UNIT –V

1. NATURAL VENTILATION

What is Natural Ventilation?

Approximately all historical buildings were naturally ventilated. With

more knowledge of the cost and environmental influences of energy
usage, natural ventilation has become an increasingly noteworthy
method. This is an appropriate solution for decreasing energy usage and
cost and supplying allowable inner environmental state, and keeping a
healthy and convenient indoor climate rather than the more
predominant method of using mechanical ventilation. In desirable
climates, natural ventilation can be employed as a substitution for air-
conditioning plants, preserving 10%–30% of entire energy utilization.

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 Natural Ventilation; Simple Method
(Reference: designingbuildings.co)

Natural ventilation is the procedure of entering fresh air into a home

from outside. This new air, forces the dirty, warm air in the rooms out
by the opening in the roof. This can be operated without mechanical
assistance. While that was a brief introduction, its practical application
and usage is much more involved. Natural ventilation is one of the most
practical techniques to decrease energy usage in buildings. It utilizes
the natural power of wind and buoyancy to enter fresh air and spread it
in buildings for the occupants. Natural ventilation is operated by
pressure varieties between one section of a building and another, or
between the outside and inside.

Natural ventilation can provide a sufficient supply of breathing air,

adequate ventilation of pollutants, enough thermal conditioning, and
humidity waste through a well connection to the dynamics of the
environment. Designers usually select natural ventilation because it
decreases carbon production and is cheaper to install and run than full
mechanical ventilation. It also needs less preservation, modifies the
occupant’s anticipations, and presents more control of their
environment. This type of Ventilation provides free night cooling,
decreasing daytime temperatures. Natural Ventilation and human
comfort are related together.

Types of Natural Ventilation

There are basically two kinds of Natural Ventilation that happen

naturally in buildings. First is wind-based ventilation (also introduced
as cross ventilation), and the second is Buoyancy-operated (also known
as stack-effect) ventilation. Nevertheless, choosing the best method to
design and operate a ventilation system is based on various issues. Both

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 the effectiveness and design considerations include some different
parameters, which are explained below.

The effectiveness of natural ventilation

The impact of Natural Ventilation can increase in the building
according to your consideration of the following matters:

 Prevailing wind velocity and direction

 Building conditions and orientation
 Window sizing, location, and functioning
 Surrounding environment
 Outdoor temperature and moisture

Design Considerations
If we think about designing natural ventilation in your new building, we
should notice the following basic design techniques:

 External components
 Window types and verification
 Building appearance and dimensions
 Ridge vents
 Building orientation and position
 Air inlets and outlets
There are two frequently employed natural ventilation methods:

Wind-Based Ventilation (Cross-Ventilation)

Moving wind near a building will produce different sections of low and
high pressure. The windward part of the house is an area that is high
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pressure, while the leeward part & roof are low pressure. Placing
different types and sizes of openings in the low and high-pressure
sections can force air to transfer through the building at an increased
rate and in the desirable direction.

The simplest method to know wind-driven or wind-based ventilation is

to look at an open window. Fresh air enters through one side, transfers
throughout the house, and then exits through the opposite side, forcing
the stale warm air out that was in the building. Furthermore, this is an
attractive, low-cost ventilation solution in specific applications.
Nevertheless, it should be considered that wind-based ventilation is not
often ideal in locations where there is a lot of dust or contamination. It
also does not operate in places where the wind is not desirable, i.e.,
wind moves in the opposite direction and has no impact.

Buoyancy-Driven Ventilation (The Stack Effect)

This type of Natural Ventilation seems complex, but it works
fundamentally like a fireplace. Because warm air goes up and cool air
remains low, this procedure forces warm air to rise.

The heat produced in buildings goes up towards the ceiling. In huge

buildings, where the construction is of noticeable height, the natural
trend of warm air to rise produces air transfer throughout the whole of
the building. This is what is usually introduced as the stack effect or
thermal buoyancy. Warm air goes up through the building and exits via
the natural ventilator. The wall openings at the floor level permit cool
air to come in, taking the place of the warm air that exits.

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 Buoyancy Effect in Natural Ventilation (Reference: umn.edu)
The tall roofs of industrial structures produce considerable differences
in pressures and temperatures; therefore, industrial places are perfect
locations for gravity ventilation systems. Using these differences can
convey air up and out of the building naturally.

In contrast to cross-ventilation, this procedure can still run on cool and

calm days. For natural ventilation, buoyancy-driven ventilation is the
right option all year-round.

Combined Ventilation
Natural Ventilators can also be combined with powered ventilation to
keep the entire building convenient throughout the day.

Powered ventilation is the only choice in some locations. Applications

that employ chemicals, have lower ceilings height, or just do not
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generate quite adequate heat need powered ventilation. Eventually,
there are many explanations about why powered ventilation may be
vital. Some plant managers utilize systems that employed a natural
solution for larger sections and powered ventilation for operation rooms
and smaller areas throughout their locations.

As a result, Combined Ventilation presents you with the best solution.

Finally, we will decrease operating payments, keep air quality comfort,
and make sure we are following all important safety and healthy
directions in our place.

Advantages of Natural Ventilation

It is hard to make certain explanations about the advantages and

disadvantages of natural ventilation contrasted to mechanical systems,
nearly because they are influenced by some external conditions such as
the utilization of the building and the climate changing. Nevertheless,
this question cannot be passed in this post about natural ventilation, and
some general explanations can be presented.

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Page 7 of 156
 Comfortable Airflow in a Building by using Natural Ventilation
(Reference: econaur.com)
If well fixed and maintained, there are several benefits of a natural
ventilation system, compared with mechanical ones. Natural ventilation
can practically supply a high ventilation level more economically due
to the employment of natural powers and large openings. They are
more energy effective, especially if heating is not needed. The systems,
which are well designed, could be utilized to provide higher levels of
daylight.

The other principal advantage contended for natural ventilation is that it

helps keep a sustainable building environment. Considering thousands
of years that natural ventilation has existed, this claim is hard to
explain. One contributory element here is that natural system needs no
electrical energy for fans, which can form 25% of the electrical energy
usage in a mechanically ventilated structure.

There are also records that occupants of the house want to control their
environment and prefer not to be entirely isolated from the external
environment. Natural Ventilation can bring about both these
requirements, while a conventional air-conditioning device does not.

In general, the advantage of natural ventilation is its capability to

supply a very high air-change level at a low cost, with a very ordinary
system. Although the air-change rate can change considerably,
buildings with new ventilation systems (that are modelled and worked
appropriately) can obtain very high air-change levels by natural power,
which can considerably be greater in quantity than minimum ventilation
needs.

Disadvantages of Natural Ventilation

There are some disadvantages to natural ventilation systems, which are

discussed below.
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Natural ventilation is changeable and based on outside climatic
situations comparative to the inside environment. The two motive
forces that produce the airstream rate, including temperature difference
and wind, change accidentally. Natural ventilation may be hard to
control, with airstream being uncomfortably heavy in some locations
and static in others.

There can be some problems in monitoring the airstream direction due

to the lack of a stable negative pressure; pollution of corridors and
adjacent rooms is, therefore, a hazard.

Natural ventilation prevents the usage of particulate filters. Security,

cultural, and climate standards may command that windows and vents
remain closed; in these situations, ventilation level may be much lower.

It only operates when natural powers are available; when a high

ventilation level is needed, the requirement for the accessibility of
natural power is also high.

Natural ventilation systems usually do not operate as anticipated, and

normal function may be interrupted for different reasons such as doors
or windows not open, equipment destruction, utility service interruption
(if it is a high-tech system), inferior modelling, incorrect management,
or poor preservation.

Although the preservation cost of natural ventilation systems can be

very low, if a ventilation system cannot be set properly or preserved
due to a shortage of funds, its operation can be changed, causing an
increase in the hazard of the transfer of airborne pathogens.

Another disadvantage of natural ventilation is that it is restricted in the

extent to which it can supply cooling in hot climates and especially
ones that are also moist. For this system to be allowable in some

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climates, it is necessary to join it with some form of tolerable (low-
energy) cooling system.

Natural ventilation does not need extra space for plant rooms or
networks of ducts, but some places are often needed for stacks
(chimneys, atria). The specific disadvantage is that errors in modelling
a natural system may be more difficult to revise.

Other feasible problems, such as air contamination, insect vectors,

noise, and security, also require to be noticed. Nevertheless, these
problems can be overcome, for instance, by using better modelling or
hybrid (mixed-mode) ventilation.

2. WATER SUPPLY AND SANITARY FITTINGS

(PLUMBING)

Types of Water Pipes used in Building

1. PVC Pipes
PVC pipes are used for internal and external water supply system in
buildings.

2. Copper Pipes
Copper pipes of heavy gauge and light gauge are used for better grade
houses and where ground water is highly corrosive to steel pipes.

3. Galvanized Iron Pipes

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These pipes of heavy, medium and light grade are extensively used for
water supply and drainage in building construction, as they are
economical.

4. Lead Pipes
These pipes are highly corrosion resistant and flexible.

Taps and stopcocks in buildings are available from iron, brass and
chromium plated varieties.

Plumbing and Sanitary Items used in Building

External Water Supply System in Buildings
This system consists of water supply from the source such as bore well,
well or water treatment plant to overhead water tanks and from

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overhead water tanks to the houses. For this, the cast iron pipes or G.I.
pipes are used.

Plumbing Drainage System in Buildings

There are five types of drainage water pipes used in building
construction:

1. Soil Pipe
2. Waste pipe
3. Vent pipe
4. Rainwater pipe
5. Anti-siphonage pipes

1. Soil Pipes and Waste Pipes

These pipes remove sewage and greywater from building and are
connected to the common drainage system. They are generally fitted to
the exterior of the building.

The main use of soil pipe and waste pipe is the removal of waste from
toilets, sinks, showers and baths. These are fitted with vent pipes on the
top for the release of odours.

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Traditionally, cast-iron soil pipes and waste pipes were used, but these
days uPVC pipes are more common.

2. Vent Pipe
Vent pipes are attached to the top of soil and waste pipe for the release
of bad odors.

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3. Rainwater Pipes
These pipes are attached to the roof or open area above building for the
removal or collection of rainwater. The rainwater pipes are drawn to the
ground level in case of removal or these are connected to the rainwater
collection network or tank for rainwater harvesting. These are generally
made of PVC material.

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3. Anti-Siphonage Pipes
These are connected to the outlets of toilets, which are provided to
maintain water seal to prevent entry of foul gases of the sewer lines into
the toilets and bathrooms. These are made of PVC and their sizes must
conform to the respective standard specifications.

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Types of Sanitary Pipes used in Building

Type # 1. Washbasin:

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The washbasins are available in various patterns and sizes in the
market.

There are mostly two patterns:

(a) Flat back for mounting on walls,

(b) Angle back for fixing at the junction of two walls.

Flat back basins are provided with double or single tap holes. All the
washbasins should be of one-piece construction and should have slotted
overflow hole. All the internal angles are designed so as to facilitate
cleaning. The washbasins are provided with a circular waste hole in the
bottom as shows in Fig. The basins are provided with an integral soap
holder recess, which drains into the bowl.

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Wash basins are made of fire clay, stoneware, earthenware or vitreous
china. However, nowadays steel, aluminium and plastic washbasins are
also available in the market, which are very popular. In plain, the basins
may have rectangular, square, circular, oblong, circular quadrant etc.
shape depending on the choice. Again, these may be supported on the
brackets fixed on the wall or supported on the pedestals.

