ITdiapositivas4 (19 1)

Informática Teórica
Andrés A. Aristizábal P.
aaaristizabal@icesi.edu.co
Departamento de Matemáticas y Estadística
2019-1
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Agenda
1 Equivalence relations and countable and uncountable sets

Aims
Discussion and exercises
2 Finite-state machines
Presentation of next topic
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Equivalence relations and countable and uncountable sets Aims
Agenda

Aims
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Equivalence relations and countable and uncountable sets Aims
Aims
Understand the notion of equivalence class and its properties.

Understand what is a partition.
Know the existent relation between equivalence relations,
equivalence classes and partitions.
Understand the reason why for two sets to have the same
cardinality there is the need of the existence of a bijection
between both of them.
Understand the concept of countable and uncountable sets.
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Equivalence relations and countable and uncountable sets Discussion and exercises
Agenda

Aims
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Discussion of the previous reading material
Presentation of concept maps
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Exercises
Exercise
Which of these collections of subsets are partitions of the set of bit strings of length 8?
a) the set of bit strings that begin with 1, the set of bit strings that begin with 00, and the set of
bit strings that begin with 01
b) the set of bit strings that contain the string 00, the set of bit strings that contain the string 01,
the set of bit strings that contain the string 10, and the set of bit strings that contain the string
11
c) the set of bit strings that end with 00, the set of bit strings that end with 01, the set of bit
strings that end with 10, and the set of bit strings that end with 11
d) the set of bit strings that end with 111, the set of bit strings that end with 011, and the set of
bit strings that end with 00
e) the set of bit strings that contain 3k ones for some nonnegative integer k ; the set of bit strings
that contain 3k + 1 ones for some nonnegative integer k ; and the set of bit strings that
contain 3k + 2 ones for some nonnegative integer k .
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Exercises
Exercise
Which of these are partitions of the set Z × Z of ordered pairs of integers?

a) the set of pairs (x, y ), where x or y is odd; the set of pairs (x, y ), where x is even; and the set of pairs (x, y ), where y is
even
b) the set of pairs (x, y ), where both x and y are odd; the set of pairs (x, y ), where exactly one of x and y is odd; and the set of
pairs (x, y ), where both x and y are even
c) the set of pairs (x, y ), where x is positive; the set of pairs (x, y ), where y is positive; and the set of pairs (x, y ), where both
x and y are negative
d) the set of pairs (x, y ), where 3 divides x and 3 divides y ; the set of pairs (x, y ), where 3 divides x and 3 does not divide y;
the set of pairs (x, y ), where 3 does not divide x and 3 divides y ; and the set of pairs (x, y ), where 3 does not divide x and 3
does not divide y
e) the set of pairs (x, y ), where x > 0 and y > 0; the set of pairs (x, y ), where x > 0 and y ≤ 0; the set of pairs (x, y ),
where x ≤ 0 and y > 0; and the set of pairs (x, y ), where x ≤ 0 and y ≤ 0
f) the set of pairs (x, y ), where x 6= 0 and y 6= 0; the set of pairs (x, y ), where x = 0 and y 6= 0; and the set of pairs (x, y ),
where x 6= 0 and y = 0
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Exercises
Exercise
Which of these are partitions of the set of real numbers?
a) the negative real numbers, {0}, the positive real numbers
b) the set of irrational numbers, the set of rational numbers
c) the set of intervals [k , k + 1], k = ..., −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, ...
d) the set of intervals (k , k + 1), k = ..., −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, ...
e) the set of intervals (k , k + 1], k = ..., −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, ...
f) the sets {x + n | n ∈ Z} for all x ∈ [0, 1).
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Exercises
Exercise
List the ordered pairs in the equivalence relations produced by these
partitions of {a, b, c, d, e, f , g}.
a) {a, b}, {c, d}, {e, f , g}
b) {a}, {b}, {c, d}, {e, f }, {g}
c) {a, b, c, d}, {e, f , g}
d) {a, c, e, g}, {b, d}, {f }
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Exercises
Exercise
A partition P1 is called a refinement of the partition P2 if every set in P1
is a subset of one of the sets in P2 . Show that the partition formed from
congruence classes modulo 6 is a refinement of the partition formed
from congruence classes modulo 3.
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Exercises
Exercise
Determine whether each of these sets is finite, countably infinite, or
uncountable. For those that are countably infinite, exhibit a one-to-one
correspondence between the set of positive integers and that set.
a) the negative integers
b) the even integers
c) the real numbers between 0 and 1/2
d) the integers that are multiples of 7.
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Exercises
Exercise
Show that a subset of a countable set is also countable.
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Exercises
Exercise
Show that if A and B are sets, A is uncountable, and A ⊆ B, then B is
uncountable.
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Finite-state machines Presentation of next topic
Agenda

