⮚ Humans are multicellular organisms with

Chapter 3 various types of cells that work together

to sustain life.
Part I: Cells

​ Cells are the structural units of all living ⮚ Other non-cellular components in the
things body include water, macronutrients
​ The human body has 50 to 100 trillion cells (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids),
​ The word “cell” came from a Latin word micronutrients (vitamins, minerals) and
CELLA, meaning "small room”. electrolytes.
​ Cells are the basic building blocks of all
living things. CELLS, TISSUES, ORGANS?
​ The human body is composed of trillions of ⮚ CELL is the building blocks of all living
cells. things.
​ They provide structure for the body, take in
nutrients from food, convert those nutrients ⮚ A collection of CELLS that function
into energy, and carry out specialized together to perform the same activity is
functions. known as TISSUE.
​ Cells also contain the body’s hereditary
material and can make copies of ⮚ Masses of tissue work collectively to
themselves. form an ORGAN that perform,specific
​ Cell is the basic structural, functional, and functions in the body.
biological unit of all known living organisms.
​ A cell is the smallest unit of life.
​ Cells are often called the "building blocks of
life".
​ The study of cells is called cell biology.
​ While the number of cells in plants and
animals varies from species to species.
​ Cells were discovered by ROBERT HOOKE
in 1665, who named them for their
resemblance to cells inhabited by Christian
monks in a monastery.

Two types of Cells:

1. EUKARYOTIC
● which contain a nucleus EUKARYOTES
can be either single-celled or
multicellular
2. PROKARYOTIC
● which do not. PROKARYOTES are
single-celled organisms
⮚ Organisms can be classified as
UNICELLULAR, consisting of a single
cell (including bacteria) or
MULTICELLULAR (including plants and
animals) consisting of more than one
cells.
Overview of the Cellular Basis of Life
​ The Cell Theory
1. A cell is the basic structural and
functional unit of living organisms
2. The activity of an organism depends
on the collective activities of its cells
3. According to the principle of
complementarity, the biochemical
activities of cells are dictated by their
structure (anatomy) which
determines their function
(physiology)
4. Continuity of life has a cellular basis

JONJON 1
 reproduction

​ Most cells are composed of four elements:

1. Carbon Three regions:
2. Hydrogen 1. Nuclear envelope (membrane)
3. Oxygen 2. Nucleolus
4. Nitrogen 3. Chromatin
​ Cells are about 60% water
​ Nuclear envelope (membrane)
o Consists of a double membrane that
bounds the nucleus
o Contains nuclear pores that allow for
exchange of material with the rest of
the cell
o Encloses the jellylike fluid called the
nucleoplasm

​ Nucleolus
o Nucleus contains one or more
dark-staining nucleoli
o Sites of ribosome assembly
o Ribosomes migrate into the
Anatomy of a Generalized Cell cytoplasm through nuclear pores to
In general, a cell has three main regions or serve as the site of protein synthesis
parts:
1. Nucleus ​ Chromatin
2. Cytoplasm o Composed of DNA wound around
3. Plasma membrane histones (proteins)
o Scattered throughout the nucleus
and present when the cell is not
dividing
o Condenses to form dense, rodlike
bodies called chromosomes when
the cell divides

The Nucleus
​ Control center of the cell
​ Contains genetic material known as
deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA
o DNA is needed for building proteins
o DNA is necessary for cell