For holding water in the bowl, these are provided with tapering rubber
plugs, which can be fitted in the outlet. This plug is fixed to a chain
secured by a stay.

The usual size of wash basins are:

Type # 2. Sinks:
These are rectangular shallow receptacles suitable for kitchens or
laboratory. Fig. shows a kitchen sink which is mostly used. It is of one-
piece construction, provided with or without rim.

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The floor of the sink is given a slope towards the waste outlet. The
sinks are provided with circular waste hole. All the kitchen sinks are
provided with a draining board, which is fixed on the right of the user.
Weir type overflow slots are also provided in some sinks.

The usual dimensions of the sinks are:

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The sinks are made of glazed earthenware or stoneware. The height of
the top of the sink from the floor should be 90 cm.

Type # 3. Bath Tub:

Bathtubs may be made of various materials, such as enamelled iron,
plastic, cast iron, porcelain enamelled, marble or fire clay etc. For high
class residential buildings marble, plastic or enamelled iron or
fibreglass baths are used. For public places, glazed fire clay or
porcelain enamelled cast iron baths are used.

Vitreous enamelled pressed steel baths are also available in the market.
Previously copper baths were used but nowadays they have become
obsolete. In future aluminium alloy and fibreglass bath are coming
which will replace old baths.

Fig. Shows the section through a bath. The bath may be parallel or
taper, the latter type being more popular. It is provided with one outlet
of 4 to 8 cm and one inlet pipe for filling it. In some cases, two taps are
provided one for hot and another for cold water supply. The bath should
also be provided with one over-flow pipe to take excessive water. The
waste pipe of bath is provided with a trap, to prevent the foul gases
from entering in the bathroom.

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The usual dimensions of bath are: length 1.7 to 1.85 m width 70 to 75
cm, depth near waste pipe side 43 to 45 cm, overall height with feet 58
to 60 cm.

Type # 4. Flushing Cisterns:

These are used for flushing water closets and urinals after use. There
are several varieties of flushing cisterns. High-level cisterns are
intended to operate with a minimum height of 125 cm between the top
of the pan and the underside of the cistern.

Low-level cisterns are intended to operate at a height not more than 30

cm between the top of the pan and the underside of the cistern. Cistern
may be of cast iron, glazed earthenware, glazed vitreous ware or
pressed steel or any other impervious material. Now a days plastic
cistern are also available in the market.

Following two types of cisterns are most common now a day:

(i) Bell type without valve.

(ii) Flat bottom type fitted with valve.

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Fig. shows the bells type flushing cistern. The bell is kept over the
outlet pipe, the inlet end of which is slightly above the water level.
When the chain is pulled, the bell is lifted causing the water to spill
over the outlet pipe and starting the symphonic action due to which the
whole water rushes towards the outlet and flushes the W.C.

Due to shortage in the water supply, there was urgent demand to reduce
the quantity of water consumption. All the flushing cisterns available
and existing in the building fitting, discharge their full quantity of water
even for small purposes or even when small quantity of water will
sufficient for that purpose.

C.B.R.I. Roorkee has developed dual flushing cistern, which allows

fractional or full discharge of cistern at a time. All the existing cisterns
can be converted into dual flushing cisterns by making arrangements to
cut the vacuum seal at the fixed water level. To obtain the fractional
discharge the chain is pulled and left, but for obtaining full discharge,
the chain is pulled and kept in position till full capacity is discharged.

For converting the existing cisterns to dual flushing cisterns, 6 mm dia.,

rubber tube is fixed in the bell of the cistern at the fixed height. The
other end of the rubber tube is connected to a plastic pipe with a
stopcock at the end to control the entry of air. The cistern will give full
discharge with the stopcock and fractional discharge with the stopcock
open.

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C.B.R.I. has also developed an automatic flushing cistern for the
urinals. This cistern has eliminated the use of copper fittings, which are
presently provided with the public urinals cisterns. The new developed
fittings consist of a U-tube made of plastic pipe.

When the water level in the cistern reaches the level of the bend, the
symphonic action takes place and the water present in the cistern
rushes, to the urinals. This new automatic flushing cistern can be
cheaply manufactured and easily fixed in the position. Table 25.1 gives
the Flushing Storage Capacities.

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Note:
1. If the premises is situated at a place higher than the road level in
front of the premises, storage at ground level should be provided on the
same lines on floor 2.
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2. The above storage may be permitted to be installed provided that the
total domestic storage calculated on the above basis is not less than the
storage calculated on the number of down take fittings according to the
scales given below:

(a) Down take taps – 70 Hires each

(b) Showers – 135 litres each

(c) Bath tubs – 200 litres each

Fig. 25.5. Illustrates the flat bottom type-flushing cistern provided with
valve. When the chain is pulled, it lifts the disc, which also suddenly
lifts the water above it and starts the symphonic action. The valve
allows the water to rush in the outlet pipe.

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The flushing cisterns are provided with inlet pipe, over-flow pipe and
automatic closing float ball valve.

Type # 5. Water Closet:

This is a sanitary appliance to receive the human excreta directly and is
connected to the soil pipe by means of a trap.

The water closets are classified as follows:

(A) Squatting type or Indian type:

(i) Long pan pattern (length 450,580,680 mm)

(ii) Orissa pattern (length 580,630,680 mm)

(iii) Rural pattern (length 425 mm)

(B) Wash-down, Pedestal or European type:

Fig. 25.6 shows the section through an Indian type water closet.

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This is manufactured in two different pieces:
(a) Squatting pan, and

(b) Trap.

The pan is provided with an integral flushing rim of suitable type. The
inside of the bottom of the pan should have sufficient slope towards the
outlet for quick disposal during flushing.

These are made of vitreous chain clay. The inner portion is glazed to
make it easy in cleaning. The pan is connected to the flushing cistern by
means of flushing pipe. The top of the trap is connected to the anti-
siphon or vent pipe.

Fig. 25.7 shows the pictorial view of an Indian type water closet.

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Fig. 25.8 shows the section through a wash-down type water closet,
which is most commonly, used in high class buildings. It is provided
with a wide flushing rim and 5 cm trap. It is one-piece construction in
which the pan and trap are not separate. It is provided with an inlet or
supply horn for connecting to the flushing pipe.

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It may be provided with P and S trap as desired. These types of water
closets require less space than squatting pattern type and can be flushed
by low-level cistern. Nowadays symphonic water closets are very
popular. Fig. 25.9 shows the isometric view of such a water closet.

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Type # 6. Urinals:
Urinals can be made in any of the following patterns and sizes:

Bowl type urinals are of one-piece construction. Each urinal is provided

with two fixing holes on the side for fixing it on the wall. At the
bottom, an outlet horn is provided for connecting it to the trap. The
inside surface is regular and smooth for ensuring efficient flushing.

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The bottom of the urinal is provided with sufficient slope from the front
towards the outlet for efficient drainage of the urinal. Bowl type urinals
are also provided with flushing rim, which is connected by flushing
pipe to the flushing cistern. Fig. 25.10 illustrates a bowl type urinal.

Fig. 25.11 shows the isometric view of two type urinals placed in
position.

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The slab and stall type urinals are manufactured either as a urinal or as
a range of two or more and are used in public places such as cinema
houses, restaurants, railway stations, offices, etc. The squatting plate
urinals are mostly used in ladies lavatories and are on piece
construction.

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 3. HEATING VENTILATION & AIR CONDITIONING
(HVAC)

What is an HVAC?

Acronym HVAC stands for heating, ventilation and air conditioning.

Sometimes Refrigeration “R” is also added and it becomes “HVACR”.

HVAC is basically climate control of confined space with respect to

requirements of persons or goods in it.

HVAC system is not only heating and cooling of air but also concerned
with maintaining the indoor air quality (IAQ).

Heating of air is done usually in winter and similarly cooling of air is

done in summer season.

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HVAC system works on the principles of thermodynamics, fluid
mechanics and heat transfer.

All these fields come into play in various components of HVAC. IAQ
Indoor air quality is the quality of air inside the building or structures as
mostly related to health and safekeeping of its occupants or items/goods
placed. IAQ is changed with inclusion or contamination with gases and
uncontrolled mass & energy transfer.

HVAC systems are used for heating and cooling & air condition in
homes, building, industry, vehicles, aquariums and many more. With
the passage of time application of HVAC are increasing and more
research is in-progress in this field.

HVAC business is also increasing at the same pace as field of

application is broadening.
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What is a HVAC System?

HVAC system is basically an assembly of various types of equipment

installed together to provide heating and cooling along with indoor
climate control. HVAC systems involve mechanical, electrical and I &
C components to provide comfort to the occupants of building/space or
to preserve goods, products or items placed in space.

HVAC cooling systems may be integrated with HVAC heating systems

or these may be installed separately depending upon HVAC design.
HVAC system also serves on industrial scale to keep the machinery
running by maintaining the temperature of space/hall/room where
machines are installed. HVAC water chillers have become essential for
any industry for its various needs.

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HVAC System Basic Components

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An HVAC System may include the following basic components or
units.

 HVAC water chillers and heaters

 Hot water generator (if chiller does produce chilled water only) or
furnace
 Chilled water pumps
 Cooling water pumps
 Electrical power supply control or Motor control centre (MCC)
 Cooling towers
 Piping for chilled water and cooling water or condenser side water
 Valves for chilled water and cooling water sides
 Air handling units (AHUs), heating coils and cooling Coils
 Ducts in ventilation system (supply ducts and return ducts)
 Fan Coil Units (FCUs) and thermostats
 HVAC Diffusers and grills
 HVAC controls (instrumentation & Control components) installed
at various locations
 HVAC software for building HVAC control or building
management system (BMS)
 An Assembly of all above components forms an HVAC system.

HVAC system working Principle

In the background of HVAC system, an HVAC water chiller produces

chilled water, which is then circulated throughout the building or space
up to cooling coils in air handling units. Blowers move air on cooling
coils, which is then distributed, into various portions of space or
building for providing comfort or preserving goods/items as per HVAC
design.

Air is distributed through supply ducts and return air is collected in air
handling units with the help of return ducts. Chilled water and cooling
water pumps provide energy to keep the chilled and cooling water
moving.
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HVAC Valves are also installed at various points in piping to ease the
maintenance of HVAC system or for the sake of system control.
Heating of air may be done with the help of HVAC heat pump, hot
water generator or simply by furnace. Some industrial chillers also
serve as heaters in winter season. Heating coils take the place of
cooling coils in case of heating mode.

HVAC system cost may vary for different applications as heating and
cooling space or environment varies. Looking for cheap HVAC
systems may involve little research in types of HVAC systems and
HVAC suppliers otherwise you would be lamenting over waste of
millions of dollars for selecting wrong HVAC designer & contractor.

Third Classification: Electrical Load Classification According To

Load Function
1. Lighting Load.
2. Appliances Load.
3. Power Loads.

 Appliances Electrical Loads Types and Classifications

Last type of electrical loads according to the load function / usage is the
power loads which can be divided to the following main loads:
1. HVAC loads (Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning
System Loads).
2. Lifts Loads (Transportation System Loads).
3. Pumps Loads (Fire Fighting, Plumping, Irrigation Systems,
Etc.).

4. MECHANICAL LIFTS AND ESCALATORS

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An elevator (or lift) is a type of vertical transport equipment that
efficiently moves people or goods between floors (levels, decks) of a
building, vessel or other structures. Elevators are generally powered by
electric motors that either drive traction cables or counterweight
systems like a hoist, or pump hydraulic fluid to raise a cylindrical
piston like a jack.