Aims
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Finite-state machines
What is a finite-state machine?
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Intuitively a finite-state machine is a computational model which
consists of states, transitions between states, inputs and outputs. It is
also known as finite state automaton or a sequential machine.
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Which properties are involved in this model?
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Finiteness.
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Finiteness.
Discreteness.
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Finiteness.
Discreteness.
Sequential action.
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Finiteness.
Discreteness.
Sequential action.
Determinism.
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In which kind of scenarios these machines can be used?
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Mechanical systems.
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Mechanical systems.
Digital electronic systems.
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Mechanical systems.
Pneumatic or hydraulic systems.
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Mechanical systems.
Chemical systems.
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Mechanical systems.
Chemical systems.
Physical systems.
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Mechanical systems.
Chemical systems.
Physical systems.
Information-processing procedures.
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Mechanical systems.
Chemical systems.
Physical systems.
Information-processing procedures.
Among others.
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Which are the characteristics of this model?
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Its behavior is defined only at discrete moments t0 , t1 , t2 , ..., tn
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At instant t = 0 all parts of the machine are initialized at a known condition.
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At each moment t, it receives an input symbol s(t) and returns an output symbol
r (t).
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r (t).
Its input symbols belong to finite input alphabet.
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r (t).
Its input symbols belong to finite input alphabet.
Its output symbols belong to finite output alphabet.
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The sequence of input symbols is known as the stimulus and the output
sequence of symbols as the response.
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Its behavior is determined only by the stimulus.
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Its behavior takes it through a sequence of states, where each state belongs to a
set of states.
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set of states.
It has an initial state which describes the condition of its parts just before
receiving the stimulus.
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set of states.
It has an initial state which describes the condition of its parts just before
receiving the stimulus.
The total state of the machine at moment t is the n-tuple
q(t) = (q (1) (t), q (2) (t), ..., q (n) (t)) where n is the number of parts and q (n) (t) is
the state assumed by the ith−part at time t.
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Which is the mathematical description of this model?
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A finite state machine M consists of:

Finite sets S, R y Q, where S is a finite input alphabet, R is a finite output
alphabet and Q is a set of states.
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A state transition function f that gives the next state of M in terms of the current
state and the next input symbol.
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An output function g that gives the next output symbol of M in terms of the
current state and the next input symbol.
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An output function g that gives the next output symbol of M in terms of the
current state and the next input symbol.
A predetermined initial state q(0) = q1 , where q1 ∈ Q, in which M is placed
prior to instant t = 0.
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Definition of a Mealy machine
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Definition of a Mealy machine

Definition
A transition assigned finite-state machine is 6−tuple where:
Q is a finite set of internal states

S is a finite input alphabet
R is a finite output alphabet
f is the state transition funcion f : Q × S −→ Q
g is the output function g : Q × S −→ R
q1 ∈ Q is the initial state
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Representations of Finite-state machines
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State table State diagram
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Example
Design a finite-state machine M whose output tells the number of input
symbols, modulo 3, that have been applied.
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Example
Solution
S = {a}
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Example
Solution
S = {a}
Q = {A, B, C}
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Example
Solution
S = {a}
Q = {A, B, C}
R = {0, 1, 2}
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Example
Solution
S = {a}
Q = {A, B, C}
R = {0, 1, 2}
Let t be the moment at which the last symbol of a stimulus ω is
presented to M. Then the state q(t) will interpreted as follows:
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Example
Solution
S = {a}
Q = {A, B, C}
R = {0, 1, 2}
q(t) = A means |ω| mod 3 = 0
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Example
Solution
S = {a}
Q = {A, B, C}
R = {0, 1, 2}
B means |ω| mod 3 = 1
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Example
Solution
S = {a}
Q = {A, B, C}
R = {0, 1, 2}
B means |ω| mod 3 = 1
C means |ω| mod 3 = 2
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Solution
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Definition of a Moore machine
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Definition of a Moore machine