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The Plasma Membrane
​ Transparent barrier for cell contents
​ Contains cell contents
​ Separates cell contents from surrounding
environment
Fluid mosaic model is constructed of:
o Two layers of phospholipids
arranged “tail to tail”
o Cholesterol and proteins scattered
among the phospholipids
o Sugar groups may be attached to the
phospholipids, forming glycolipids
Phospholipid arrangement in the plasma
membrane
o Hydrophilic (“water loving”) polar
“heads” are oriented on the inner
and outer surfaces of the membrane
o Hydrophobic (“water fearing”)
nonpolar “tails” form the center
(interior) of the membrane
​ This interior makes the
plasma membrane relatively
impermeable to most
water-soluble molecules
Role of proteins
o Responsible for specialized
membrane functions:
​ Enzymes
​ Receptors for hormones or
other chemical messengers
​ Transport as channels or
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carriers
Role of sugars
o Glycoproteins are branched sugars
attached to proteins that abut the
extracellular space
o Glycocalyx is the fuzzy, sticky,
sugar-rich area on the cell’s surface
Cell membrane junctions
​ Cells are bound together in three
ways:
1. Glycoproteins in the
glycocalyx act as an adhesive
or cellular glue
2. Wavy contours of the
membranes of adjacent cells
fit together in a
tongue-and-groove fashion
3. Special cell membrane
junctions are formed, which
vary structurally depending on
their roles
Main types of cell junctions
o Tight junctions
​ Impermeable junctions
​ Bind cells together into
leakproof sheets
​ Plasma membranes fuse like
a zipper to prevent
substances from passing
through extracellular space
between cells
o Desmosomes
​ Anchoring junctions, like
rivets, that prevent cells from
being pulled apart because of
mechanical stress
​ Created by buttonlike
thickenings of adjacent
plasma membranes
o Gap junctions (communicating
junctions)
​ Allow communication between
cells
3
 ​ Hollow cylinders of proteins cell
(connexons) span the width of ​ Many are membrane-bound,
the abutting membranes allowing for
​ Molecules can travel directly compartmentalization of their
from one cell to the next functions
through these channels

​ Mitochondria
o “Powerhouses” of the cell
o Mitochondrial wall consists of a
double membrane with cristae on the
inner membrane
o Carry out reactions in which oxygen
is used to break down food into ATP
molecules

​ Ribosomes
o Made of protein and ribosomal RNA
o Sites of protein synthesis in the
cell
The Cytoplasm o Found at two locations:
​ The cellular material outside the nucleus ​ Free in the cytoplasm
and inside the plasma membrane ​ As part of the rough
​ Site of most cellular activities endoplasmic reticulum
​ Includes cytosol, inclusions, and organelles
​ Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Three major components of the o Fluid-filled tunnels (or canals) that
cytoplasm carry substances within the cell
1. Cytosol: Fluid that suspends other o Continuous with the nuclear
elements and contains nutrients and membrane
electrolytes o Two types:
​ Rough ER
2. Inclusions: Chemical substances, ​ Smooth ER
such as stored nutrients or cell
products, that float in the cytosol Rough endoplasmic reticulum
​ Studded with ribosomes
3. Organelles: Metabolic machinery of ​ Synthesizes proteins
the cell that perform functions for the ​ Transport vesicles move
proteins within cell

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 ​ Abundant in cells that make
and export proteins
● Peroxisomes
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
​ Lacks ribosomes
​ Functions in lipid metabolism
​ Detoxification of drugs and
pesticides
​ Cytoskeleton
​ Golgi apparatus
o Appears as a stack of flattened
membranes associated with tiny
vesicles
o Modifies and packages proteins
arriving from the rough ER via
transport vesicles
o Produces different types of packages
​ Secretory vesicles (pathway
1)
​ In-house proteins and lipids
(pathway 2)
​ Lysosomes (pathway 3)
​ Centrioles
​ Lysosomes
o Membranous “bags” that contain
digestive enzymes
o Enzymes can digest worn-out or
nonusable cell structures
o House phagocytes that dispose of
bacteria and cell debris
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​ Absorption
o Membranous sacs of oxidase
enzymes
​ Detoxify harmful substances
such as alcohol and
formaldehyde
​ Break down free radicals
(highly reactive chemicals)
​ Free radicals are converted to
hydrogen peroxide and then
to water
o Replicate by pinching in half or
budding from the ER
o Network of protein structures that
extend throughout the cytoplasm
o Provides the cell with an internal
framework that determines cell
shape, supports organelles, and
provides the machinery for
intracellular transport
o Three different types of elements
form the cytoskeleton:
1. Microfilaments (smallest)
2. Intermediate filaments
3. Microtubules (largest)
o Rod-shaped bodies made of nine
triplets of microtubules
o Generate microtubules
o Direct the formation of mitotic spindle
during cell division
5
 Surface extensions found in some cells
o Cilia move materials across the cell
surface
​ Located in the respiratory
system to move mucus