There are three types of convoying methods in buildings, Elevators &

Escalators & Ramps, and they have different dimensions and uses
according to building type & number of users in it.

Elevator Types
1. According to hoist mechanism.
2. According to building height.
3. According to building type.
4. According to elevator Location.
5. According to Special uses.

1- According to hoist mechanism:

Elevators will be classified according to hoist mechanism to four main

types as follows:
1. Hydraulic Elevators
2. Traction Elevators
3. Climbing elevator
4. Pneumatic Elevators

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1- Hydraulic Elevators (Push Elevators)

Hydraulic Elevators
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Hydraulic elevators are supported by a piston at the bottom of the
elevator that pushes the elevator up. They are used for low-rise
applications of 2-8 stories and travel at a maximum speed of 200 feet
per minute. The machine room for hydraulic elevators is located at the
lowest level adjacent to the elevator shaft. Hydraulic elevators have
many two main types as follows:

A- Holed (Conventional) Hydraulic Elevators

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 Holed (Conventional) Hydraulic Elevators

They have a sheave that extends below the floor of the elevator pit,
which accepts the retracting piston as the elevator descends. Some
configurations have a telescoping piston that collapses and requires a
shallower hole below the pit. Max travel distance is approximately 60
feet.

B- Hole-less Hydraulic Elevators

They have a piston on either side of the cab. It can be divided to 3

different types as follows:

a- Telescopic Hydraulic Elevators:

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 Telescopic Hydraulic Elevators

In this configuration, the telescoping pistons are fixed at the base of the
pit and do not require a sheave or hole below the pit and has 2 or 3
pieces of telescoping pistons. Telescoping pistons allow up to 50 feet of
travel distance.

b- Non-telescoping (single stage) Hydraulic Elevators:

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 Non-telescoping (single stage) Hydraulic Elevators

It has one piston and only allows about 20 feet of travel distance.

c- Roped Hydraulic Elevators

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 Roped Hydraulic Elevators

They use a combination of ropes and a piston to move the elevator.

Maximum travel distance is about 60 feet.

2- Traction Elevators (Pull Elevators)

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 Traction Elevators (Pull Elevators)
Traction elevators are lifted by ropes, which pass over a wheel attached
to an electric motor above the elevator shaft. They are used for mid and
high-rise applications and have much higher travel speeds than
hydraulic elevators. A counter weight makes the elevators more
efficient. Traction elevators have 3 main types as follows:

A- Geared Traction Elevators:

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 Geared Traction Elevators

They have a gearbox that is attached to the motor, which drives the
wheel that moves the ropes. Geared traction elevators are capable of
travel speeds up to 500 feet per minute.

B- Gear-less Traction Elevators:

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 Gear-less Traction Elevators

They have the wheel attached directly to the motor. Gear-less traction
elevators are capable of speeds up to 2000 feet per minute.

C- Machine-Room-Less Elevators:
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 Machine-Room-Less Elevators

They are typically traction elevators that do not have a dedicated

machine room above the elevator shaft. The machine sits in the
override space and the controls sit above the ceiling adjacent to the
elevator shaft. Machine-room-less elevators are becoming more
common; however, many maintenance departments do not like them
due to the hassle of working on a ladder as opposed to within a room.

3- Climbing elevator

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 Climbing elevator

They hold their own power device on them, mostly electric or

combustion engine. Climbing elevators are often used in work and
construction areas.

4- Pneumatic Elevators

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 Pneumatic Elevators

Pneumatic elevators are raised and lowered by controlling air pressure

in a chamber in which the elevator sits. By simple principles of physics,
the difference in air pressure above and beneath the vacuum elevator
cab literally transports cab by air. It is the vacuum pumps or turbines
that pull cab up to the next Floor and the slow release of air pressure
that floats cab down. They are especially ideal for existing homes due
to their compact design because excavating a pit and hoist way are not
required.

2- According to building height

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A- Low-Rise buildings (1- 3 stories)
Buildings up to about (1 to 3) stories typically use hydraulic elevators
because of their lower initial cost

B- Mid-Rise buildings (4 -11 stories) Buildings up to about (4 to 11)

stories typically use Geared Traction Elevators

C- High-Rise buildings (12 + stories)

Buildings up to about 12+ stories typically use Gear-Less Traction

Elevators

3- According to building type

Elevators will be classified according to building type to 6 main types

as follows:
1. Hospital Elevators.
2. Residential /Domestic Elevators.
3. Agricultural Elevators.
4. Industrial Elevators.
5. Commercial Elevators.
6. Parking buildings Elevators.

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1- Hospital Elevators

Hospital Elevators

A- Hospital Bed Elevators

Hospital bed elevators generally transport patients who are not well
enough to sit up even in a wheelchair. One of the features of bed
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elevators should be its ability to transport the patient has smoothly as
possible with minimal amount of bumping and jostling. Many
contemporary bed elevators are manufactured to consume extremely
low amounts of power and to be durable with a number of safety
features built-in. Hospital bed elevators generally draw very little
power so that should there be a power outage they are still operational
off the hospital's backup power supply. Most often there will be a rear
and a front entry to the elevator cabin.

B- Hospital Stretcher Lift

They usually are smaller than bed elevators. This particular type of
elevator is usually hydraulic or traction based depending on the location
of the machine room. They are specifically manufactured to be low-
noise bed elevators that smoothly transport patients, doctors, nurses and
hospital staff between floors, allowing them the utmost in comfort.
Because hospital bed elevators are only used for transporting patients
and hospital staff they arrived at their location quite quickly,
eliminating lengthy waits. Many of these bed elevators are key operated
so as to prohibit use by the general public.

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2- Residential /Domestic Elevators

They are usually just on a much smaller scale than industrial or

commercial elevators.

A- Passenger Elevators

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 Passenger Elevators

Domestic elevators which are intended to move passengers up and

down stairs in a multilevel residence are quite similar to those used in
large public buildings. They can be built either inside the home or
outside the home and can be pneumatic vacuum, electric, hydraulic or
cable elevators. Most often domestic elevators designed for carrying
passengers in a residential setting only carry perhaps two to four people
safely and comfortably.

B- Stairway Elevators

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 Stairway Elevators

Stairway elevators are generally installed in homes where someone in

the family has problems with mobility. This type of domestic elevators
simply runs on a rail up and down and existing staircase. They can run
either in a straight line or around a curved stairway. Stairway elevators
can be constructed both inside and outside the home.

b.1 - Vertical Wheelchair Elevators

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 Vertical Wheelchair Elevators

Interior vertical wheelchair elevators can easily be installed when space

is limited. They can be constructed in such a way as to allow both front
and rear entry and the platform is generally 4.5 feet by 5 feet, unless a
custom size is called for. Vertical elevators are called for when the
staircase winds around several levels.

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b.2 - Wheelchair Elevators on an Incline

Wheelchair Elevators on an Incline

Wheelchair elevators on an incline are generally installed when the

staircase simply goes up one level or perhaps two. If there are several
winds in the staircase, wheelchair elevators on an incline would not be
well suited. Most often this type of elevator is called for when there is
not adequate space to facilitate a more spacious vertical wheelchair
elevator.

C- Dumbwaiters Elevators
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 Dumbwaiters Elevators

They are small freight elevators intended to carry objects rather than
people , Whenever groceries or laundry need to be sent up and down
the stairs without making unnecessary trips that can quickly tire people
, people can simply place what needs to be transported in the
dumbwaiter and press the button to send it up or down stairs.
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Dumbwaiters are most often built into or adjacent to a wall.

A simple dumbwaiter is a movable frame in a shaft, dropped by a rope

on a pulley, guided by rails; most dumbwaiters have a shaft, car, and
capacity smaller than those of passenger elevators, usually 100 to 1000
lbs

3- Agricultural applications:

A- Bucket Elevators

Bucket elevator used to move crops which have been newly harvested
up and into silo. Bucket elevators are manufactured in such a way that
they can move heavy loads quite easily. They can be belt driven or
chain driven and they can move vertically, horizontally or at an incline.

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A.1- Centrifugal discharge elevators

Centrifugal discharge elevators

Bucket elevators are sometimes referred to as conveyor buckets, most

often when the movement is horizontal or on an incline. However,
technically speaking, vertical movement is also accomplished with a
conveyor belt or chain. The centrifugal discharge bucket elevator is

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perhaps the most common type. Of course, as the name implies the
elevator is driven by centrifugal force. This type of elevator has lower
speeds and the buckets are often placed relatively closely together.

A.2 Vertical bucket Elevators

Vertical bucket Elevators

Vertical bucket elevators usually have buckets that are well spaced with
bottoms that are rounded, and are often referred to as grain legs. Part of
the reason for this is balance which keeps the contents in the buckets as
they move up the elevator so that spillage isn't a problem. Vertical
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bucket elevators need to be used at a much slower pace both to avoid
spilling contents and also because much of the time they carry loads
that are quite heavy.

4- Industrial Elevators

The most common types of industrial elevators are hoist elevators and
incline elevators. These types of elevators are built to carry huge
amounts of weight effortlessly, therefore the term industrial elevators.
This type of elevators is used in construction, warehouses, and
shipyards.

A-Hoist Elevators

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 Hoist Elevators

Hoist elevators are operated by a pulley or series of pulleys and they

can be a simple platform or a cage in which humans or heavy materials
are moved up and down during industrial applications. Generally, a
pulley operates a rope or chain that wraps around a drum causing the
elevator to rise or descend. It is said that hoist elevators are powered by
either electricity or air, but even that isn't quite true because electricity
is needed to pump air. Hoist elevators carrying materials and equipment
to upper levels as needed while the building is being constructed. They
are also commonly used to load equipment and supplies on large
seagoing vessels.

B- Incline Elevators

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 Incline Elevators

The equipment and supplies are placed on a form of conveyor belt that
continues turning bringing the cargo up to its destination where it is
quickly unloaded as the belt continues turning around. This is a much
quicker method of loading and unloading cargo than with a hoist
elevator because there is no stopping to unload. Everything happens in
one fluid motion. Incline elevators when used for industrial purposes
are usually temporary and mobile. Many are on wheels and can be
easily moved from one dock or location to the next.

ESCALATOR
An escalator is a moving staircase , which carries people between
floors of a building or structure. It consists of a motor-driven chain of

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individually linked steps on a track, which cycle on a pair of tracks,
which keep them horizontal.
Escalators are often used around the world in places where lifts would
be impractical, or they can be used in conjunction with them. Principal
areas of usage include department stores, shopping
malls, airports, transit systems (railway/railroad stations), convention
centres, hotels, arenas, stadiums and public buildings.
Escalators have the capacity to move large numbers of people. They
can be placed in the same physical space as a staircase. They have no
waiting interval (except during very heavy traffic). They can be used to
guide people toward main exits or special exhibits. They may be
weatherproofed for outdoor use. A non-functional escalator can
function as a normal staircase, whereas many other methods of
transport become useless when they break down or lose power.
Operation and layout
Escalators typically rise at an angle of about 30 degrees from the
ground. They move at 0.3–0.6 metres per second (1–2 ft. /s) –
like moving walkways – and may traverse vertical distances in excess
of 18 metres (60 ft.). Most modern escalators have single-
piece aluminium or stainless steel steps that move on a system of tracks
in a continuous loop.

