Response to Intervention:

The Role of the SLP and

Educational Audiologists

Chuck Carlin
University of Akron
School of Speech Language Pathology & Audiology
 Why do we provide interventions?
n To help all students n To determine whether or not
who are struggling with we suspect a disability
based on data
the attainment of grade
n Fights over identification
level indicators or n Fights disproportionality in
school/classroom special education
behavior expectations n To determine eligibility for
n These might be the special education
students who would n To compensate for
never qualify for limitations in the design of
special education standardized testing
Variables that affect standard scores
n Measurement error
n Frequent absences, school transfers, or a
lack of instruction
n English as a second language student
n Speaks with a dialect of English
n Unmotivated or fatigued during testing
n Poorly administered test
Components of Effective Interventions
n For preschool children, interventions may be provided in an early
childhood setting where the child is being served.
n Districts should have well-established dialogues and partnerships
with community providers.
n A clear statement in measurable terms, of the specific skill or behavior
that will be targeted by the intervention;
n Baseline information on the child’s present performance compared to
that of same-age peers on the same skill or behavior
n An identified target goal that will be reached as a result of the
intervention;
n Involvement of the child’s parents in the problem-solving process used
to design the intervention and the strategy that will be used to measure
progress;
n Identification of a scientific, research-based intervention that will be
implemented to target the identified problem;
ODE- Procedures and Guidance Document
Components of Effective Interventions
n A description of the setting in which the
intervention will occur and the individual(s)
responsible for conducting the intervention;
n Assurance that the selected intervention is
culturally and linguistically appropriate for the
particular child;
n Identification of a method to measure the
child’s response to the intervention and the
frequency with which that progress
measurement will occur;
ODE- Procedures and Guidance Document
Components of Effective Interventions
n Clear criteria, decision rules and timelines for
determining an adequate or inadequate
response to the intervention;
n A plan to ensure that the intervention is
implemented as designed; and
n Adequate documentation of the intervention
to assist in current and future decision
making.

ODE- Procedures and Guidance Document

Components of Effective Interventions

n Special education for SLD students differs

from regular education in the following ways:
n More explicit instruction
n More intensive instruction
n More supportive services
n Speech Language and audiological services
n Contextualized direct and indirect services
n Strong focus on a generalization of skills and
strategies

Torgesen, 1996
Components of Effective Interventions

n Control task difficulty

n Sequence examples and problems to maintain
high levels of success
n Match task difficulty with student abilities and
emerging skills
n Teach students in small, interactive groups
n One-on-one instruction in reading wasn’t found to
be more advantageous

Elbaum et al., 2000, Vaughn & Linan-Thompson, 2003

Effective Interventions are NOT
n Procedures to be rushed through in order to obtain a
“real evaluation” for a child;
n Descriptions of placements in programs without
specific data-driven information on the interventions
that will be provided as part of that placement;
n Strategies that do not address the specific areas of
concern;
n General descriptions of modifications or
accommodations; or
n Vague methods to measure progress.

ODE- Procedures and Guidance Document

Effective Instructional Practices

Intervention Pendulum

Small group, Inclusion with

interactive accommodations &
instruction curricular
modifications
IDEA 2004
n Expectations
n Emphasis on research-based interventions to
qualify for SLD
n Assessments must produce data about
academic, developmental and functional
performance
n Access to the general education curriculum in
the regular classroom
n No longer requires a discrepancy

Mills, 2006
IDEA 2004
n Exclusionary Factors for all MFEs
n Lack of appropriate instruction in reading,
including in the essential components of
reading instruction
n Lack of instruction in math
n Limited English proficiency
Referral for Evaluation-Ohio

n “Provide data that demonstrates that the

student was provided appropriate instruction
in regular educational settings, delivered by
qualified professionals”
n “Provide data based documentation of
repeated assessments of achievement at
reasonable, intervals, reflecting formal
assessments of student’s progress during
instruction which was provided to the
parents”
What is RTI
RTI is a practice of providing high-quality
instruction and intervention that is matched
to student needs, through frequent progress
monitoring to make decisions about change
in instruction and intervention goals, and
applying the child’s response data to
important educational decisions (like sped
eligibility).