o Flagella propel the cell

​ The only flagellated cell in the
human body is sperm

o Microvilli are tiny, fingerlike

extensions of the plasma membrane
​ Increase surface area for
absorption

Cell Diversity
​ The human body houses over 200 different
cell types
​ Cells vary in size, shape, and function
o Cells vary in length from 1/12,000 of
an inch to over 1 yard (nerve cells)
o Cell shape reflects its specialized
function

Cells that connect body parts

o Fibroblast
​ Secretes cable-like fibers
o Erythrocyte (red blood cell)

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 ▪ Carries oxygen in the
bloodstream
Cells that cover and line body organs
o Epithelial cell
​ Packs together in sheets
​ Intermediate fibers resist
tearing during rubbing or
pulling
Cells that move organs and body parts
o Skeletal muscle and smooth muscle
cells
​ Contractile filaments allow
cells to shorten forcefully
Cell that stores nutrients
o Fat cells
​ Lipid droplets stored in
cytoplasm
Cell that fights disease
o White blood cells, such as the
macrophage (a phagocytic cell)
​ Digests infectious
microorganisms
Cell that gathers information and controls body
functions
o Nerve cell (neuron)
​ Receives and transmits
messages to other body
structures
Cells of reproduction
o Oocyte (female)
​ Largest cell in the body
​ Divides to become an embryo
upon fertilization
o Sperm (male)
​ Built for swimming to the egg
for fertilization
​ Flagellum acts as a motile
whip
Cell Physiology
​ Cells have the ability to:
o Metabolize
o Digest food
o Dispose of wastes
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o Reproduce
o Grow
o Move
o Respond to a stimulus
Membrane Transport
​ Solution—homogeneous mixture of two or
more components
o Solvent—dissolving medium present
in the larger quantity; the body’s
main solvent is water
o Solutes—components in smaller
quantities within a solution
Intracellular fluid
o Nucleoplasm and cytosol
o Solution containing gases, nutrients,
and salts dissolved in water
Extracellular fluid (interstitial fluid)
o Fluid on the exterior of the cell
o Contains thousands of ingredients,
such as nutrients, hormones,
neurotransmitters, salts, waste
products
The plasma membrane is a selectively
permeable barrier
o Some materials can pass through,
while others are excluded
o For example:
​ Nutrients can enter the cell
​ Undesirable substances are
kept out
Two basic methods of transport
o Passive processes: substances are
transported across the membrane
without any input from the cell
o Active processes: the cell provides
the metabolic energy (ATP) to drive
the transport process.
​ Passive processes: diffusion and filtration
o Diffusion
​ Molecule movement is from
high concentration to low
7
 concentration, down a
concentration gradient
​ Particles tend to distribute
themselves evenly within a
solution Types of diffusion (continued)
​ Kinetic energy (energy of o Osmosis—simple
motion) causes the molecules diffusion of water
to move about randomly across a selectively
​ Size of the molecule and permeable
temperature affect the speed membrane
of diffusion ​ Highly polar
water
​ Molecules will move by diffusion if any of molecules
the following applies: easily cross
o The molecules are small enough to the plasma
pass through the membrane’s pores membrane
(channels formed by membrane through
proteins) aquaporins
o The molecules are lipid-soluble ​ Water moves
o The molecules are assisted by a down its
membrane carrier concentration gradient

