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3.1 Introduction
The energy stored within a material when work has been done is called the strain energy. Energy
is normally defined as the capacity to do work and it may exist in many forms such as mechanical,
thermal, nuclear, electrical, etc. The potential energy of a body is the form of energy which
is stored by virtue of the work which has previously been done on that body. Strain energy
is a particular form of potential energy (PE) which is stored within materials which has been
subjected to strain, i.e. to some change in dimension.
Definition 3.1.1 Strain energy is defined as the energy which is stored within a material
when work has been done on the material.
When an axial force P is applied gradually to an elastic body that is rigidly fixed (no
displacement, rotation permitted), the force does work as the body deforms. We can see this
clearly in Fig. 3.1
L δ
P
B
Area=U
C
O δ
where the same U is actually the energy (strain) stored in an elastic body. The unshaded area
above the line ’OB’ is called the complimentary energy, a quantity which is utilised in some
advanced energy methods of solution, [dro]. [dro]
∂U
δi = (3.6)
∂ Pi
where δi is the displacement associated with load Pi and U is the strain energy of the body.
Theorem 3.3.2 — Castigliano’s First Theorem. If the total strain energy expressed in terms
of the external loads is partially differentiated with respect to one of the loads the result is the
deflection of the point of application of that load and in the direction of that load. Deflection
in direction of Pi will be
∂U
δPi = (3.7)
∂ Pi
Theorem 3.3.3 — Castigliano’s theorem for angular movements. If the total strain energy
expressed in terms of the external moments be partially differentiated with respect to one of
the moments, the result is the angular deflection in radians of the point of application of that
moment and in its direction
M ∂M
Z
θ= dA (3.9)
A EI ∂ Mi
3.4 Structures
Displacement in the direction of the applied load is found using the following equation:
n
Fi Li ∂ Fi
δ=∑ (3.10)
i=1 Ai Ei ∂ P
Statically Indeterminate/determinate
Pin jointed structures can either be statically determinate or indeterminate. The challenge is
when the structure is indeterminate. The following steps should be followed when approaching a
pin jointed structure:
• Count the number of joints, members and reactions. m + r − 2 j = 1. If 2 j < m + r, the
structure is indeterminate. There is one redundant member on the structure.
• The number of redundant members is equal to the degree of indeterminacy of the structure.
Release the redundant members to render the structure statically determinate.
• Calculate the forces in the statically determinate structure, subjected to any external loads
plus the redundant reaction forces, using methods of joints of sections.
• Use Castigliano’s method to calculate the required deflections and also slopes.
dx x
∂ Mxx
Mxx = Px; =x
∂P
Z L
1 ∂ Mxx
δBP = Mxx dx
EI 0 ∂P
1 L
Z
δBP = Px · xdx
EI 0
L
Px3 PL3
δBP = =
3EI 0 3EI
P
a b
C B
A
Pb x dx dz z Pa
L L
L
Pb ∂ MAC bx
MAC = x; =
L ∂P L
Pa ∂ MCB az
MCB = z; =
L ∂P L
3.7 Examples 29
PL3
δ=
48EI
3.7 Examples
Example 3.1 Calculate the vertical displacement at point B on the pin-jointed structure shown
in Fig. #. The cross-sectional area of both members is 2000mm2 and E = 200GPa
Solution 3.1 We start by determining what the length of AB and BC is, i.e. LAB = 2m and
LBC = 2m. The only joint that we will deal with is Joint ’B’.
∂F ∂F FL ∂ F FL ∂ F
Member Length (m) Load ∂Q ∂R AE ∂ Q AE ∂ R
Example 3.2 A Plate 5mm thick and 30mm wide is bent into the shape shown below.
30 Energy Methods
∂ Mzz
Mzz = Fr sin θ ; = r sin θ
∂P
3π
1
Z
2
δ= (Fr sin θ )(r sin θ )rdθ
EI 0
3π
Fr3
θ sin 2θ 2
δ= −
EI 2 4
0
3πFr3 (200)(0.2)3 (3π)
δ= = = 60.3mm
4EI 4 × 62.5
Example 3.3 The structure shown below is made from a pipe with inner and outer diameters
of 80mm and 100mm respectively. Calculate the resultant deflection at A due to bending.
E = 200GPa.
Solution 3.3 #
Example 3.4 Determine the vertical deflection of point A on the bent cantilever as shown
below, Fig. 3.5, when loaded at A with a vertical load of 25N. The cantilever is built-in at B and
EI is constant throughout and is equal to 450Nm2 . What would be the horizontal deflection at
point A?
B
r=
12
5m
m
200mm
P = 25N
Solution 3.4 We now look at Fig. 3.6 and we let R become a dummy load.