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"Crisscross" layout, Shanghai Museum

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 "Multiple parallel" layout, Holborn Station, London

"Parallel" layout, Target Store

Different types of escalators include:

 parallel (up and down escalators adjacent or nearby, often seen in

perpendicular areas, metro stations and multilevel movie theatres);
 multiple parallel (banks of more than one escalator going in the
same direction parallel to banks going the other direction);
 crisscross (escalators going in one direction "stacked" with
escalators going the opposite direction oriented adjacent but
perpendicular, frequently used in department stores or shopping
centers).
Most countries require escalators to have moving handrails that keep
pace with the movement of the steps as a safety measure. This helps
riders steady themselves, especially when stepping onto the moving
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stairs. Occasionally a handrail moves at a slightly different speed from
the steps, causing it to "creep" slowly forward or backward relative to
the steps; it is only slippage and normal wear that causes such losses of
synchronicity, and is not by design.
The direction of escalator movement (up or down) can be permanently
set, controlled manually depending on the predominant flow of the
crowd, or controlled automatically. In some setups, the direction is
controlled by whoever arrives first.
Design and layout considerations
Design factors include physical requirements, location, traffic patterns,
safety considerations and aesthetics. Physical factors such as the
distance to be spanned determine the length and pitch of the escalator,
while factors such as the infrastructure's ability to provide support and
power must be considered. How upward and downward traffic is
separated and load/unload areas are other important considerations.
Temporal traffic patterns must be anticipated. Some escalators need
only to move people from one floor to another, but others may have
specific requirements, such as funnelling visitors towards exits or
exhibits. The visibility and accessibility of the escalator to traffic is
relevant. Designers need to account for the projected traffic volumes.
For example, a single-width escalator traveling at about 0.5 metres per
second (1+1⁄2 ft/s) can move about 2000 people per hour, assuming that
passengers ride single file. The carrying capacity of an escalator system
is typically matched to the expected peak traffic demand. For example,
escalators at transit stations must be designed to cater for the peak
traffic flow discharged from a train, without excessive bunching at the
escalator entrance.
In this regard, escalators help manage the flow of people. For example,
at many airports an unpaired escalator delivers passengers to an exit,
with no means for anyone entering at the exit to access the concourse.

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Escalators are often built next to or around staircases that allow
alternative travel between the same two floors. Elevators are necessary
for disability access to floors serviced by escalators.
Components
Landing platforms
Landing platforms are the two platforms (at the two ends) that house
the curved sections of the tracks, as well as the gears and motors that
drive the stairs. The top platform usually contains the motor assembly
and the main drive gear, while the bottom holds the return gear. These
sections also anchor the ends of the escalator truss. Each platform also
has a floor and a comb plate. The floor plate provides a place for the
passengers to stand before they step onto the moving stairs, flush with
the rest of the floor and usually hinged to allow easy maintenance
access, while the comb plate lies between the stationary floor plate and
the moving step, so named for the cleats on its edge which mesh with
the matching cleats on each step (and resemble a comb). The
interlocking cleats help to minimize the gap between the stairs and
landing, preventing objects or persons from becoming caught in it.
Truss
The truss is the hollow metal structure that bridges the lower and upper
landings, composed of two side sections joined together with cross
braces across the bottom and just below the top. The ends of the truss
are attached to the top and bottom landing platforms via steel or
concrete supports. It carries all the straight track sections connecting the
upper and lower sections.
Balustrade
The balustrade is composed of handrails, balustrade panels, and skirt
panels.
Handrail
The handrail provides a handhold for passengers while they are riding
the escalator. The handrail is pulled along its own track by a chain that

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is connected to the main drive gear by a series of pulleys, keeping it at
the same speed as the steps. Four distinct sections make up the rail: at
its centre is a "slider", also known as a "glider ply", which is a layer of
a cotton or synthetic textile that allows the rail to move smoothly along
its track. The "tension member" lies on the slider and consists of either
steel cable or flat steel tape, providing the handrail with tensile strength
and flexibility. The inner components, on top of the tension member,
are made of chemically treated rubber designed to prevent the layers
from separating. Finally, the outer layer—the part that passengers see—
is the cover, typically a blend of synthetic polymers and rubber. Covers
are designed to resist degradation from environmental conditions,
mechanical wear and tear and vandalism.
In a factory, handrails are constructed by feeding rubber through an
extrusion machine to produce layers of the required size and type in
order to match specific orders. The component layers of fabric, rubber
and steel are shaped by workers before being fed into the presses,
which fuse them together.
In the mid-twentieth century, some handrail designs consisted of a
rubber bellows, with rings of smooth metal cladding called "bracelets"
between each coil. This gave the handrail a rigid yet flexible feel.
Additionally, each bellows section was no more than around a metre
long, so if part of the handrail was damaged, only the bad segment
needed to be replaced. These forms of handrail have largely been
replaced with fabric-and-rubber railings.
Balustrade panel
Being made of either metal, sandwich panel, or glass, the balustrade
panel supports the handrails of the escalator. It also provides additional
protection for the handrail and passengers. Some escalators have
direction arrows on the ends of the balustrade. Escalators' on/off
buttons are frequently located at the ends of the balustrade. Moving
walkways often use balustrades in the same way.
Skirt Panel

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The bottom of the balustrade is called a skirt panel. It is notorious in
this art for being a frequent site of injuries and failures, due to the
possible entrapment of materials (including body parts) in the
machinery. Multiple solutions have been suggested for this issue,
including coating with a low-friction material, employing bristles, and
others.
Tracks
The track system is built into the truss to guide the step chain, which
continuously pulls the steps from the bottom platform and back to the
top in an endless loop. One track guides the front wheels of the steps
(called the step-wheel track) and another guides the back wheels of the
steps (called the trailer-wheel track). The relative positions of these
tracks cause the steps to form a staircase as they move out from under
the comb plate. Along the straight section of the truss, the tracks are at
their maximum distance apart. This configuration forces the back of
one-step to be at a 90-degree angle relative to the step behind it. This
right angle forces the steps into a shape resembling a staircase. At the
top and bottom of the escalator, the two tracks converge so that the
front and back wheels of the steps are almost in a straight line. This
causes the stairs to lay in a flat sheet like arrangement, one after
another, so they can easily travel around the bend in the curved section
of track. The tracks carry the steps down along the underside of the
truss until they reach the bottom landing, where they pass through
another curved section of track before exiting the bottom landing. At
this point, the tracks separate and the steps once again assume a
staircase configuration. This cycle is repeated continually as the steps
are pulled from bottom to top and back to the bottom again.
Steps
The steps themselves are solid, one piece, die-cast aluminium or steel.
Yellow demarcation lines are sometimes added to indicate their edges.
In most escalator models manufactured after 1950, both the riser and
the tread of each step is cleated (given a ribbed appearance) with comb-
like protrusions that mesh with the comb plates on the top and bottom
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platforms and the succeeding steps in the chain. Seeberger escalators
featured flat treads and smooth risers; other escalator models have
cleated treads and smooth risers. The steps are linked by a continuous
metal chain that forms a closed loop. The front and back edges of the
steps each have two wheels, the rear of which are set further apart and
fit into the trailer-wheel track while the front set have narrower axles
and fit the step-wheel track.

Escalator components


An escalator being repaired at Town Hall station in Sydney,

Australia

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 

A "freestanding" escalator reveals its inner components through the

transparent truss.

 Escalator truss connects to the landing platform (lower left). Also

visible: exposed drive gears (centre) for steps and handrail drive
(left)

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 View of an escalator's motor

An escalator with its steps removed

View of escalator steps on continuous chain

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 

An escalator equipped with a "bellows" handrail. The bracelets are

coloured grey, with occasional strings of black ones to appear as
moving spacers.etc

5. FIRE FIGHTING AND FIRE PROTECTION OF BUILDINGS

This part covers the requirements of the fire protection for the
multistoried buildings (high rise buildings) and the buildings, which
are of 15 m. and above in height and low occupancies of categories
such as Assembly, Institutional., Educational (more than two storied
and built-up area exceeds 1000 sq m)., Business (where plot area
exceeds 500 sq m.), Mercantile (where aggregate covered area
exceeds 750 sq m.), Hotel, Hospital, Nursing Homes, Underground
Complexes, Industrial Storage, Meeting / Banquet Halls, Hazardous
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Occupancies.

Procedure for Clearance from Fire Service

a) The concerned Authority shall refer the building plans to

the Chief Fire Officer for obtaining clearance in respect
of building identified in clause 7.1 of these Byelaws.
b) The Authority shall furnish three sets of complete building
plans along with prescribed fee to the Chief Fire Officer,
after ensuring that the proposals are in line with Master
Plan/Zonal Plan of the area.
c) The plans shall be clearly marked and indicate the
complete fire protection arrangements and the means of
access/escape for the proposed building with suitable
legend along with standard signs and symbols on the
drawings. The same shall be duly signed/certified by a
licensed Fire Consultant/Architect. The information
regarding fire safety measures shall be furnished as per
Annexure ‘D’ along with details.
d) The Chief Fire Officer shall examine these plans to ensure
that they are in accordance with the provisions of fire
safety and means of escape as per these bye- laws and
shall forward two sets of plans duly signed for
implementation to the building sanctioning Authority.
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 e) After completion of firefighting installations as approved
and duly tested and certified by the licensed Fire
Consultant / Architect, the Owner/ Builder of the building
shall approach the Chief Fire Officer through the
concerned Authority for obtaining clearance from fire
safety and means of escape point of view. The concerned
Authority shall ensure that clearance from Chief Fire
Officer has been obtained for the building identified in
clause 7.1 before granting the completion certificate.
f) On receipt of the above request, the Chief Fire Officer
shall issue the No Objection Certificate from fire safety
and means of escape point of view after satisfying himself
that the entire fire protection measures are implemented
and functional as per approved plans.
g) Any deficiencies observed during the course of inspection
shall be communicated to the Authority for rectification
and a copy of the same shall be forwarded to the
concerned building owner /builder.

Renewal Of Fire Clearance

On the basis of undertaking given by the Fire Consultant / Architect,

the Chief Fire Officer shall renew the fire clearance in respect of the
following buildings on annual basis:-
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1) Public entertainment and assembly
2) Hospitals
3) Hotels
4) Underground shopping complex

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Fire Escapes or External Stairs:
a) Fire escape shall not be taken into account while
calculating the number of staircases for a building.
b) All fire escapes shall be directly connected to the ground.
c) Entrance to the fire escape shall be separate and remote
from internal staircase.
d) The route to fire escape shall be free of obstructions at all
times except the doorway leading to the fire escape, which
shall have the required fire resistance.
e) Fire escape shall be constructed of non-combustible
materials.
f) Fire escape stairs shall have straight flight not less than
125 cm wide with 25 cm treads and risers not more than
19 cm.
g) Handrails shall be at a height not less than 100 cm.
h) Fire escape staircase in the mercantile, business, assembly,
hotel buildings above 24 m. height shall be a fire tower
and in such a case width of the same shall not be less than
the width of the main staircase. No combustible material
shall be allowed in the fire tower.