NASDE, 2005
 Three Tiered Model
Academic System Behavioral System
1-5% Intensive 1-5% Intensive
Individualized Individualized

Interventions Interventions
5-10% Targeted 5-10% Targeted

Interventions Interventions

80-90% School- 80-90% School-

Wide Instruction Wide Instruction

Decisions about tiers of

Adapted from OSEP support are data-based
Effective School-Wide
Interventions
Overview: Key Features

Academic
& Behavior Administrative
Supports Leadership
Across
3-tiers

Culturally Collaborative
Responsive Strategic
Practices Planning
(CSP)

Data-Based Scientifically-
Decision Based
Making Research

OISM, 2006
Theoretical Foundation
n Primary Focus
n Prevention of academic and behavioral failure
and the need for special education
n Locus of Problem
n First, it is thought to lie in the quality of
instruction
n Within-the-child problems are identified only
for those who fail to respond to high quality
instruction

Staskowski & Rivera, 2005

Theoretical Foundation
n Implication for Service Delivery
n Must first determine that child has difficulty
benefiting from high-quality instruction and
interventions

Staskowski & Rivera, 2005

Core Assumptions of RTI
“Many children who perform poorly in reading
achievement do so because schools fail to provide
adequate instruction to at-risk children who exhibit
significant risk factors that make learning to read very
difficult (e.g., exhibiting language impairment, living in
poverty, learning English as a second language)”

The “earlier that these floundering students can be

identified and provided appropriate instruction, the
higher the likelihood that they can be successful and
maintain their class placement”

Justice, 2006, Mellard, 2004

Core Assumptions of RTI
Lack of reading proficiency is blamed on low standards

Considered a prevention and identification model

Most importantly, this is a regular education initiative

RTI is less about SLD determination and more about

improved instruction and interventions

Assist before assess (teach before test)

Justice, 2006, Montgomery & Moore-Brown,
2006;Telzrow, 2006, Ukrainetz, 2006
Tiered Model
n Integrates tiers of supports for both
academics and behavior
n Each tier is designed to enable student
success by providing high quality culturally
responsive, research-validated instruction in
both behavior and academics

OISM, 2006
Tier 1: The Green Zone
n Provide strong school-wide instruction and supports
that would meet the needs of most of your students.
n This school-wide tier of supports is represented in
green and include your school’s core reading and
behavior curricula.
n School-wide instruction would meet the needs of
approximately 80% of your students’ learning needs
resulting in reading and behavior success for most of
your students.

OISM, 2006
Tier 1: The Green Zone
n Explicit, focused, high-quality general education
instruction in academic and social competencies
n Based on concepts of universal design for learning
n Core curriculum needs of current student population
n All students receive instruction in core curriculum
n Note that the green goes around each tier,
indicating that all students receive core instruction.
n Minimize need for interventions (number & intensity)
n Use school-wide data to evaluate and improve the
instruction for all students in reading/behavior

OISM, 2006
Roles
n SLP n Educational
n Language and Audiologist
literacy link n Accessing instruction
n Social skills and interventions
n Behavior n Effective
n Accommodations communication
and modifications n Behavior
n Accommodations
and modifications
Pitfalls to Tier 1
n Not intensive enough for slow learners and
children with reading disabilities

Ukrainetz, 2006
Tier 2: The Yellow Zone
n Given these strong school-wide or universal
supports you can expect that about 10 - 5%
of your students may require additional
interventions and supports to be successful.
n The “targeted tier” represented in yellow are
for students at some risk for school failure
and provides more specific interventions for
students in addition to the core curricula to
ensure success.

OISM, 2006
Tier 2: The Yellow Zone
n Timely and focused interventions
n Intervention that is more explicit and intensive
than typical classroom
n Student progress monitored more frequently
n Flexible student grouping
n Students identified “at-risk” for academic/
behavior problems by school-wide data or
insufficient progress in core curricula

OISM, 2006
Point of Clarification
n High-quality instruction and interventions
n An intervention isn’t just manual,
manipulatives, or program (e.g., LiPS,
LINCS). It is also the
n Service delivery model (e.g., group size, frequency, duration)
n Methodology (e.g., pace, repetition)
n Setting
n Service provider (e.g., SLP, trained volunteer)
Role
n SLP n Educational Audiologist
n Professional n Professional
development development
n Consultation n Consultation
n Interventions n Interventions
n 1-3 times a week n 1-3 times a week
n Small group n Small group
n Services n Services
n 1-3 times a week n 1-3 times a week
n Small group n Small group
Pitfalls to Tier 2

n Can be costly
n Hard to ensure fidelity of
implementation
n Need for intensive training for
instructors

Ukrainetz, 2006
Tier 3: The Red Zone
n When effective school-wide instruction and targeted
supports/interventions are in place, a small
percentage of students may require intensive
supports to enable success.
n This red tier or intensive tier supports/interventions
will meet the needs of the remaining 5 -1% of your
students at high risk for failure.
n These supports/interventions are intensive and often
individualized.
n Students in this tier may be your students with
disabilities in a resource room (but not necessarily).