Definition
A state assigned finite-state machine is 6−tuple donde:
Q is a finite set of internal states

S is a finite input alphabet
R is a finite output alphabet
f is a state transition function f : Q × S −→ Q
h is an output function h : Q −→ R
q1 ∈ Q is the initial state
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Example
Design a finite-state machine M that accepts a bit string if and only if it begins with a 1
and contains exactly one 0
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Example
Solution
S = {s | s is a bit string }
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Example
Solution
Q = {A, B, C, D}
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Example
Solution
Q = {A, B, C, D}
R = {0, 1}
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Solution
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Machine complexity
It is interesting to understand the relationship between the number of
states of a machine M and its number of physical components.
Suppose that M is built of n parts, each of which can assume either of
two states.
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Machine complexity
two states. Then each total state of M is an n−tuple
q = (q (1) , q (2) , ..., q (n) ) in which q (i) represents the state of the ith-part.
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Machine complexity
The number of total states is 2n .
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Machine complexity
The number of total states is 2n . Therefore, (number of parts) ∼ log2
(number of states).
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State sequences
Let M be a finite-state machine f : Q × S −→ Q.
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State sequences
Definition
s
Si f (q, s) = q 0 , we say that q 0 is the s−successor of state q and write q −→ q 0 .
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State sequences
Definition
s
Definition
If a string of input symbols ω = s(1)s(2)...s(t) takes M from state q = q(0) to state
q 0 = q(t),
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State sequences
Definition
s
Definition
s(1) s(2) s(t)
q 0 = q(t), that is, if q(0) −→ q(1) −→ ... −→ q(t)
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State sequences
Definition
s
Definition
s(1) s(2) s(t)
q 0 = q(t), that is, if q(0) −→ q(1) −→ ... −→ q(t) we say that state q 0 is the
ω
ω−successor of state q and write q =⇒ q 0 .
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State sequences
Definition
s
Definition
s(1) s(2) s(t)
q 0 = q(t), that is, if q(0) −→ q(1) −→ ... −→ q(t) we say that state q 0 is the
ω
ω−successor of state q and write q =⇒ q 0 . Under these conditions q(0)q(1)...q(t) is
called an admissible state sequence for ω.
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State sequences
By these definitions we have effectively extended the domain of the

state transition function to include all input strings, rather than just
individual input symbols.
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State sequences
By these definitions we have effectively extended the domain of the

state transition function to include all input strings, rather than just
individual input symbols. That is, we now have f : Q × S ∗ −→ Q where
ω
f (q, ω) = q 0 if and only if q =⇒ q 0 and f (q, λ) = q for all q ∈ Q.
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Automata equivalence
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Definition
Two automata M1 and M2 are equivalent if and only if
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Definition
1 Their input and output alphabets are the same: S1 = S2 , R1 = R2
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Definition
1 Their input and output alphabets are the same: S1 = S2 , R1 = R2
2 For each stimulus, M1 y M2 produce identical responses. That is, if
s1 (t) = s2 (t), t ≥ 1, then r1 (t) = r2 (t), t ≥ 1.
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Next class
Exercises and section

Reading material Finite-State Machines pages 89-107
Exercises: 4.1,4.6,4.10
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Positive rational numbers
How do we prove that the set of rational numbers is countable?
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We must find a bijection
34 / 34