​ Osmosis—A Closer Look

Types of diffusion o Isotonic solutions have the same
o Simple diffusion solute and water concentrations as
​ An cells and cause no visible changes in
unassisted the cell
process o Hypertonic solutions contain more
​ Solutes are solutes than the cells do; the cells
will begin to shrink
o Hypotonic solutions contain fewer
solutes (more water) than the cells
do; cells will plump

Types of diffusion (continued)

o Facilitated diffusion
​ Transports lipid-insoluble and
large substances
​ Glucose is transported via
facilitated diffusion
​ Protein membrane channels
or protein molecules that act

lipid-soluble or small enough

to pass through membrane
pores

JONJON 8
 as carriers are used Active transport example:
sodium-potassium pump
Passive processes o Necessary for nerve impulses
o Filtration o Sodium is transported out of the cell
​ Water and solutes are forced o Potassium is transported into the cell
through a membrane by fluid,
or hydrostatic, pressure
​ A pressure gradient must
exist that pushes
solute-containing fluid (filtrate)
from a high-pressure area to a
lower-pressure area
​ Filtration is critical for the
kidneys to work properly

Active processes ​ Active processes (continued)

o ATP is used to move substances
across a membrane
o Active processes are used when:
​ Substances are too large to
travel through membrane
channels
​ The membrane may lack
special protein carriers for the
transport of certain
substances
​ Substances may not be
lipid-soluble
​ Substances may have to
move against a concentration
gradient
Active processes (continued)
o Active transport and vesicular
transport
o Active transport
​ Amino acids, some sugars,
and ions are transported by
protein carriers known as
solute pumps
​ ATP energizes solute pumps
​ In most cases, substances
are moved against
concentration (or electrical)
gradients
o Vesicular transport: substances are
moved across the membrane “in
bulk” without actually crossing the
plasma membrane
o Types of vesicular transport
​ Exocytosis
​ Endocytosis
​ Phagocytosis
​ Pinocytosis
​ Exocytosis
o Mechanism cells use to actively
secrete hormones, mucus, and other
products
o Material is carried in a membranous
sac called a vesicle that migrates to
and combines with the plasma
membrane
o Contents of vesicle are emptied to
the outside
o Refer to pathway 1 in Figure 3.6

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 Types of endocytosis
1. Phagocytosis—“cell eating”
​ Cell engulfs large particles
such as bacteria or dead body
cells
​ Pseudopods are cytoplasmic
extensions that separate
substances (such as bacteria
or dead body cells) from
external environment
​ Phagocytosis is a protective
​ Exocytosis (continued) mechanism, not a means of
getting nutrients
o Exocytosis docking process
​ Docking proteins on the
vesicles recognize plasma
membrane proteins and bind
with them
​ Membranes corkscrew and
fuse together

2. Pinocytosis—“cell drinking”
​ Cell “gulps” droplets of
extracellular fluid containing
dissolved proteins or fats
​ Plasma membrane forms a
pit, and edges fuse around
droplet of fluid
​ Routine activity for most cells,
such as those involved in
absorption (small intestine)

​ Endocytosis
o Extracellular substances are
enclosed (engulfed) in a
membranous vesicle
o Vesicle detaches from the plasma
membrane and moves into the cell
o Once in the cell, the vesicle typically
fuses with a lysosome 3. Receptor-mediated endocytosis
o Contents are digested by lysosomal ​ Method for taking up specific
enzymes target molecules
o In some cases, the vesicle is ​ Receptor proteins on the
released by exocytosis on the membrane surface bind only
opposite side of the cell certain substances
​ Highly selective process of