OISM, 2006
Tier 3: The Red Zone
n However, other students at high risk may
also benefit from tier 3 supports.
n Students at tier 3 continue receiving core
instruction in order to provide sustained
support for children
n Not progressing with targeted supports, or
n Whose initial assessment data indicate need for support at
all 3 tiers

OISM, 2006
Tier 3: The Red Zone
n Literacy/Academics: Increase direct
intervention in literacy skills everyday,
individually or in small group with substantial
opportunities to practice
n Behavior: Increased opportunities receive
explicit intervention in social skills with
opportunities to practice in varied settings

OISM, 2006
Tier 3: The Red Zone
n Characteristics
n Intervention is designed by a skilled and
trained intervention team
n Small group size (1:3 or 1:1)
n Progress monitor weekly on target skills
n Meet with team regularly to review data

OISM, 2006
Tier 3: The Red Zone
n The Red Zone is not automatically the special
education zone
n There can be regular education students who
are served within this intensive intervention
zone!
n Everyone has the potential to be a Tier 3
provider
n Please don’t allow these misperceptions to
take hold in your school

OISM, 2006
Pitfalls to Tier 3

n Often perceived as exclusively the domain

of special education
n Very expensive
n Very time consuming
n Requires considerable professional
development
n Fidelity checks can be threatening and
difficult to schedule
OISM, 2006
 Role

n SLP n Educational Audiologist

n Professional development n Professional development
n Consultation n Consultation
n Interventions n Interventions
n Daily n Daily

n Small group or n Small group or individually

individually n Services
n Services n Daily

n Daily n Small group or individually

n Small group or

individually
Comprehension Check

Response to Intervention
Dually Discrepant Students
• These students are “not responding to
instruction”
• More individualized instruction
• Need interventions
• Or ultimately eligible for special education (but
that is decided in phase 5)
Nuts and
Bolts
Huge Point to Understand
n RTI does not mean more responsibilities, it
means reallocating time to better address
prevention and early intervention
n We are changing the way we spend our time
n Serve more students up front rather than at
point of MFE and then the IEP
n We need to work toward a more workload
approach

Ehren, Montgomery, Rudebusch, & Whitmire, 2007

Specific RTI Activities
n Embed reading-related targets into speech
language services and interventions?
n Direct basis through small group instruction
n Collaborative consultation with staff
n Identified as the most powerful role
n Interpret language screening and assessment
data
n Focus on heightening the quality of general
education as it relates to reading, writing,
and math instruction
Justice, 2006
Specific RTI Activities
n Supplemental reading-related interventions
for students who require more targeted
interventions
n Trained volunteers and college students have
been found to be effective reading tutors when
adequately supervised (Elbaum, Vaugh,
Hughes, & Moody, 2000)
n Nordonia’s Phonemic Awareness Program

Justice, 2006
Specific RTI Activities
n Explain the role that language plays in
curriculum, assessment, and instruction
n Explain connection between spoken and
written language
n Identify and analyze literature on evidence-
based literacy assessments and interventions

Ehren, Montgomery, Rudebusch, & Whitmire, 2007

Specific RTI Activities

n Assist in selection of universal

screening measures
n Identify systemic patterns of student
need with respect to language skills
¡ Phonemic Awareness
¡ Vocabulary
¡ Narrative and Expository Text
Comprehension, etc.

Ehren, Montgomery, Rudebusch, & Whitmire, 2007

Specific RTI Activities
n Conduct expanded speech sound screenings
(K-3)
n Stimulability and Emerging Skills
n Conduct PTA and tympanometry screenings
n Trigger referral for special education