We can find it by listing them as a sequence of the form r1 , r2 , ..., rn , ...
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We can see that every positive rational number is the quotient p/q of two
positive integers
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positive integers
We have the positive rational numbers where the denominator is 1 in the first
row, those with the denominator being 2 in the second row and so on and so
forth.
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positive integers
forth.
The key to list the rational numbers in a sequence is to first list those positive
rational numbers p/q with p + q = 2, followed by those with p + q = 3,
continuing with those with p + q = 4, etc.
34 / 34

positive integers
forth.
The key to list the rational numbers in a sequence is to first list those positive
rational numbers p/q with p + q = 2, followed by those with p + q = 3,
continuing with those with p + q = 4, etc.
When we found a number p/q which already exists, we do not include it.
34 / 34
11T MHIA017-Rosen-v5.cls May 13, 2011 10:24
Números racionales positivos
2.5 Cardinality of Se
1 2 3 4 5 ...
1 1 1 1 1
Terms not circled
are not listed 1 2 3 4 5 ...
2 2 2 2 2
because they
repeat previously
listed terms
1 2 3 4 5 ...
3 3 3 3 3
1 2 3 4 5 ...
4 4 4 4 4
1 2 3 4 5 ...
5 5 5 5 5
...
...
...
...
FIGURE 3 ...
The Positive Rational Numbers Are Countable.
arrange the positive rational numbers by listing those with denominator q = 1 in the fir
those with denominator q = 2 in the second row, and so on, as displayed in Figure 3.
The key to listing the rational numbers in a sequence is to first list the positive r
34 / 34
Cantor diagonalization argument
How do we prove that the set of real numbers is uncountable?
34 / 34
We do this by means of a contradiction
34 / 34

We assume then, that the set of real numbers is countable.
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Since the subset of a countable set is countable as well, then, the the subset of
real numbers from 0 to 1 would be countable too.
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Under this assumption, the real numbers between 0 and 1 can be listed in some
order.
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Under this assumption, the real numbers between 0 and 1 can be listed in some
order.
r1 , r2 , r3 , ...
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We will represent the decimal parts of these numbers in the following way:
34 / 34
candidate for an uncountable set? The first place we might look is the
Example 5 we use an important proof method, introduced in 1879 by G
as the Cantor diagonalization argument, to prove that the set of real n
This proof method is used extensively in mathematical logic and in the
EXAMPLE 5 Show that the set of real numbers is an uncountable set.
Solution: To show that the set of real numbers is uncountable, we sup

numbers is countable and arrive at a contradiction. Then, the subset
fall between 0 and 1 would also be countable (because any subset o
countable;
We will represent the decimal parts see Exercise
of these numbers 16).inUnder this assumption,
the following way: the real numbers
listed in some order, say, r1 , r2 , r3 , . . . . Let the decimal representation
r1 = 0.d11 d12 d13 d14 ...

r2 = 0.d21 d22 d23 d24 ...
r3 = 0.d31 d32 d33 d34 ...
r4 = 0.d41 d42 d43 d44 ...
..
.
where dij ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. (For example, if r1 = 0.23794

2, d12 = 3, d13 = 7, and so on.) Then, form a new real number w
34 / 34
candidate for an uncountable set? The first place we might look is the
Example 5 we use an important proof method, introduced in 1879 by G
as the Cantor diagonalization argument, to prove that the set of real n
This proof method is used extensively in mathematical logic and in the
EXAMPLE 5 Show that the set of real numbers is an uncountable set.
Solution: To show that the set of real numbers is uncountable, we sup

numbers is countable and arrive at a contradiction. Then, the subset
fall between 0 and 1 would also be countable (because any subset o
countable;
We will represent the decimal parts see Exercise
of these numbers 16).inUnder this assumption,
the following way: the real numbers
listed in some order, say, r1 , r2 , r3 , . . . . Let the decimal representation
r1 = 0.d11 d12 d13 d14 ...

r2 = 0.d21 d22 d23 d24 ...
r3 = 0.d31 d32 d33 d34 ...
r4 = 0.d41 d42 d43 d44 ...
..
.
where dij ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. (For example, if r1 = 0.23794

where dij ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
2,8,d12
9}= 3, d13 = 7, and so on.) Then, form a new real number w
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Now we form a new real number with a decimal expression 0, d1 d2 d3 d4 ... where the
decimals are determined by the following formula:
34 / 34
174 2 / Basic Structures: Sets, Functions, Sequences, Sums, and Matrices

r = 0.d1 d2 d3 d4 . . . , where the decimal digits are dete
!
4 if dii ̸= 4
di =
5 if dii = 4.
(As an example, suppose that r1 = 0.23794

0.09118764 . . . , r4 = 0.80553900 . . . , and so on.
0.4544 . . . , where d1 = 4 because d11 ̸= 4, d2 = 5 be
d4 = 4 because d44 ̸= 4, and so on.)
Every real number has a unique decimal expansion
has a tail end that consists entirely of the digit 9 is excl
A number with a decimal
expansion that terminates equal to any of r1 , r2 , . . . because the decimal expansio
has a second decimal of ri in the ith place to the right of the decimal point,
expansion ending with an Because there is a real number r between 0 and 1 th
34 / 34

!
4 if dii ̸= 4
di =
5 if dii = 4.