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Spiral Stairs
i) The use of spiral staircase shall be limited to low occupant
load and to a building height 9 m.
j) A spiral stair shall not be less than 150 cm in diameter
and shall be designed to give the adequate headroom.
Staircase Enclosures
k) The external enclosing walls of the staircase shall be of the
brick or the R.C.C. construction having fire resistance of
not less than two hours. All enclosed staircases shall have
access through self-closing door of one-hour fire
resistance. These shall be single swing doors opening in
the direction of the escape. The door shall be fitted with
the check action door closers.
l) The staircase enclosures on the external wall of the
building shall be ventilated to the atmosphere at each
landing.
m) Permanent vent at the top equal to the 5% of the cross
sectional area of the enclosure and openable sashes at each
floor level with area equal to 1 to 15% of the cross
sectional area of the enclosure on external shall be
provided. The roof of the shaft shall be at least 1 m. above
the surrounding roof. There shall be no glazing or the glass
bricks in any internal closing wall of staircase. If the

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 staircase is in the core of the building and cannot be
ventilated at each landing, a positive of 5-mm. w.g. by
electrically operated blower/blowers shall be maintained.
n) The mechanism for pressurizing the staircase shaft shall
be so installed that the same shall operate automatically
on fire alarm system/sprinkler system and be provided
with manual operation facilities.
Ramps
o) Ramps of slope of not more than 1 in 10 may be
substituted for and shall comply with all the applicable
requirements of all required stairways as to enclosure
capacity and limiting dimensions. Larger slopes shall be
provided for special uses but in no case greater than 1 in 8.
For all slopes exceeding 1 in 10 and where the use is such
as to involve danger of slipping, the ramp shall be
surfaced with approved non-slipping material.

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 p) The minimum width of the ramps in the Hospitals shall
be 2.4 m. and in the basement, using car parking shall be
6.0 m.
q) Handrails shall be provided on both sides of the ramp.
r) Ramp shall lead directly to outside open space at ground
level or courtyards of safe place.
s) For building above 24.0 m. in height, access to ramps
from any floor of the building shall be through smoke fire
check door.
t) In case of nursing homes, hospitals etc. area exceeding
300 sq m. at each floor one of the exit facility shall be a
ramp of not less than 2.4 m. in width.

Provision of Lifts

h) Provision of the lifts shall be made for all multistoried

building having a height of 15.0 m. and above.
i) All the floors shall be accessible for 24 hrs. by the lift. The
lift provided in the buildings shall not be considered as a
means of escape in case of emergency.
j) Grounding switch at ground floor level to enable the fire
service to ground the lift car in case of emergency shall
also be provided.
k) The lift machine room shall be separate and no other
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 machinery be installed in it.
Lift Enclosure/lift
General requirements shall be as follows
a) Walls of lift enclosures shall have a fire rating of two
hours. Lift shafts shall have a vent at the top of area not
less than 0.2 sq m.
b) Lift motor room shall be located preferably on top of the
shaft and separated from the shaft by the floor of the room.
c) Landing door in lift enclosures shall have a fire resistance
of not less than one hour.
d) The number of lifts in one lift bank shall not exceed four.
A wall of two hours fire rating shall separate individual
shafts in a bank.
e) Lift car door shall have a fire resistance rating of 1 hour.

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f) For buildings 15.0 m. and above in height, collapsible
gates shall not be permitted for lifts and solid doors with
fire resistance of at least one hour shall be provided.
g) If the lift shaft and lobby is in the core of the building a
positive pressure between 25 and 30 pa shall be
maintained in the lobby and a possible pressure of 50 pa
shall be maintained in the lift shaft. The mechanism for
the pressurization shall act automatically with the fire
alarm/sprinkler system and it shall be possible to operate
this mechanically also.
h) Exit from the lift lobby, if located in the core of the
building, shall be through a self-closing fire smoke check
door of one-hour fire resistance.
i) Lift shall not normally communicate with the basement.
If however, lifts are in communication, the lift lobby of the
basement shall be pressurized as in (g) with self closing
door as in (h).
j) Grounding switch (es), at ground floor level shall be
provided to enable the fire service to ground the lifts.
k) Telephone/talk back communication facilities may be
provided in lift cars for communication system and lifts
shall be connected to the fire control room of the building.
l) Suitable arrangements such as providing slope in the floor

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 of the lift lobby shall be made to prevent water used
during fire fighting, etc at any landing from entering the
lift shafts.
m) A sign shall be posted and maintained on every floor
at or near the lift indicating that in case of fire, occupants
shall use the stairs unless instructed otherwise. The sign
shall also contain a plan for each floor showing the
location of the stairways. Floor marking shall be done at
each floor on the wall in front of the lift-landing door.
n) Alternate power supply shall be provided in all the lifts

Basement Requirements
i) The access to the basement shall be either from the main
or alternate staircase providing access and exit from higher
floors. Where the staircase is continue the same shall be
enclosed type serving as a fire separation from the
basement floor and higher floors. Open ramps shall be
permitted if they are constructed within the building line
subject to the provision of the (iv).
ii) In case of basement for office, sufficient number of exit
ways and access ways shall be provided with a travel
distance not more than 15.0 m. The travel distance in case
of dead-end shall be 7.5 m.

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iii) The basement shall be partitioned and in no case
compartment shall be more than 500 sq m. and less than
50 sq m. area except parking. Each compartment shall
have ventilation standards as laid down in Bye-Laws
separately and independently. The partition shall be made
in consultation with Chief Fire Officer.
iv) The first basement (immediately below ground level) can
be used for services/parking/other permissible services.
Lower basement, if provided, shall exclusively be used for
car parking only.
v) Each basement shall be separately ventilated. Vents with
cross-sectional area (aggregate) not less than 2.5 percent
of the floor area spread evenly round the perimeter of the
basement shall be provided in the form of grills or
breakable starboard lights or pavement lights or by way of
shafts. Alternatively a system of air inlets shall be provided
at basement floor level and smoke outlets at basement
ceiling level. Inlets and extracts may be terminated at
ground level with starboard or pavement lights as before.
But ducts to convey fresh air to the basement floor level
have to be laid. Starboard and pavement lights should be in
positions easily accessible to the firemen and clearly
marked "SMOKE OUTLET" or AIR INLET" with an

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 indication of area served at or near the opening.
vi) The staircase of basement shall be of enclosed type having
fire resistance of not less than two hours and shall be
situated at the periphery of the basement to be entered at
ground level only from the open air and in such positions
that smoke from any fire in the basement shall not obstruct
any exit serving the ground and upper stories of the
building and shall communicate with basement through a
lobby provided with fire resisting self closing door of one
hour rating. In case of basement being used as car parking
only, the travel distance shall be 45 m.
vii) In multi-storeyed basements, intake duct may serve all
basements levels, but each basement and basement
compartment shall have separate smoke outlet duct or
ducts. Mechanical extractors for smoke venting system
from lower basement levels shall also be provided. The
system shall be of such design as to operate on actuation
of smoke, heat sensitive detectors/sprinklers, if installed,
and shall have a considerably superior performance
compared to the standard units. It shall also have an
arrangement to start it manually.
viii) Mechanical extractors shall have an internal locking
arrangement so that extractors shall continue to operate

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 and supply fans shall stop automatically with the actuation
of fire detectors. Mechanical extractors shall be designed
to permit 30 air changes per hour in case of fire or distress
call. However, for normal operation, only 30 air changes
or any other convenient factor can be maintained.
ix) Mechanical extractors shall have an alternate source of
power supply.
x) Ventilating ducts shall be integrated with the structure and
made out of brick masonry or RCC as far as possible and
when this duct crosses the transformer area of electrical
switchboard, fire dampers shall be provided.
xi) Kitchens working on gas fuel shall not be permitted in
basement/sub- basement.
xii) If cutouts are provided from basement to the upper floors
or to the atmosphere, all side cutout openings in the
basements shall be protected by sprinkler heads at closed
spacing so as to form a water curtain in the event of a fire.
xiii) Dewatering pump shall be provided in all basements.

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Air-Conditioning

l) Air- conditioning system should be installed and

maintained so as to minimise the danger of spread of fire,
smoke or fumes thereby from one floor of fire area to
another or from outside into any occupied building or
structure.
m) Air -Conditioning systems circulating air to more than
one floor area should be provided with dampers designed
to close automatically in case of fire and thereby prevent
spread of fire or smoke. Such a system should also be
provided with automatic controls to stop fans in case of
fire, unless arranged to remove smoke from a fire, in
which case these should be designed to remain in
operation.
n) Air- conditioning system serving large places of assembly
(over one thousand persons), large departmental stores, or
hostels with over 100 rooms in a single block should be
provided with effective means for preventing circulation
of smoke through the system in the case of fire in air
filters or from other sources drawn into the system even
though there is insufficient heat to actuate heat smoke
sensitive devices controlling fans or dampers. Such means

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 shall consist of approved effective smoke sensitive
controls.
Air- Conditioning should conform to the following:
a) Escape routes like staircase, common corridors, lift
lobbies; etc should not be used as return air passage.
b) The ducting should be constructed of metal in accordance
with BIS 655:1963
c) Wherever the ducts pass through fire walls or floor, the
opening around the ducts should be sealed with fire
resisting material of same rating as of walls / floors.
d) Metallic ducts should be used even for the return air
instead of space above the false ceiling.
e) The material used for insulating the duct system (inside or
outside) should be of flame resistant (IS 4355: 1977) and
non- conductor of heat.
f) Area more than 750 sq m. on individual floor should be
segregated by a firewall and automatic fire dampers for
isolation should be provided.

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 g) In case of more than one floor, arrangement by way of
automatic fire dampers for isolating the ducting at every
floor from the floor should be made. Where plenums used
for return air passage, ceiling and its features and air filters
of the air handling units, these should be flame resistant.
Inspection panels should be provided in the main
trenching. No combustible material should be fixed nearer
than 15 cm. to any duct unless such ducting is properly
enclosed and protected with flame resistant material
h) In case of buildings more than 24 m. in height, in non-
ventilated lobbies, corridors, smoke extraction shaft
should be provided.
Fire Dampers
i) These shall be located in air ducts and return air
ducts/passages at the following points:
i) At the fire separation wall.
ii) Where ducts/passages enter the central vertical shaft.
iii) Where the ducts pass through floors.
iv) At the inlet of supply air duct and the return air
duct of each compartment on every floor.
j) The dampers shall operate automatically and shall
simultaneously switch off the air- handling fans. Manual
operation facilities shall also be provided.

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 k) Fire/smoke dampers(for smoke extraction shafts) for
building more than 24 m. in height.
For apartment houses in non-ventilated lobbies /corridor operated by
detection system and manual control sprinkler system.
For other buildings on operation of smoke/ heat detection system and
manual control/sprinkler system.

l) Automatic fire dampers shall be so arranged so as to close

by gravity in the direction of air movement and to remain
tightly closed on operation of a fusible link.

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Fire Protection Requirements

Buildings shall be planned, designed and constructed to ensure fire

safety and this sha1l be done in accordance with part IV Fire
Protection of National Building Code of India, unless otherwise
specified in these Bye-Laws. In the case of buildings (identified in
Bye-Laws No. 7.1) the building schemes shall also be cleared by the
Chief Fire Officer.