JONJON 10
 taking in substances such as
enzymes, some hormones,
cholesterol, and iron
Cell Division
​ Cell life cycle is a series of changes the cell
experiences from the time it is formed until
it divides
​ Cell life cycle has two major periods
1. Interphase (metabolic phase)
​ Cell grows and carries on
metabolic processes
​ Longer phase of the cell cycle
2. Cell division
​ Cell reproduces itself
Preparations: DNA Replication
o Genetic material is duplicated and
readies a cell for division into two
cells
o Occurs toward the end of interphase
Process of DNA replication
o DNA uncoils into two nucleotide
chains, and each side serves as a
template
o Nucleotides are complementary
​ Adenine (A) always bonds
with thymine (T)
​ Guanine (G) always bonds
with cytosine (C)
o For example, TACTGC bonds with
new nucleotides in the order
ATGACG.
Events of cell division
o Mitosis—division of the nucleus
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​ Results in the formation of two
daughter nuclei
o Cytokinesis—division of the
cytoplasm
​ Begins when mitosis is near
completion
​ Results in the formation of two
daughter cells
Events of mitosis: prophase
o Chromatin coils into chromosomes;
identical strands called chromatids
are held together by a centromere
o Centrioles direct the assembly of a
mitotic spindle
o Nuclear envelope and nucleoli have
broken down
Events of mitosis: metaphase
o Chromosomes are aligned in the
center of the cell on the metaphase
plate (center of the spindle midway
between the centrioles)
o Straight line of chromosomes is now
seen
Events of mitosis: anaphase
o Centromere splits
o Chromatids move slowly apart and
toward the opposite ends of the cell
o Anaphase is over when the
chromosomes stop moving
Events of mitosis: telophase
o Reverse of prophase
o Chromosomes uncoil to become
chromatin
o Spindles break down and disappear
o Nuclear envelope re-forms around
chromatin
o Nucleoli appear in each of the
daughter nuclei
Cytokinesis
o Division of the cytoplasm
o Begins during late anaphase and
completes during telophase
o A cleavage furrow (contractile ring of
microfilaments) forms to pinch the
cells into two parts
11
 o Two daughter cells exist
​ In most cases, mitosis and cytokinesis
occur together
​ In some cases, the cytoplasm is not divided
o Binucleate or multinucleate cells
result
o Common in the liver and skeletal
muscle
Protein Synthesis
​ DNA serves as a blueprint for making
proteins
​ Gene: DNA segment that carries a blueprint
for building one protein or polypeptide chain
​ Proteins have many functions
o Fibrous (structural) proteins are the
building materials for cells
o Globular (functional) proteins can act
as enzymes (biological catalysts)
​ DNA information is coded into a sequence
of bases
​ A sequence of three bases (triplet) codes
for an amino acid
​ For example, a DNA sequence of AAA
specifies the amino acid phenylalanine
The role of DNA
o Most ribosomes, the manufacturing
sites of proteins, are located in the
cytoplasm
o DNA never leaves the nucleus in
interphase cells
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o DNA requires a decoder and a
messenger to carry instructions to
build proteins to ribosomes
o Both the decoder and messenger
functions are carried out by RNA
(ribonucleic acid)
How does RNA differ from DNA?
o RNA is single-stranded
o RNA contains ribose sugar instead
of deoxyribose
o RNA contains uracil (U) base instead
of thymine (T)
Three varieties of RNA
o Transfer RNA (tRNA): Transfers
appropriate amino acids to the
ribosome for building the protein
o Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): Helps form
the ribosomes where proteins are
built
o Messenger RNA (mRNA): Carries
the instructions for building a protein
from the nucleus to the ribosome
Protein synthesis involves two major
phases:
o Transcription
o Translation
​ Transcription
o Transfer of information from DNA’s
base sequence to the
complementary base sequence of
mRNA
o DNA is the template for transcription;
mRNA is the product
o Each DNA triplet corresponds to an
mRNA codon
o If DNA sequence is AAT-CGT-TCG,
then the mRNA corresponding
codons are UUA-GCA-AGC
​ Translation
o Base sequence of nucleic acid is
translated to an amino acid
sequence; amino acids are the
building blocks of proteins
o Occurs in the cytoplasm and
12
 involves three major varieties of RNA

