Introductory Calculus II

MTH023
Week 2, lecture 1

Sergey Bocharov
Department of Foundational Mathematics, XJTLU
Sergey.Bocharov@xjtlu.edu.cn

1 / 31
Outline of the course
Calculus = study of limits
1
= 1, 21 , 13 , · · · - a sequence



I n n≥1

1
lim =0
n→∞ n
I x 7→ x1 , x 6= 0 - a function
1
lim =0
x→∞ x
1
lim =0
x→−∞ x
1
lim =∞
x→0+ x
1
lim =−∞
x→0− x
1 1
lim =
x→2 x 2
2 / 31
Outline of the course

I Differentiation and integration are limiting procedures. E.g.,

d f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = f (x) = lim
dx h→0 h
if the limit exists...
Structure of the course:
I Preliminaries (1 week)
I Limits, continuity (1.5 weeks)
I Differentiation (5.5 weeks)
I Integration (5 weeks)

3 / 31
Sets, number systems

Definition
A set is a collection of distinct objects of some mathematical
nature (such as numbers, functions, other sets, etc.)

I If x is an element of A we write x ∈ A.

I The empty set, denoted by ∅ is the set with no elements.

I We say that a set A is a subset of a set B and write either

A ⊆ B or A ⊂ B if every element of A is also an element of
B.

4 / 31
Sets, number systems

I Often sets are defined in terms of some property rather than

by listing all the elements one by one (which is often
impossible). For example, we can express the set of prime
numbers as

n ≥ 2 : n is not a product of two smaller natural numbers

I Two sets A and B are equal if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.

Exercise
How many subsets does the set {1, 2, · · · , n} have? Justify your
answer.

5 / 31
Sets, number systems

Let us review some sets of numbers which you should know from
school.
Natural numbers
N = {1, 2, 3, · · · }

Integers
Z = {· · · , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · }

Rationals
 n
Q = all numbers of the form , where n, m ∈ Z and m 6= 0
m

6 / 31
Sets, number systems

Real numbers We don’t give a precise definition... But roughly

speaking,

R = all the numbers which may be written

as a limit of a sequence of rational numbers

(sequences and limits will be discussed next week...)

7 / 31
Sets, number systems

Order properties

Let x, y and z be real numbers.

I For any x and y exactly one of the following is true:

x<y , x>y , or x = y

I If x < y and y < z then x < z

I If x < y then x + z ≤ y + z
I If x < y and z > 0 then xz < yz

8 / 31
Sets, number systems

Example
Simplify inequality
x − 1 ≤ 3x − 5.

9 / 31
Sets, number systems
Intervals of the real line
I open intervals

I closed intervals

I half-open intervals

I unbounded intervals

10 / 31
Sets, number systems
Set operations:
I The union of sets A and B is the set

A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}

I The intersection of sets A and B is the set

A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}

I The set difference of sets A and B is the set

A\B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B}

11 / 31
Sets, number systems

Example
Let A = (0, 2), B = [1, 3]. Find A ∪ B, A ∩ B, A\B and B\A.

12 / 31
Sets, number systems

Definition
Let A be a non-empty set of real numbers.
I A real number M is called an upper bound of A if x ≤ M
for all x ∈ A.
I A real number M is called the least upper bound of A or
the supremum of A and is denoted as sup A if M is an upper
bound and M ≤ N for any upper bound N of A.

Least upper bound property (completeness axiom)

Every set of real numbers which has an upper bound has the least
upper bound.

13 / 31
Sets, number systems

Example
Let A = [0, 2), B = {1, 21 , 13 , · · · }. Find inf A, sup A, inf B and
sup B.

14 / 31
Basic logic

Let P and Q be some mathematical statements, which are either

true or false.

Then the following (more complex) statements can be constructed

from P and Q
I not P / ¬P / ∼ P

P ¬P
T F
F T

15 / 31
Basic logic

I P and Q
P Q P and Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

I P or Q
P Q P or Q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

16 / 31
Basic logic

I P ⇒ Q / if P then Q / P implies Q

P Q P ⇒Q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

17 / 31
Basic logic

18 / 31
Basic logic

I P ⇐⇒ Q / P if and only if Q / P iff Q is the statement

(P ⇒ Q) and (Q ⇒ P )

Exercise
Write down the truth table for “P ⇐⇒ Q”.

19 / 31
Basic logic

Theorem
Statements “P ⇒ Q” and “(¬Q) ⇒ (¬P )” are logically
equivalent.

20 / 31
Basic logic

Example
Prove that if the square of a natural number is even then the
number is even. That is,

n2 is even ⇒ n is even.

21 / 31
Basic logic

Exercise
Prove that
I ”¬(P and Q)” and ”(¬P ) or (¬Q)” are logically equivalent.
I ”¬(P or Q)” and ”(¬P ) and (¬Q)” are logically equivalent.

22 / 31
Basic logic
Proof by contradiction.

Suppose we want to establish that some statement is true. We

may do so by first assuming that the statement is false and then
arriving at a contradiction (a contradiction is a situation when
some statement P and its negation ¬P are both true).
Example
√
Prove that 2 is irrational.

23 / 31
Basic logic

24 / 31
Basic logic

Exercise
Prove that there are infinitely many prime numbers.
[Hint: assume for contradiction that there are only finitely many
prime numbers: p1 , ..., pn . Is the number p1 × · · · × pn + 1 prime
or not (under the above assumption)? You may use the fact that
every number can be written as a product of prime numbers.]

Proof by induction

- will be discussed later in the course if needed...

25 / 31
Absolute values and the triangle inequality

For x ∈ R the absolute value of x is defined as


x if x ≥ 0
|x| =
−x if x < 0

Example
Simplify the inequality
|x + 2| < 1

26 / 31
Absolute values and the triangle inequality
Triangle inequality:

For any x, y ∈ R
|x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|.

27 / 31
Cartesian coordinate system

Distance formula / Midpoint formula

28 / 31
Cartesian coordinate system

Equation of a circle

29 / 31
Complex numbers

C = {a + bi : a, b ∈ R} ,
where i satisfies i2 = −1 and is called the imaginary unit.
For z = a + bi, a is called the real part of z and is sometimes
written as Re(z) and b is called the imaginary part of z and is
sometimes written as Im(z).

Two complex numbers z1 = a1 + b1 i and z2 = a2 + b2 i are equal if

and only if a1 = a2 and b1 = b2 .

30 / 31
Complex numbers

31 / 31