Ehren, Montgomery, Rudebusch, & Whitmire, 2007

Specific RTI Activities

n Assist in selecting EBP in literacy

intervention
n Plan for and conduct professional
development language’s role in literacy
and learning
n Conduct professional development on
classroom acoustics
n Interpret school progress in meeting
intervention goals Ehren, Montgomery, Rudebusch, & Whitmire, 2007
Optional Content
n The second half of this PowerPoint
presentation is optional.
n The content is designed to provide students
with intervention ideas.
Possible RTI Model for SPED
n Pretest Posttest Posttest Posttest with Control
Intervention Design
n 3 data points after baseline
n Collect data on peers without intervention
n 10-12 weeks in duration
n 15-40 Hours of intervention
n 3 Interventions tried before student is described as
“not responding” (i.e., disabled)
n Vocabulary
n Narrative Text Comprehension
n Phonemic Awareness
Vocabulary in a Tiered Model
n Universal Screening
¡ Assessments from text publishers
¡ Teacher-made tests
¡ DIBELS
n Progress monitoring
¡ DIBELS
¡ Pretest Posttest Posttest Posttest Design
¡ Collect data on peers without intervention as a
comparison
n Intervention
¡ LINCS
¡ Multiple Opportunities with Elaboration
Tier 1: Vocabulary
n Professional development to teachers
n Exploit roots and affixes in lessons to help with
word recognition and meaning
n Provision of language-sensitive literacy instruction
in general education by the teachers
n Integrate the new word’s meaning with other word
meanings
n Provide repeated opportunities
n Provide meaningful opportunities to use the new word
n Teach meaning through use in context
n Employ peer models

Troia, 2005; Ukrainetz, 2006

Tier 1: Vocabulary

n Provide language-sensitive literacy

instruction in general education (cont.)
¡ Use multimedia methods
¡ Have fun with words and use gimmicks
¡ Provide explicit and implicit instruction
¡ Aim for fluent, automatic understanding/use
¡ Teach students to be better, more independent
word learners

Carr & Wilson, 1986; McKenna, 2004; Nagy,

1988; NRP, 2000 & Stahl, 2004, Ukrainetz, 2006
 Tier 1: Vocabulary

n Provide language-sensitive literacy

instruction in general education (cont)
¡ Relate new vocabulary words to background
knowledge
¡ Develop elaborated word knowledge
¡ Become active participants in learning new words
¡ Develop strategies for new vocabulary words
¡ Provide extensive reading experiences

Ukrainetz, 2006
Tier 1: Vocabulary
n Ensure the following through collaboration:
n Purposeful encounters with vocabulary where the
student needs word for communicating
n Motivate students to use target words
n Gotcha’s or extra credit on written assignments
n Choose activities that involve repeated needs
n Provide intense encounters with frequent sessions
n Support through scaffolding techniques
n Make instruction explicit and focused on word
learning

Ukrainetz, 2006
Tier 1: Vocabulary

n Extinguish the following through collaboration

n Teaching words in isolation
n Developing vocabulary lists by their presence in a story
n Having students copy definitions
n Relying heavily on dictionary definitions to provide
meaning
n Pre-teaching unfamiliar words out of context
n Forgetting to relate words to the lives of your students
n Making word learning tedious

Carr & Wilson, 1986; McKenna, 2004;

Nagy, 1988; NRP, 2000 & Stahl, 2004
Tier 2: Vocabulary
n LINCS
n Developed by Edwin Ellis,1992.
n Researched by Wedel, Deshler & Schumaker,
1988.
n Multiple Opportunities with Elaboration
(MOWE)
Tier 2: Vocabulary

n LINCS Small group (1:3 or 1:1)

1. Pretest 10 target vocabulary for whole class
2. Pull student into/over to small group once or twice a
week to provide more explicit, systematic and
focused instruction than the typical classroom (i.e.,
implement LINCS on target curricular vocabulary words
for a specified period of time)
3. Posttest those 10 target vocabulary words (80% Rule)
4. Compare progress against other students (i.e., not at-
risk) in the class who did not receive instruction in LINCS
5. Continue with steps 1-4 in order to ensure at least three
other data collection points (i.e., total of 30 new words
for whole intervention period)
Tier 3: Vocabulary

n LINCS Small Group (1:3 or 1:1)

1. Pretest 10 target vocabulary for whole class
2. Pull student into/over to small group on a daily basis to
provide substantial practice (i.e., implement LINCS on
target curricular vocabulary words for a specified period of
time)
3. Posttest those 10 target vocabulary words (80% Rule)
4. Compare progress against other students (i.e., not at-risk) in
the class who did not receive instruction in LINCS
5. Continue with steps 1-4 in order to ensure at least three
other data collection points (i.e., total of 30 new words for
whole intervention period)
Phonemic Awareness in a Tiered Model

n Universal Screening
¡ Assessments from text publishers
¡ Teacher-made tests
¡ AIMSweb
¡ DIBELS
n Progress monitoring
¡ DIBELS
¡ AIMSweb
n Intervention
¡ LiPS
Tier 1: Phonemic Awareness
n Professional development to teachers
n Organize alphabetic instruction more effectively by
accounting for visual confusion of letters,
frequency of occurrence, and ease of articulation
n Make part of any preventative or remedial
program
n Provide to students who are normally developing,
at-risk and/or experiencing reading difficulties