​ Translation Process(continued) Epithelial Tissue

o Steps correspond to Figure 3.16 Locations:
(step 1 covers transcription) o Body coverings
​ Step 2: mRNA leaves nucleus o Body linings
and attaches to ribosome, and o Glandular tissue
translation begins
Functions:
​ Step 3: incoming tRNA o Protection
recognizes a complementary o Absorption
mRNA codon calling for its o Filtration
amino acid by temporarily o Secretion
binding its anticodon to the
codon Hallmarks of epithelial tissues:
o Cover and line body surfaces
​ Step 4: as the ribosome o Often form sheets with one free
moves along the mRNA, a surface, the apical surface, and an
new amino acid is added to anchored surface, the basement
the growing protein chain membrane
o Avascular (no blood supply)
​ Step 5: released tRNA o Regenerate easily if well nourished
reenters the cytoplasmic pool,
ready to be recharged with a
new amino acid. Classification of epithelia
o Number of cell layers
Part II: Body Tissues ​ Simple—one layer
Tissues ​ Stratified—more than one
o Groups of cells with similar structure layer
and function.
o TISSUE is a cellular organizational
level between cells and a complete
organ.
o A TISSUE is a collective of similar
cells and their extracellular matrix
from the same origin that together
carry out a specific function.
o Organs are then formed by the
functional grouping together of
MULTIPLE TISSUES.
o The study of human and animal
tissues is known as HISTOLOGY.

o Four primary types: o Shape of cells

1. Epithelial tissue ​ Squamous—flattened, like
(epithelium) fish scales
2. Connective tissue ​ Cuboidal—cube-shaped,
3. Muscle tissue like dice
4. Nervous tissue ​ Columnar—shaped like
columns