First Aid /Fixed Fire Fighting /Fire Detection Systems and other
Facilities

Provision of fire safety arrangement for different occupancy from. SI

no. 1 to 23 as indicated below shall be as per Annexure 'A' 'B' & 'C'.
1. Access
2. Wet Riser
3. Down Comer
4. Hose Reel
5. Automatic Sprinkler System
6. Yard Hydrant
7. U.G. Tank with Draw off Connection
8. Terrace Tanks
9. Fire Pump

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 10. Terrace Pump
11. First Aid Fire Fighting Appliances
12. Auto Detection System
13. Manual operated Electrical Fire Alarm System
14. P.A System with talk back facility
15. Emergency Light
16. Auto D.G. Set
17. Illuminated Exit Sign
18. Means of Escape
19. Compartmentation
20. MCB /ELCB
21. Fire Man Switch in Lift
22. Hose Boxes with Delivery Hoses and Branch
23. Pipes Refuge Area

Note for Annexure ‘A’ ‘B’ & ‘C’

1 Where more than one riser is required because of large
floor area, the quantity of water and pump capacity
recommended in these Annexures should be finalized
in consultation with Chief Fire Officer.
2 The above quantities of water shall be exclusively for
fire fighting and shall not be utilized for domestic or
other use.
3 A facility to boost up water pressure in the riser
directly from the mobile pump shall be provided in the
wet riser, down comer system with suitable fire service

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 inlets (collecting head) with 2 to 4 numbers of 63 mm
inlets for 100- 200 mm dia main, with check valve and a
gate valve.
4. Internal diameter of rubber hose for reel shall be
minimum 20 mm. A shut off branch with nozzle of 5
mm. size shall be provided.
5 Fire pumps shall have positive suctions. The pump house
shall be adequately ventilated by using
normal/mechanical means. A clear space of 1.0 m. shall
be kept in between the pumps and enclosure for easy
movement /maintenance. Proper testing facilities and
control panel etc. shall be provided.
6 Unless otherwise specified in Bye-Laws, the fire
fighting equipments
/installation shall conform to relevant Indian Standard Specification.
7 In case of mixed occupancy, the fire fighting
arrangement shall be made as per the highest class of
occupancy.
8 Requirement of water based first aid fire extinguishers
shall be reduced to half if hose reel is provided in the
Building.

Static Water Storage Tank

o) A satisfactory supply of water exclusively for the

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 purpose of fire fighting shall always be available in the
form of underground static storage tank with capacity
specified in Annexure-A with arrangements of
replenishment by town's main or alternative source of
supply @ 1000 liters per minute. The static storage water
supply required for the above mentioned purpose should
entirely be accessible to the fire tenders of the local fire
service. Provision of suitable number of manholes shall
be made available for inspection repairs and insertion of
suction hose etc. The covering slab shall be able to
withstand the vehicular load of 45 tonnes in case of high
rise and 22 tonnes in case of low rise buildings. A draw
off connection shall be provided. The slab need not
strengthened if the static tank is not located in mandatory
set- back area.
p) To prevent stagnation of water in the static water tank
the suction tank of the domestic water supply shall be
fed only through an over flow arrangement to maintain
the level therein at the minimum specified capacity.
q) The static water storage tank shall be provided with a
fire brigade collecting branching with 4 Nos. 63mm dia
instantaneous male inlets arranged in a valve box with a
suitable fixed pipe not less than 15 cm dia to discharge
water into the tank. This arrangement is not required
where down comer is provided.

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Automatic Sprinklers

Automatic sprinkler system shall be installed in the following

buildings:
r) All buildings of 24 m. and above in height, except
group housing and 45 m. and above in case of apartment
/group housing society building.
s) Hotels below l5 m. in height and above 1000 sq m. built
up area at each floor and or if basement is existing.
t) All hotels, mercantile, and institutional buildings of 15 m.
and above.
u) Mercantile building having basement more than one
floor but below 15 m. (floor area not exceeding 750 sq
m.)
v) Underground Shopping Complex.
w) Underground car / scooter parking /enclosed car parking.
x) Basement area 200 sq m. and above.
y) Any special hazards where the Chief Fire Officer
considers it necessary.
z) For buildings up to 24 m. in height where automatic
sprinkler system is not mandatory as per these Bye-
Laws, if provided with sprinkler installation following
relaxation may be considered.
i) Automatic heat/smoke detection system and
M.C.P. need not be insisted upon.
ii) The number of Fire Extinguisher required shall be
reduced by half.

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Fixed Carbon Di-Oxide / Foam /System

Fixed extinguishing installations shall be provided as per the

relevant specifications in the premises where use of above
extinguishing media is considered necessary by the Chief Fire
Officer.

Fire Alarm System

All buildings of 15 m. and above in height shall be equipped with

fire alarm system, and also residential buildings (Dwelling House,
Boarding House and Hostels) above 24 m. height.
aa) All residential buildings like dwelling houses (including
flats) boarding houses and hostels shall be equipped
with manually operated electrical fire alarm system with
one or more call boxes located at each floor. The
location of the call boxes shall be decided after taking
into consideration their floor without having to travel
more than 22.5 m.
bb) The call boxes shall be of the break glass type without
any moving parts, where the call is transmitted
automatically to the control room without any other
action on the part of the person operating the call boxes.
cc) All call boxes shall be wired in a closed circuit to a

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 control panel in a control room, located as per Bye-Laws
so that the floor number from where the call box is
actuated is clearly indicated on the control panel. The
circuit shall also include one or more batteries with a
capacity of 48 hours normal working at full load. The
battery shall be arranged to be a continuously trickle
charged from the electric mains.
dd) The call boxes shall be arranged to sound one or
more sounders so as to ensure that all occupants of the
floor shall be warned whenever any call box is actuated.
ee) The call boxes shall be so installed that they do not
obstruct the exit ways and yet their location can easily be
noticed from either direction. The base of the call box
shall be at a height of 1.5 m. from the floor level.
ff) All buildings other than as indicated above shall, in
addition to the manually operated electrical fire alarm
system, be equipped with an automatic fire alarm system.
gg) Automatic detection system shall be installed in
accordance with the relevant standard specifications. In
buildings where automatic sprinkler system is provided,
the automatic detection system may not be insisted upon
unless decided otherwise by the Chief Fire Officer.

Material Used For Construction Of Building

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hh) The combustible/flammable material shall not be used
for partitioning, wall paneling, false ceiling etc. Any
material giving out toxic gases/smoke if involved in the
fire shall not be used for partitioning of a floor or wall
paneling or a false ceiling etc. The surface frames spread
of the lining material shall conform to class-I of the
standard specification. The framework of the entire false
ceiling would be provided with metallic sections and no
wooden framework shall be allowed for paneling/false
ceiling.
ii) Construction features/elements of structures shall
conform to National Building Code and BIS code
Automatic Fire Sprinklers

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 An automatic sprinkler system for a large building can have a
significant cost, but repairing the damage of an uncontrolled fire is
much more expensive.
 Also, occupants may suffer disabling injuries or even lose their lives
during a major fire.

There are special cases where discharging water is hazardous, and

other fire-extinguishing substances are used instead (BC 904). Some
examples are foam, carbon dioxide and halon.
Standpipes

Dry standpipes are normally filled with pressurized air, and water
enters the system when needed; on the other hand, wet standpipes are

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permanently filled with water. Automatic systems establish the
required flow by themselves, while manual systems rely on an FDNY
pumper truck. Semi-automatic systems need a remote signal to
activate, but can establish the required flow by themselves once this
happens.
Fire Alarm Systems

A fire alarm system monitors the building for the presence of fire,
producing audible and visual signals if fire is detected. A control unit
receives inputs from all fire detection devices, automatic or manual,
activating the corresponding notification systems. In addition, fire
alarms can be used to initiate the adequate response measures when
fire is detected.

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It is important to note that fire alarm requirements change
significantly depending on the occupancy classification of the
building. Following the right set of requirements is the first step for a
fire alarm design that meets code.
Fire alarms must not be confused with emergency alarms (BC 908),
which are used to signal dangerous conditions that involve hazardous
materials.
Smoke Control Systems

Humans avoid fire by instinct, but the hazards associated with smoke
are not common knowledge. In addition to limiting visibility, smoke
can cause poisoning if large enough amounts are inhaled. Therefore,
a fire protection system must also handle smoke effectively,
preventing its accumulation and removing it from the building.

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 Note that smoke movement is driven by pressure and temperature:
you will not see smoke flowing from a lower-pressure area to a
higher-pressure area, and it tends to rise along with hot air.
Smoke control systems can be mechanical or passive, and they
complement each other:

 Mechanical systems use fans to control smoke movement.

 Passive systems use smoke barriers to limit its movement, consuming
no power.

Fire Command Centre

A fire command center is required by code in many occupancies,

including high-rise buildings. The fire command center is a
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 centralized location that displays the status of various fire protection
systems - detection devices, alarms, communication systems, etc. The
command center also provides manual controls for many of these
systems.
Fire Department Connections

As implied by their name, fire department connections are used by the

FDNY for hoses and pumping equipment.

 They must be located where they don’t obstruct firefighting

operations, while providing optimal coverage.
 The code requires at least one connection for every 300 feet of
exterior wall length.
 Exceptions and special cases are also covered by the code.

Fire Pumps

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Note that fire pumps are normally powered by electricity. NYC codes
provide a list of requirements for the backup power systems for fire
pumps, ensuring their operation even if the electric service is
interrupted.
Fire pumps are expensive, but they are not mandatory for all fire
protection systems. With smart design decisions, it may be possible to
avoid their use completely while still having a reliable and code-
compliant system.

Post-Fire Smoke Purge

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As previously stated, smoke hinders visibility and is extremely
dangerous when inhaled. Clearing the smoke in a building is
important to resume operation as soon as possible once a fire is
extinguished. This is precisely what post-fire smoke purge systems do
- eliminating smoke quickly after a fire

Auxiliary Radio Communication System (ARCS)

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An ARCS is mandatory in all new commercial constructions
exceeding 75 feet, and new residential constructions exceeding 125
feet. It must provide optimal building coverage, providing a reliable
communication system for firefighters anywhere inside the building.

6. ACOUSTIC

When the sound intensity is more, then it gives the great trouble or
nuisance to the particular area like auditorium, cinema hall, studio,
recreation centre, entertainment hall, college reading hall. Hence, it is
very important to make that area or room to be sound proof by using a
suitable material called as ‘Acoustic material’. It is measured in
decibels (db.).

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Acoustic material play a vital role in the various area of building
construction. In studio, classroom, reading hall, cinema theatre, more
concentration is required to listen, hence the acoustics treatment is
provided to control the outside as well as inside sound of the various
building until such that sound will be audible without any nuisance or
disturbance.

Types of Acoustic Material

 Acoustic plaster.
 Acoustic tiles.
 Perforated plywood.
 Fibrous plaster.
 Stew board.
 Pulp board.
 Compressed fibreboard.
 Hair felt.
 Corkboard slabs.
 Foam glass.
 Asbestos cement boards.
 Thermocoal.
 Foam plastic.
 Chip boards.
 Gasket cork sheet.
 Hair felt.
 Acoustic foam.

Properties of Acoustic Material

 Sound energy is captured and adsorbed.

 It has a low reflection and high absorption of sound.
 Higher density improves the sound absorption efficiency at
lower frequencies.
 Higher density material help to maintain a low flammability
performance. Hence, acoustic material should have higher
density.
 It controls the sound and noise levels from machinery and other
sources for environmental amelioration and regulatory
compliance.
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  Acoustic material reduces the energy of sound waves as they
pass through.
 It suppresses echoes, reverberation, resonance and reflection.

Uses of Acoustic Material

 Acoustic materials can be used for noise reduction and noise

absorption.
 It makes the sound more audible, which is clear to listen without
any disturbances.
 It suppresses echoes, reverberation, reflection and resonance.
 Important specifications for noise reduction and noise
absorption products include noise attenuation and noise
reduction coefficient.
 A vinyl acoustic barrier blocks controls airborne noise (street
traffic, voices, music) from passing through a wall ceiling or
floor.
 Acoustic foam and acoustic ceiling tiles absorb sound to
minimize echo and reverberation within a room.
 Soundproof doors and windows are designed to reduce the
transmission of sound.
 Building techniques such as double wall construction or cavity
wall construction and staggering wall studs can improve the
soundproofing of a room.
 A soundproof wall (treated by a accurate material) can
incorporate sound proofing and acoustic materials to meet
desired sound transmission class (STC) values.