Cunningham, 1990; NRP, 2001;Torgesen, J., Wagner, R., &

Rashotte, C., 1994; Troia, 2005
Tier 1: Phonemic Awareness
n Teach explicitly in a meaningful context
n Provide 5-18 hours of instruction
n Use multi-sensory strategies
n Teach phoneme manipulation with letters

NRP, 2001
Tier 1: Phonemic Awareness
n Ensure that instruction in phonemic awareness includes
instruction in graphemes as well as instruction in the
connections between graphemes and phonemes to read and
spell words
n Account for dialectal variations
n Teach students in small groups as opposed to large groups or
individually
n Combine blending and segmenting tasks
n Teach letter shapes, names and sounds to the point they are
over learned
n Teach letter names while phonemic awareness skills are taught

NRP, 2001
Tier 1: Phonemic Awareness
n Teach from easies to most difficult
n First-sound comparisons (i.e., identifying the names
of pictures beginning with the same sound)
n Blending onset-rime units into real words
n Blending phonemes into real words
n Delete a phoneme and say the word that remains
n Segment words into phonemes
n Blending phonemes into nonwords
n Schatschneider, Francis, Foorman, Fletcher and
Mehta, 1999

NRP, 2001
Tier 1: Phonemic Awareness
n Extinguish the following through collaboration
n Spend too much time on rhyme and syllable-level
activities
n Lower expectations bases on I.Q. because
intelligence has been shown to have no main
effect
n Teach more than two skills at a time
n Assume there is a difference between who
provides the instruction (teacher vs. researcher)

Hurford, D., Darrow, L., Edwards, T., Howerton, C., Mote, C.,
Schauf, J., & Coffey, P., 1993; NRP, 2001
Tier 1: Phonemic Awareness
n Extinguish the following through collaboration
(cont.)
n Expect to see dyslexic students making progress with
learning to spell based on just phonemic awareness
training
n Teach acquisition of phonemic awareness as the end
goal
n Consider phonemic awareness training as a complete
reading program
n Assume that teaching phonemic awareness alone will
ensure the students will learn to read and write

Hurford, D., Darrow, L., Edwards, T., Howerton, C.,

Mote, C., Schauf, J., & Coffey, P., 1993; NRP, 2001
Tier 2: Phonemic Awareness
n Scaffolding Technique for Segmentation and
Blending Tasks
1. Two Monosyllabic words in sentence (Jon-eats)
2. Longer sentences (I-love-you)
3. Compound words (base-ball)
4. Syllables (hap-py)
5. Onset and Rimes (spl-it)
6. Continuant sounds (m-a-n)
n Initial consonants first
7. Noncontinuant sounds
n Use Iteration Technique (tttt-i-ppp)
n Initial consonants first

Adams, et al, 1998; Catts, 1991;

Tier 2: Phonemic Awareness
n Use physical or structural supports
n Printed letters to aid in sound segmentation
n Social Support
n Modeling
n Imitation
n Patterned books
n Repeated reading of books
Tier 2 & 3: Phonemic Awareness
n LiPS Program
n Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing Program for
Reading, Spelling, and Speech
n Formerly known as ADD
n Multisensory program
n K-12 Supplemental/intervention program
n Phonemic awareness
n Phonemic decoding
n Orthographic processing
n Sight word knowledge
n Spelling
Tier 2-3: Phonemic Awareness

n Utilize in a whole group, small group or

individual settings as a preventive tool
or intensive intervention
n Supplements the core reading program
when utilized as a preventive measure
n Can also stand alone as the phonemic
awareness instruction

www.fcrr.org
Tier 3: Phonemic Awareness
n When used as an intensive intervention, it is
recommended individuals receive instruction
two to four hours a day, five days a week for
eight-twelve weeks
n Classroom teachers, specialists, speech-
language pathologists, tutors, and
paraprofessionals could provide instruction
using this program
Narrative Comprehension
n Universal Screening
n Assessments from text publishers
n Teacher-made tests
n AIMSweb (Reading Comprehension)
n DIBELS Retell Fluency
n Progress monitoring
n C-Units
n Worksamples (see handout)
n Collect data on peers without intervention as a comparison
n Intervention
n Teaching narrative structure
n Story Map Instruction
Following Directions
n Universal Screening
n Assessments from text publishers
n Teacher-made tests
n Boehm Test of Basic Concepts-3
n Progress monitoring
n Pretest Posttest Posttest Posttest Design
n Work samples
n Collect data on peers without intervention as a comparison
n Intervention
n Visualization with Rehearsal
n Chunking Strategy
n Direct instruction in grammatical forms (passive voice)
n Direct instruction in basic concepts