JONJON 13

​ Simple epithelia
o Functions in absorption, secretion,
and filtration
o Very thin (so not suited for
protection)
​ Simple squamous epithelium
o Single layer of flat cells
o Locations—usually forms
membranes
​ Lines air sacs of the lungs
​ Forms walls of capillaries
​ Forms serous membranes
(serosae) that line and cover
organs in ventral cavity
o Functions in diffusion, filtration, or
secretion in membranes
​ Simple cuboidal epithelium
o Single layer of cubelike cells
o Locations
​ Common in glands and their
ducts
​ Forms walls of kidney tubules
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​ Covers the surface of ovaries
o Functions in secretion and
absorption; ciliated types propel
mucus or reproductive cells
​ Simple columnar epithelium
o Single layer of tall cells
​ Goblet cells secrete mucus
o Locations
​ Lining of the digestive tract
from stomach to anus
​ Mucous membranes
(mucosae) line body cavities
opening to the exterior
o Functions in secretion and
absorption; ciliated types propel
mucus or reproductive cells
​ Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
o All cells rest on a basement
membrane
o Single layer, but some cells are
shorter than others giving a false
(pseudo) impression of stratification
o Location: respiratory tract, where it is
ciliated and known as
pseudostratified ciliated columnar
epithelium
o Functions in absorption or secretion
​ Stratified epithelia
o Consist of two or more cell layers
o Function primarily in protection
​ Stratified squamous epithelium
o Most common stratified epithelium
o Named for cells present at the free
(apical) surface, which are
squamous
o Functions as a protective covering
where friction is common
o Locations—lining of the:
​ Skin (outer portion)
​ Mouth
​ Esophagus
​ Stratified cuboidal epithelium
o two layers of cuboidal cells;
functions in protection
​ Stratified columnar epithelium
14
 o surface cells are columnar, and
cells underneath vary in size and
shape; functions in protection
​ Stratified cuboidal and columnar
o Rare in human body
o Found mainly in ducts of large
glands
​ Transitional epithelium
o Composed of modified stratified
squamous epithelium
o Shape of cells depends upon the
amount of stretching
o Functions in stretching and the ability
to return to normal shape
o Location: lining of urinary system
organs
​ Glandular epithelia
o One or more cells responsible for
secreting a particular product
o Secretions contain protein molecules
in an aqueous (water-based) fluid
o Secretion is an active process
Two major gland types develop from
epithelial sheets
o Endocrine glands
​ Ductless; secretions
(hormones) diffuse into blood
vessels
​ Examples include thyroid,
adrenals, and pituitary
o Exocrine glands
​ Secretions empty through
ducts to the epithelial surface
​ Include sweat and oil glands,
liver, and pancreas (both
internal and external)
Connective Tissue
​ Found everywhere in the body to connect
body parts
​ Includes the most abundant and widely
distributed tissues
​ Functions
o Protection
o Support
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o Binding
Characteristics of connective tissue
o Variations in blood supply
​ Some tissue types are well
vascularized
​ Some have a poor blood
supply or are avascular
o Extracellular matrix
​ Nonliving material that
surrounds living cells
Two main elements of the extracellular
matrix
1. Ground substance—mostly water,
along with adhesion proteins and
polysaccharide molecules
2. Fibers
​ Collagen (white) fibers
​ Elastic (yellow) fibers
​ Reticular fibers (a type of
collagen)
Types of connective tissue from most rigid
to softest, or most fluid:
o Bone
o Cartilage
o Dense connective tissue
o Loose connective tissue
o Blood
Bone (osseous tissue)
o Composed of:
​ Osteocytes (bone cells) sitting
in lacunae (cavities)
​ Hard matrix of calcium salts
​ Large numbers of collagen
fibers
o Functions to protect and support the
body
Cartilage
o Less hard and more flexible than
bone
o Found in only a few places in the
body
o Chondrocyte (cartilage cell) is the
major cell type
o Types
15
 ​ Hyaline cartilage
​ Fibrocartilage
​ Elastic cartilage
▪ Hyaline cartilage
o Most widespread type of cartilage
o Abundant collagen fibers hidden by a
glassy, rubbery matrix
o Locations
​ Trachea
​ Attaches ribs to the
breastbone
​ Covers ends of long bones
​ Entire fetal skeleton prior to
birth
​ Epiphyseal (growth) plates in
long bones
▪ Elastic cartilage (not pictured)
o Provides elasticity
o Location: supports the external ear
▪ Fibrocartilage
o Highly compressible
o Location: forms cushionlike discs
between vertebrae of the spinal
column
Dense connective tissue (dense fibrous
tissue)
o Main matrix element is collagen fiber
o Fibroblasts are cells that make fibers
o Locations
​ Tendons—attach skeletal
muscle to bone
​ Ligaments—attach bone to
bone at joints and are more
elastic than tendons
​ Dermis—lower layers of the
skin
Loose connective tissue
o Softer, have more cells and fewer
fibers than other connective tissues
(except blood)
o Types
​ Areolar
​ Adipose
​ Reticular
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▪ Areolar connective tissue
o Most widely distributed connective
tissue
o Soft, pliable tissue like “cobwebs”
o Functions as a universal packing
tissue and “glue” to hold organs in
place
o Layer of areolar tissue called lamina
propria underlies all membranes
o All fiber types form a loose network
o Can soak up excess fluid (causes
edema)
▪ Adipose connective tissue
o An areolar tissue in which adipose
(fat) cells dominate
o Functions
​ Insulates the body
​ Protects some organs
​ Serves as a site of fuel
storage
o Locations
​ Subcutaneous tissue beneath
the skin
​ Protects organs, such as the
kidneys
​ Fat “depots” include hips,
breasts, and belly
▪ Reticular connective tissue
o Delicate network of interwoven fibers
with reticular cells (like fibroblasts)
o Forms stroma (internal framework) of
organs
o Locations
​ Lymph nodes
​ Spleen
​ Bone marrow
Blood (vascular tissue)
o Blood cells surrounded by fluid
matrix known as blood plasma
o Soluble fibers are visible only during
clotting
o Functions as the transport vehicle for
the cardiovascular system, carrying:
​ Nutrients
​ Wastes
16
 ​ Respiratory gases

