
is not enough porous than these gases will not be able to go out of the mould and gets trapped into
the casting and produces holes and pores in metal casting. Also if the molten metal comes in contact
with the moist sand, steam or water vapor is produced. This steam or vapors also results in the
formation of holes in the casting if they do not able to escape out of the mould. So it is advised to use
sufficiently porous moulding sand to eliminate the porosity defect in metal casting.

2. Flowability
The ability of moulding sand to behave like a fluid when it is rammed is called
flowability.
Due to this property the sand can easily occupy the space in molding box and take up its shape. This
allows the sand to compress to a compact density and let it pack around the pattern. The sand should
be of high flowability, so that it can be easily compacted for uniform density and to obtain a good
impression of the pattern in the mould. The flowability of the sand can be increases as we increases
the clay and water content in the sand.

3. Collapsibility
The ability of the moulding sand to collapse after solidification of the molten metal is
called collapsibility.
After the solidification of molten metal, the sand should get collapse for free contraction of the metal.
If free contraction of the metal will happen than if eliminates naturally the tearing or cracking of the
contracting metal.

4. Adhesiveness​ .
The ability of the sand particles to get stick with another body is called
adhesiveness.
The sand should have sufficient adhesiveness so that it can easily get cling to the sides of the
moulding boxes and does not fall out to the box when it is removed.

5. Cohesiveness or Strength
The ability of the sand particles to stick with each other is called cohesiveness.
The strength of the sand depends upon how cohesive the sand particles are. The sand should have
sufficient strength so that it can easily capable to retain its shape during conveying, turning or closing
and pouring. If it is not of appropriate strength than it will not be able to hold its shape and the mould
may damage during pouring of molten metal. Low strength sand leads to pouring casting defects in
metals. To avoid pouring defects, the sand should be of sufficient strength to produce mold of desired
shape and also retain this shaped even when the molten metal is poured in the moulding cavity.

The sand strength can be of two types

(i) Green strength:​ The strength of sand possessed by it in its green or moist state is called green
strength. The mould with adequate green strength retains its shape and do not collapse even when the
pattern is removed from the moulding box.

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(ii) Dry strength:​ The strength possessed by the sand in its dry or baked state is called dry strength.
Enough dry strength allows the sand to withstand erosive forces due to molten metal and helps to
retain its shape.
6. Refractoriness
The ability of the moulding sand to withstand the high temperature of the molten
metal without fusing into it is called refractoriness.
The moulding sand must have enough refractoriness property to produce excellent quality of casting
free from defects. The sand with lack of refractoriness melts and gets fuse in the casting and spoils
the quality of the cast metal. The refractoriness is the measure of sinter point of the sand not its
melting point.

This is all about the six properties of moulding sand. Every ​types of moulding sand​ used in the
casting process must have these six properties. If you find anything missing comment us.

18) SAND TESTING:METHODS​:

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