Acoustic Materials Available in Market

1. Basotect

Basotect is a lightweight open cell foam, which is made from

melamine resin. It is flexible, easy to handle. It is easy to cut and
install. It is available in sheet form and also available in pre-cut or
profiled to size and shape. The natural colour of the foam is light
grey, although it is also available in a range of functional or
decorative facings and fabrics that can he sprayed with flexible
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 PVC coating. It is designed for use in thermal and acoustic
insulation applications.

Properties of Basotect

 It is flame resistant.
 It has high sound absorption.
 It is heat resistant.
 It has light weight.
 It has good thermal insulation.

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Applications of Basotect

 It is used in building services like arid ceiling panels for office

and conference suit etc.
 It is extensively used in recording studios for the work of wall
panels, ceiling tiles and anechoic wedges.
 It is used in engine room and accommodation areas of marine
ship.
 It is used in automotive for car trim engine and under bonnet
panels.
 It has industrial applications and used as enclosure linings and
suspended absorbers.

2. Sound Fibre Rock

Sound fibre rock is made from non-combustible rock fibre. It is

available in four different thickness. It is supplied in slabs of size
1000 x 600 mm. The slabs can also be supplied as part of an acoustic
composite product with lead or polymeric barriers.

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Properties of sound fibre-rock

 It is resistance to high temperature.

 It has excellent sound and thermal qualities.
 It is simple to cut and install.

Applications of sound fibre- rock

 Since it has excellent sound and thermal qualities, making it an

ideal choice for cavity wall, floor and ceiling insulation.
 Sound fibre rock slabs are particularly suitable for acoustic infill
in partitions and ceilings, provided a high level of control of
both airborne and structure born sound.
 It is also suitable for acoustic absorption in the linings of
buildings, with the 600 N /m³ slabs being particularly good in
sound studios.
 The 450 N/m³ slabs can also be used to firestop small voids, in
particular the gap under pitched roof in dwellings.

3. Damping Mat

Damping mats are light in weight and PVA-based, visco-elastic

polymer. It is designed for use in acoustic applications where a high
level of vibration damping is required. These type of material come
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with a self-adhesive backing. It is available in standard sheet sizes of
1600 x 1000 mm or die- cut to shape.

Applications of DMP2 damping mats

 It is extensively used to reduce vibration in sheet metal and

other resonant surfaces such as vehicle body parts, machine
panels, steel sinks and table etc.
 DMP2 damping mats are particularly suitable for clean- room
environments.

4. Damping mats (DM3, DM5, DM5A, DM 10)

Damping mats are manufactured from bitume with added mineral

fillers and synthetic rubber forming a highly visco-elastic product. It
is available in four standard grades. Damping mats come with self-
adhesive backing.

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Applications of damping mats :

 Barrier mats are used to reduce vibration in sheet, metal and

other resonant surfaces such as vehicle body parts, machine
panels, steel sinks and table etc.
 It improves the sound insulation by adding mass to the structure.

5. Sound Fibre-Poly

It is manufactured from non-irritating water repellent polyester fibres.

It is designed for use in acoustic and thermal insulation applications.
It can be supplied in sheet form in packs 10 or cut to a specific size
and shape. It can also be supplied in fabric wrapped form for
architectural applications or with other performances enchanting
facings.

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Properties of Sound fibre-poly

 It is rot proof, odourless, non-hygroscopic , will not sustain

vermin.
 It will not encourage the growth of fungi or bacteria.
 It is dimensionally stable under varying conditions of
temperature and humidity.
 For long term protection, it should be stored in a dry well
ventilated area.

Applications of sound fibre-poly

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  Sound fibre-poly sheets are particularly suitable for architectural
building applications such as wall or ceiling panels.
 It is also used in low temperature heating and ventilation
equipment.

6. Insulation blankets

There are two types of insulation blankets with a name of SCL and
SCP. There are noise insulation quilted blankets. SCL and SCP can be
supplied in standard sheet size of 2000 x 1200 mm or can be supplied
as individually tailored parts to suit for particular application.
Blankets can be stitched and edge bound and can also be supplied
with eyelets or velcro for fixing. SCl and SCP are also available with
other higher performance facings.SCL is manufactured from two
layers of quilted glass fibre and a lead core with hardwearing PVC
coated glass cloth material on outside. SCP is manufactured from two
layer of quilted glass fibre and a polymer barrier core with
hardwearing PVC coated glass cloth material on the outside. These
are high performance blankets offer a cost effective alternative to
SCL.

Properties of Insulation Blankets

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  They are extremely flexible with a high degree of durability.
 They are fire resistant and also resistant to most common fluids,
mineral oil and petroleum.

Application of Insulation Blankets

SCL are high performance insulation blanket which are designed for
under bonnet vehicle installations, plant equipment, agricultural
vehicles and industrial pumps.

7. Barrier Mats

It consist of thermoplastic polymer with phthalate esters and mineral

fillers, making it an extremely durable and flexible product. It is
available plain, self-adhesive backed or with a reinforced class ‘0’ foil
facing. It is available in thickness of 2.5 mm and 4.5 mm.

Properties of Barrier mats

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  It is black in colour.
 Its density varies from 50 N/m² to 100 N/m².
 Its hardness is 90°.
 It is resistant to fire.
 Its operating temperature is 90°C for extended period and 120°C
for short period.

Application of Barrier mats

Barrier mats are designed to add mass and reduce noise transmission
on various products, including mechanical and electrical equipment,
automotive components and extensively within the building industry
on walls, floors and ceilings etc.

8. Sound lag

Sound lag L and P are the two types of noise insulation blankets.
Sound lag L is manufactured from two layers of glass fibre with a
lead core and a reinforced class `0′ foil, vapour barrier outer
coverings. The inner layer of glass fibre is quilted with a scrim
backing to prevent fibre breakout. Sound lag P is a cost effective,
flexible polymeric barrier mat, faced with class ‘0’ foil vapour barrier
and non-irritant polyester fibre inner layer.

Applications of sound lag

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  It is designed to control noise breakout from ducting and pipe
work by extremely wrapping to contain the noise within the
duct.
 It enjoy a decoupled mass technique i.e. heavy barrier layer
isolated from the duct or pipe surface by a resilient layer of
insulation acting like spring.
 Sound Lag L is used in applications requiring a high level of
thermal insulation and improved sound absorption.
 It has a good acoustic performance.

9. Sound foam, S

It is a flexible open cell polyurethane foam, offering excellent sound

absorbing qualities over a wide range of frequencies. It is available
plain or self-adhesive backed. It is easy to handle and to cut and
install. It can be available in sheet form from 6 mm to 100 mm thick,
or it can also be available die – cut to size and shape. It can also be
available as part of acoustic composite product with lead polymeric
barriers or damping sheets.

Applications of sound foam S

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  It is a self-extinguishing acoustic foam.
 It is used extensively in the motor industry for vehicle and
compressors, generators, enclosures.

10. Sound foam, 0

It is flexible open cell polyurethane foam, offering excellent sound

absorbing qualities over a wide range frequencies. It is available plain
or self- adhesive backed. It is easy to handle and to cut and install. It
is a black non- flammable acoustic foam. It is impregnated with fire
retardant chemicals, which enables the material to achieve class ‘0’
fire rating as defined by the building regulations.

Application of sound foam 0

 It is extensively used in air conditioning and air handling

system, ducting and also compressors, generators, enclosures
and other applications.
Most common application areas of Acoustic Material
 Home theatre acoustics.

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  Wall soundproofing.
 Ceiling soundproofing.
 Studio Acoustics.
 Floor and football sound proofing.
 Office and conference room acoustics.
 Industrial acoustics.
 Pipe soundproofing.
 Church and place of worship acoustics.
 Restaurant and lounge acoustics.

7. PLASTERING

Types of plastering:-

There are different types of plasters are available such as:

1. Lime plaster
2. Cement plaster
3. Mud plaster
4. Stucco plaster

1. Lime plaster:-

 When lime is used as a binding material, it is called lime plaster.

 Lime plaster is a type of plaster composed of hydrated lime, sand
and water.
 Lime plaster is similar to lime mortar, the main difference is based
on use rather than composition.
 Mortar for lime plaster is usually prepared by mixing sand and
lime in equal proportions, to improve the strength small quantity of
cement is added to it.

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 Lime plaster

2. Cement plaster:-
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 When cement is used as a binding material it is called cement
plaster.
 It is specially suited for damp condition.
 Cement plaster is usually applied in one coat.
 Thickness of coat can be 12 – 15mm or 20mm depending upon site
conditions and type of building.
 6mm thickness of plastering of 1:3 or 1:4 Ratio is recommended
for cement plastering of RCC surfaces.

Cement plaster

3. Mud plaster:-

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 The surface to be prepared exactly in the same manner as that of
for lime plaster or cement plaster.
 Mud plaster is generally applied in two coats, the first coat being
18mm thick while the thickness of second coat kept 6mm.

Mud plaster

4. Stucco plaster:-

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 Stucco is the name given to decorative type of plaster which gives
an excellent finish.
 Stucco plaster can be used for interior as well as exterior surfaces.
 It is usually laid in three coats making the total thickness of plaster
about 25mm. The first coat is called scratch coat, the second coatis
called fine coat, it is also known as brown coat and the third coat is
called white coat or finishing coat.

Stucco plaster
8. FINISHING

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Types of finishing:-

1. Smooth cast
2. Pebble dash
3. Rough cast
4. Texture finish
5. Scrapped finish

1 . S mo o t h c a s t : -

 It is a finish which presents levelled and smooth surface.

 The mortar for finish is made by mixing of cement and fine sand in
the ratio of 1:3.

Smooth cast of wall

2. Pebble dash:-

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 It is a finish in which the small pebbles or crushed stones of
suitable size are throne on to a freshly applied finish coat of plaster
and left exposed.
 The mortar finish is made by cement and coarse aggregate of 1:3
ratio.

Pebbledash on wall

3. Rough cast:-

 It is a finish in which the mortar for the final coat contains a

proportion of fairly big size coarse aggregates.
 The mortar for finishing is made by mixing cement, fine sand and
coarse aggregate in the ratio of 1: 1/2:3

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 Rough cast of wall

4. Textured finish:-

 In this finish ornamental patterns or textured surface are produced

by working with various tools in the freshly applied final coat.

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 Textured wall finish

What is Plaster Finishes?

Having your walls up is not the end of the building construction
process. If you want to decorate your walls or cover their uneven
surfaces, your contractors can finish your building with plaster.
Plastering is the process wherein the coarse surfaces of your walls or
ceilings are covered to achieve a smooth and aesthetic finish.

There are several types of plaster finish, and in this article, we will tell
you how to achieve five different styles. Every finish gives your wall
a different appearance, and it’s up to you to choose which one to use
in your project.

Types of Plaster Finishes

After the application of plaster, finishing applied on the final coat of
plaster following are some of the finishes.

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 Smooth Coat Finish.
 Sand Face Finish.
 Rough Cast Finish or Spatter Dash Finish.
 Peddle Dash or Day Dash Finish.
 Depeter Finish.
 Scrapped Finish.
 Textured Finish.
 Special Material Used in Plastering for Finishing Coat.
 Acoustic Plaster.
 Asbestos marble Plaster.
 Barium Plaster.
 Granite Silicone Plaster.
 Plaster of Paris of Gypsum Plaster.
 Keene’s Cement Plaster.