Nervous Tissue
Muscle Tissue ​ Function is to receive and conduct
​ Function is to contract, or shorten, to electrochemical impulses to and from body
produce movement parts
​ Three types of muscle tissue o Irritability
1. Skeletal o Conductivity
2. Cardiac ​ Composed of neurons and nerve support
3. Smooth cells
o Support cells called neuroglia
Skeletal muscle tissue insulate, protect, and support
o Packaged by connective tissue neurons
sheets into skeletal muscles, which
are attached to the skeleton and pull
on bones or skin Summary of Tissues
o Voluntarily (consciously) controlled ​ Figure 3.22 summarizes the tissue types
o Produces gross body movements or and functions in the body
facial expressions
o Characteristics of skeletal muscle
cells
​ Striations (stripes)
​ Multinucleate (more than one
nucleus)
​ Long, cylindrical shape
Tissue Repair (Wound Healing)
​ Tissue repair (wound healing) occurs in two
Cardiac muscle tissue
ways:
o Involuntarily controlled
1. Regeneration
o Found only in the heart
​ Replacement of destroyed
o Pumps blood through blood vessels
tissue by the same kind of
o Characteristics of cardiac muscle
cells
cells
​ Striations
2. Fibrosis
​ One nucleus per cell
​ Repair by dense (fibrous)
​ Short, branching cells
connective tissue (scar tissue)
​ Intercalated discs contain gap
junctions to connect cells
​ Whether regeneration or fibrosis occurs
together
depends on:
1. Type of tissue damaged
Smooth (visceral) muscle tissue
2. Severity of the injury
o Involuntarily controlled
​ Clean cuts (incisions) heal more
o Found in walls of hollow organs such
successfully than ragged tears of the tissue
as stomach, uterus, and blood
vessels
Events of tissue repair
o Peristalsis, a wavelike activity, is a
o Inflammation sets the stage
typical activity
​ Capillaries become very
o Characteristics of smooth muscle
permeable
cells
​ Clotting proteins migrate into
​ No visible striations
the area from the bloodstream
​ One nucleus per cell
​ A clot walls off the injured
​ Spindle-shaped cells

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 area
o Granulation tissue forms
​ Growth of new capillaries
​ Phagocytes dispose of blood
clot and fibroblasts
​ Rebuild collagen fibers
o Regeneration and fibrosis effect
permanent repair
​ Scab detaches
​ Whether scar is visible or
invisible depends on severity
of wound
o both benign and cancerous,
represent abnormal cell masses
in which normal controls on cell
division are not working
⮚ Hyperplasia
o (Increase in size) of a tissue or
organ may occur when tissue is
strongly stimulated or irritated
⮚ Atrophy
o (Decrease in size) of a tissue or
organ occurs when the organ is
no longer stimulated normally

Tissues that regenerate easily

o Epithelial tissue (skin and mucous
membranes)
o Fibrous connective tissues and bone

Tissues that regenerate poorly

o Skeletal muscle

Tissues that are replaced largely with

scar tissue
o Cardiac muscle
o Nervous tissue within the brain and
spinal cord

Developmental Aspects of Cells and

Tissues
​ Growth through cell division continues
through puberty
​ Cell populations exposed to friction (such
as epithelium) replace lost cells throughout
life
​ Connective tissue remains mitotic and
forms repair (scar) tissue
​ With some exceptions, muscle tissue
becomes amitotic by the end of puberty
​ Nervous tissue becomes amitotic shortly
after birth
​ Injury can severely handicap amitotic
tissues
​ The cause of aging is unknown, but
chemical and physical insults, as well as
genetic programming, have been proposed
as possible causes

⮚ Neoplasms

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