∂ Mxx
Mxx = Px , = xXX
∂P
∂ Mzz ∂ Mzz
Mzz = (0.2 + r sin θ )P + Rr(1 − cos θ ), = (0.2 + r sin θ ), = r(1 − cos θ )XX
∂P ∂R
3.7 Examples 31
r=
12
5m
m
r cos θ
X
x
A
R = 0N
X
r sin θ 200mm
P = 25N
1 π
Z
δR = (0.2 + r sin θ )Pr(1 − cos θ )rdθ
EI 0
Pr2 π
Z
δR = (0.2 − 0.2 cos θ + r sin θ − r sin θ cos θ )dθ X
EI 0
π
Pr2 r cos2 θ
δR = 0.2θ − 0.2 sin θ − r cos θ +
EI 2 0
Pr 2 r
δR = 0.2π − r(−2) + (0)
EI 2
0.3431
δR = XX
EI
Example 3.5 The steel truss (Fig. 3.7) supports the load P = 30kN. Determine the horizontal
and vertical displacements of joint E. Use E = 200GPa. The cross-sectional area for all members
is 500mm2 .
Solution 3.5 Referring to Fig. 3.8 We are given A = 500mm2 , P = 30kN and E = 200GPa. We
will use a JOINT method starting with Joint E, D and C. Let us introduce a dummy load R at
point E.
Joint E
32 Energy Methods
2m P
B D E
• • •
2m
A
• •
C
2m
2m P
B D E
• • • R(Dummy)
2m
A
• •
C
2m
ΣFv = 0 = P + 0.707FEC
∴ FEC = −1.414PXX
∂ FEC
= −1.414
∂P
ΣFH = FED + 0.707FEC − R
∴ FED = P + RXX
∂ FED ∂ FED
=1 =1
∂P ∂R
3.7 Examples 33
Joint D
ΣFV = 0 = FDC XX
ΣFH = FDE − FDB + R
∴ FDB = P + RXX
∂ FDB ∂ FDB
=1 =1
∂P ∂R
Joint C
∂F ∂F FL ∂ F FL ∂ F
Member L(mm) Load ∂P ∂R AE ∂ P AE ∂ R
AC 2000 2P 2 0 1.2 0
BC 2828 1.414P 1.414 0 1.696 0
BD 2000 P+R 1 1 0.6 0.6
CD 2000 0 0 0 0 0
DE 2000 P+R 1 1 0.6 0.6
CE 2828 -1.414P -1.414 0 -1.696 0
δP = 2.4mm δR = 1.2mm
Example 3.6 For the simply supported beam (Fig. 3.9) loaded with a uniformly distributed
load, determine the maximum deflection in the middle of the beam. Let the udl be q N/m.
Solution 3.6 We can solve this problem by concentrating on half the length of the beam. Since
we need to calculate the maximum deflection which occurs in the middle, we need to place a
dummy load at the middle of the beam. We then need to cut the beam at distance x from the left
hand support and take moments about X − X section as follows:
qL P
RA = + = RB
2 2
qx2 qLx Px qx2
Mxx = RA x − = + −
2 2 2 2
∂ Mxx x
=
∂P 2
Since deflection is determined using the following
1 ∂M
Z
δP = M dA (3.11)
EI A ∂P
34 Energy Methods
q N/m
A B
L/2
3.8 Exercises
Exercise 3.1 Calculate the vertical displacement as well as the horizontal displacement at
point B on the pin jointed structure shown in the figure below. The cross-sectional area of
both members is 2000 mm2 and E = 200GPa.
3.8 Exercises 35
• A
2m
•B
2m
2m
10 kN
•
C
Exercise 3.2 Calculate the magnitude of the force R on the pin-jointed structure, shown in
the figure below, if the vertical deflection at node E is zero. The cross-sectional area of all the
members is the same.
R
D• •E •F
4m
A• • •C
B
10 kN
3m 3m
Exercise 3.3 Calculate the resultant displacement at point E on the pin-jointed structure
shown in the figure below. The cross-sectional area for all members is 200mm2 and E =
200GPa.
36 Energy Methods
20 kN
• 60◦
60◦
90◦
•
2m
60◦
•
Exercise 3.4 Calculate the vertical displacement at point D and the horizontal displacement
at C on the pin-jointed structure shown in the figure below. The cross-sectional area for all
members is 1200mm2 and E = 200GPa.
B
•
3m
A• •D •C
20 kN
4m 4m
Exercise 3.5 Calculate the resultant deflection at point A on the pin-jointed structure shown
in the figure below.
2m
• • •
3m
10 kN
3.8 Exercises 37
Exercise 3.6 Calculate the vertical deflection at point B on the pin-jointed structure shown
below. The cross-sectional are of the members in tension is 30mm2 and for those in compres-
sion is 200mm2 . E = 200GPa
•
•
0 .6
0.5m
m
•
1m
m
0.8 10 kN
Exercise 3.7 Calculate the resultant deflection at point D on the pin-jointed structure shown
below. The cross-sectional area of the members in tension is 1000mm2 and for those in
compression is 2000mm2 . E = 200GPa
• •
0.6m
• •
8 kN
1m