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1. Smooth Coat Finish

In this type of finish, the finishing coat is a smooth and levelled

surface. The mortar used is made of cement and fine sand 1:3.
Mortar is applied with the help of wooden float.

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2. Sand Faced Finish

Sand faced finish is applied in two coats. The first coat is applied in
1:4 cement sand mortar of 12 mm thickness.

It is provided wish zig-zing lines. After curing it for seven days, the
second coat is applied in the thickness of 8 mm.

The mortar for a second coat is prepared from the cement sand mix
ratio 1:1. The sand of uniform size is used. A sponge is used in a
second coat when it is wet.

The surface of the final coat is finished by rubbing clean and washed
sand of uniform size by means of wooden float. This results in the
surface having sand grains of equal and uniform density.

3. Rough Cast Finish or Spatter Dash Finish

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1:1:3 = Cement: Sand: Aggregate are used to prepare mortar for this
type of finish. The coarse aggregate may vary from 3 mm to 12 mm in
size.

The mortar is thrown on the prepared plaster surface then by means of

a large trowel. The surface is then roughly finished using a wooden
float.

This finish is water-proof, durable, and resistant to cracking and

crazing. It is used for external rendering.

#4. Peddle Dash or Day Dash Finish-

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In this finish, clean pebbles of size from 10 to 20 mm size are dashed
against the final coat of plaster.

The pebbles may be lightly pressed into the mortar with the help of
wooden float. The final coat of plaster is having Cement: sand mix
proportion of 1:3 and thickens 12 mm.

5. Depeter Finish

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In this type of final finish coat of plaster is applied to have thickness
12 mm, and when it is a wet condition, the pieces of gravel flint are
pressed with hand on the surface.

Flints of different colours may be used to obtain beautiful patterns.

6. Scrapped Finish

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The final coat of plaster of 6 to 12 mm applied. Then it is allowed to
be stiffened for a few hours. The surface is scrapped in a pattern for a
depth 3 mm.

Steel straight edge old saw blades or such other tools may be used for
scrap. Such a scrapped surface is less liable to cracks.

7. Textured Finish

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This is used with sketch plastering ornamental patterns or textured
surface are made on the final coat of stucco plastering by working
with suitable tools.

8. Special Material Used in Plastering for Finishing Coat

To meet with some specific requirements of finished surfaces such as
durability better appearance, fireproofing, heat insulation, etc. special
materials are added in mortar.

The following are the special materials to be used.

 Acoustic Plaster.
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  Asbestos marble Plaster.
 Barium Plaster.
 Granite Silicone Plaster.
 Plaster of Paris of Gypsum Plaster.
 Keene’s Cement Plaster.
8.1. Acoustic Plaster

The materials like gypsum mixtures are added in mortar for finishing
coat such a coat undergoes a chemical reaction and produces gas
bubbles and due to the bubbles tiny openings are formed in the coat
and it appears like a honeycomb.

These honeycomb minute openings absorb sound. Such plaster is

useful in interior walls of halls auditorium etc.

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8.2. Asbestos Marble Plaster

For a better appearance of finishing coat, mortar is made of cement

asbestos and finely crushed marble and applied as finishing coat.

8.3. Barium Plaster

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To protect persons working in X-ray rooms from radioactivity,
finishing coat is applied with mortar made of cement, sand, and
barium soleplate.

8.4. Granite Silicon Plaster

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Granite and silicon are mixed with mortar. This finish is used for a
superior type of construction. It is a quick setting and elastic in nature.
This eliminates cracks.

8.5. Plaster of Paris of Gypsum Plaster

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Ground gypsum is heated at 160o to 170o C to obtain plaster of parish.
Plaster of Paris hardens with 3 to 4 minutes of adding water.

Suitable retarders are added to increase setting time. Plater of a parish

is generally used in combination with lime for ornamental work and
reporting carks.

Gypsum plaster has fire resistance, light weight. It does not shrink
while setting. It has a sound-insulating properly. It is very useful for
ornamental work.

However, gypsum plaster is soluble in water.

8.6. Keene’s Cement Plaster

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Kenees’s cement is obtained by calcination of plaster of Paris with
alum. This is very hard and sets in a few days taking a white glass-
like polish. It is useful for decorative work.

9. POINTING

Pointing is the finishing of mortar joints in brick or stone masonry

construction. Pointing is the implementing of joints to a depth of 10
mm to 20 mm and filling it with better quality mortar in desired
shape. It is done for cement mortar and lime mortar joints.
In exposed masonry, joints are considered to be the weakest and most
vulnerable spots from which rainwater or dampness can enter.

Mortar for Pointing Work

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 1. Lime mortar of 1:2 ( 1 fat lime : 2 sand or surkhi)
2. Cement mortar of 1:3 ( 1 cement : 3 sand)
Preparation of Surface for Pointing
All the joints in masonry are raked down to a depth of 20mm while
the mortar is still soft. The joints and surface are cleaned and then
thoroughly wetted.

Methods of Pointing
After preparing the surface as mentioned above, mortar is carefully
placed in joints using a small trowel. The placed mortar should be of
desired shape. Whenever the fresh mortar is placed in the joints it
should be pressed hardly to gain strong bond with old interior mortar.

Care should be taken while using ashlar or 1st class brick work
otherwise the mortar does not cover the face edges. The pointed
surface is kept wet for at least a week or till it sets after application.

Types of Pointing

1. Flush Pointing
In this type, mortar is pressed hard in the raked joints and by finishing
off flush with the edge of masonry units. The edges are neatly
trimmed with trowel and straight edge. It does not give good
appearance. But, flush pointing is more durable because of resisting
the provision of space for dust, water etc., due to this reason, this
method is extensively used.

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2. Recessed Pointing
In this case, mortar is pressing back by 5mm or more from the edges.
During placing of mortar the face of the pointing is kept vertical, by a
suitable tool. This type gives very good appearance.

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3. Beaded Pointing
It is formed by a steel or ironed with a concave edge. It gives good
appearance, but it will damage easily when compared to other types.

4. Struck Pointing
This is a modification of flush pointing in which the face the pointing
is kept inclined, with its upper edge pressed inside the face by 10mm
which drains water easily.

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5. Rubbed, Keyed or Grooved Pointing
This is also a modification of flush pointing in which groove is
formed at its mid height, by a pointing tool. It gives good appearance.

6. Tuck Pointing
In this case mortar is pressed in the raked joint first and finishing
flush with the face.

While the pressed mortar is green, groove or narrow channel is cut in

the center of groove which is having 5mm width and 3mm depth. This
groove is then filled with white cement putty, kept projecting beyond
the face of the joint by 3 mm. if projection is done in mortar, it is
called bastard pointing or half tuck pointing.

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7. V- Pointing
This is formed by forming V-groove in the flush-finishing face.

8. Weathered Pointing
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This is made by making a projection in the form of V-shape.

10. DISTEMPERING, COLOUR WASHING &

PAINTING

Distempering

The main object of applying distemper to the plastered surfaces is to

create a smooth surface. The distempers are available in the market
under different trade names. They are cheaper than paints and
varnishes and they a present a neat appearance. They are available in
a variety of colours.

Properties of distempers: Following are the properties of distempers:

(1) On drying, the film of distemper shrinks. Hence, it leads to

cracking and flaking, if the surface to receive distemper is weak.

(2) The coatings of distemper are usually thick and they are more
brittle than other types of water paints.

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(3) The film developed by distemper is porous in character and it
allows water vapour to pass through it. Hence, it permits new walls to
dry out without damaging the distemper film.

(4) They are generally light I colour and they provide a good
reflective coating.

(5) They are less durable than oil paints.

(6) They are treated as water paints and they are easy to apply.

(7) They can be applied on brickwork, cement plastered surface, lime

plastered surface, insulating boards, etc.

(8) They exhibit poor workability.

(9) They prove to be unsatisfactory n damp locations such as kitchen,

bathroom, etc.

Ingredients of a distemper: A distemper is composed of base, carrier,

colouring pigments and size. For base, the whiting or chalk is used
and for carrier, the water is used. Thus, it is more or less a paint in
which whiting or chalk is used as base instead of whit lead and the
water is used as carrier instead of linseed oil.

The distempers are available I powder form or paste form. They are to
be mixed with hot water before use. The oil-bound distempers are a
variety of an oil paint in which the drying oil is so treated that it mixes
with water. The emulsifying agent, which is commonly used, is glue
or casein. As the water dries, the oil makes a hard surface, which is
washable.

It should be remembered that most of the manufacturers of ready-

made distempers supply completely directions for use of their
products. These directions are to be strictly followed to achieve good
results.

Process of distempering: The application of distemper is carried out in

the following way:

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(1) Preparation of surface: The surface to receive the distemper is
thoroughly rubbed and cleaned.

Whitewashing:

The fresh lime is slaked at site of work and mixed thoroughly with
sufficient quantity of water in a tub. It is then screened through a
clean cloth. The clan gum dissolved in hot water is then added at the
rate of 20 N per m3 of lime. The rice may be used in place of gum.

The surface to be whitewashed should be cleaned before the work is

started. For whitewashing walls which are whitewashed before, the
old loose whitewash is to be first removed and repairing to the plaster
is carried out, if necessary.

The lime is toxic for germs. It reflects light and thus it increases the
brightness of the surface. The whitewashing therefore is extensively
used for interior wall surfaces and ceilings of houses.

The pr0ocess of whitewashing is sometimes used for exterior wall

surfaces also. A satisfactory work gives an opaque smooth surface
with uniform white colour and does not readily come off on the hand,
when rubbed.

Colourwahsing:

This is prepared by adding the colouring pigment to the screened

whitewash. It should be seen that the colouring pigment is not
affected by the presence of lime. Ordinarily, the yellow earth is
popular of colourwahsing. Generally, the walls are colourwashed and
ceilings are whitewashed. The mixture is to be kept constantly stirred
during use.

The colourwash is applied in the same fashion as the whitewash. A

satisfactory work does not give out powder when the finished surface
is rubbed with the fingers.

The process of colourwashing imparts cleanliness and pleasant

appearance of the surfaces which are treated.

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 11. BUILDING MAINTENANCE

Building maintenance is work undertaken to keep, restore or improve

every part of a building, its services to a currently acceptable standard
and to sustain the utility and value of the facility.
The objectives of building maintenance works are:

(i) To preserve machinery, building and services, in good operating

condition.
(ii) To restore it back to its original standards, and
(iii) To improve the facilities depending upon the development that is
taking place in the building engineering. All the buildings deteriorate
from the time they are completed. The rate of deterioration depends
on a number of factors. Not all the factors can be controlled by the
occupants of the building.

During the design and construction stages, the following points

shall be kept in mind:

(i) Right choice of building materials.

(ii) Selection of suitable construction techniques.
(iii) Adequate specifications for construction and installation work.
(iv) Effective supervision throughout construction and rectification
of defects prior to final certification.
(v) Provision of adequate space for landscaping with proper design.
Depending upon the nature of the work, immediately after the date
of completion, building shall be maintained for initial period of 3 to
6 months as there can be teething troubles in any new construction.
If these are taken care of, the maintenance pressure will be reduced.
When there is any inherent defects both in design and construction
the maintenance cost rises disproportionately to a higher level and
the anticipated life of building is reduced. Maintenance of building
aims at effective and economic method of keeping the building and

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services fully utilizable. It involves numerous skills as influenced by
occupancy and the performance level expected of a building.
Planning of works to be carried out to keep the building in a good
condition calls for high skills. Feedback from maintenance should
also be a continuous process to improve upon the design and
construction stages.

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