Every real number has 0.09118764
a unique decimal r4 = 0.80553900
. . . ,expression (that excludes , and so on.
. . . the
0.4544
possibility of the expression . . . ,a where
having tail enddthat=consists
4 because
1 d of̸=the
entirely
11 d =9).5 be
4, digit2
d4 = 4 because d44 ̸= 4, and so on.)
Every real number has a unique decimal expansion
34 / 34

!
4 if dii ̸= 4
di =
5 if dii = 4.

Every real number has 0.09118764
a unique decimal r4 = 0.80553900
. . . ,expression (that excludes , and so on.
. . . the
0.4544
possibility of the expression . . . ,a where
having tail enddthat=consists
4 because
1 d of̸=the
entirely
11 d =9).5 be
4, digit2
d4 =r is4 not
Therefore, the real number because
equal d ̸=of4,r1and
to44any so because
, r2 , ..., on.) the decimal
Every real number has a unique decimal
expansion of r differs from the decimal expansion of r i in the ith place expansion
to the right
of the decimal point, for each i.
34 / 34
Exercises
Exercise
Show that the union of a countable number of countable sets is
countable.
34 / 34
Exercises
Exercise
Show that the set of all finite bit strings is countable.
34 / 34

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Informática Teórica

Departamento de Matemáticas y Estadística

1 Equivalence relations and countable and uncountable sets

1 Equivalence relations and countable and uncountable sets

Understand the notion of equivalence class and its properties.

1 Equivalence relations and countable and uncountable sets

Discussion of the previous reading material

Presentation of concept maps

Which of these are partitions of the set Z × Z of ordered pairs of integers?

1 Equivalence relations and countable and uncountable sets

What is a finite-state machine?

What is a finite-state machine?

What is a finite-state machine?

Which properties are involved in this model?

What is a finite-state machine?

Which properties are involved in this model?

What is a finite-state machine?

Which properties are involved in this model?

What is a finite-state machine?

Which properties are involved in this model?

What is a finite-state machine?

Which properties are involved in this model?

In which kind of scenarios these machines can be used?

In which kind of scenarios these machines can be used?

In which kind of scenarios these machines can be used?

In which kind of scenarios these machines can be used?

In which kind of scenarios these machines can be used?

In which kind of scenarios these machines can be used?

In which kind of scenarios these machines can be used?

In which kind of scenarios these machines can be used?

Which are the characteristics of this model?

Which are the characteristics of this model?

Its behavior is defined only at discrete moments t0 , t1 , t2 , ..., tn

Which are the characteristics of this model?

Its behavior is defined only at discrete moments t0 , t1 , t2 , ..., tn

Which are the characteristics of this model?

Its behavior is defined only at discrete moments t0 , t1 , t2 , ..., tn

Which are the characteristics of this model?

Its behavior is defined only at discrete moments t0 , t1 , t2 , ..., tn

Which are the characteristics of this model?

Its behavior is defined only at discrete moments t0 , t1 , t2 , ..., tn

Which is the mathematical description of this model?

Which is the mathematical description of this model?

A finite state machine M consists of:

Which is the mathematical description of this model?

A finite state machine M consists of:

Which is the mathematical description of this model?

A finite state machine M consists of:

Which is the mathematical description of this model?

A finite state machine M consists of:

Definition of a Mealy machine

Definition of a Mealy machine

Q is a finite set of internal states

Representations of Finite-state machines

Representations of Finite-state machines

State table State diagram

Definition of a Moore machine

Definition of a Moore machine

Q is a finite set of internal states

Representations of Finite-state machines

Representations of Finite-state machines

State table State diagram