Chapter 01

Lecture Outline

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 1.1 Anatomy and
Physiology
• Anatomy: scientific discipline
that investigates the body’s
structure

• Physiology: scientific
investigation of the processes or
functions of living things

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 Topics of Anatomy

• Gross or macroscopic: structures

examined without a microscope
– Regional: studied area by area
– Systemic: studied system by system
– Surface: external form and relation to deeper
structures as x-ray in anatomic imaging
• Microscopic: structures seen with the
microscope
– Cytology: cellular anatomy
– Histology: study of tissues

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 Topics of Physiology
• Reveals dynamic nature of living things
• Considers operations of specific organ
systems
– Cell physiology: examines processes in
cells
– Neurophysiology: focuses on the nervous
system
– Cardiovascular: the heart and blood
vessels

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Subjects That Encompass Both
Anatomy and Physiology

• Pathology: structural and

functional changes caused by
disease
• Exercise Physiology: changes in
structure and function caused by
exercise

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 1.2 Structural and Functional
Organization of the Human Body
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or
display. • Chemical Level:
interaction of atoms
1 Chemical level. Atoms
(colored balls) combine
to form molecules.
1
2 Cell level. Molecules

• Cell Level:
form organelles, such as
the nucleus and mitochondria,
which make up cells. Atoms
Mitochondria
3 Tissue level. Similar cells

structural and
and surrounding materials 2 Nucleus
make up tissues. Molecule
4 Organ level. Different (DNA)
tissues combine to form

functional unit of
organs, such as the Smooth muscle cell
urinary bladder.
5 Organ system level.

living organisms
Organs, such as the Smooth
urinary bladder and muscle 3
kidneys, make up an tissue
organ system.
6 Organism level. Organ

• Tissue Level: group

systems make up an
organism.
4
Urinary
Epithelium

of similar cells and

bladder
Connective tissue
Smooth muscle tissue

the materials
Kidney Connective tissue
6 5
Ureter Wall of urinary bladder

surrounding them
Urinary bladder
Urethra
Urinary system
Organism

© Bart Harris/Corbis

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 1.2 Structural and Functional
Organization of the Human Body
• Organ Level: one
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display.

or more tissues
1 Chemical level. Atoms
(colored balls) combine
to form molecules.
1
2 Cell level. Molecules

functioning together
form organelles, such as
the nucleus and mitochondria,
which make up cells. Atoms
Mitochondria
3 Tissue level. Similar cells
and surrounding materials 2 Nucleus

• Organ System
make up tissues. Molecule
4 Organ level. Different (DNA)
tissues combine to form

Level: group of
organs, such as the Smooth muscle cell
urinary bladder.
5 Organ system level.
Organs, such as the Smooth

organs functioning
urinary bladder and muscle 3
kidneys, make up an tissue
organ system.
6 Organism level. Organ

together
systems make up an
organism.
4
Urinary
Epithelium
bladder

• Organism Level:
Connective tissue
Smooth muscle tissue

Kidney Connective tissue

any living thing.

6 5
Ureter Wall of urinary bladder

Urinary bladder
Urethra
Urinary system
Organism

© Bart Harris/Corbis

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Major Organs of the Body
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Brain

Spinal cord

Carotid
artery
Larynx
Trachea Esophagus

Aortic arch
Lung

Heart
Diaphragm
Liver
Spleen
Pancreas (behind (behind stomach)
stomach)
Stomach
Gallbladder
Kidney
Kidney (behind stomach)
(behind intestine)
Small intestine
Large
intestine
Ureter
(behind small
intestine)
Urinary
bladder
Urethra
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Organ Systems of the Body
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Hair Skull

Clavicle
Sternum
Skin Ribs Humerus
Vertebral
column
Pelvis Radius
Ulna

Femur

Tibia
Fibula

Integumentary System Skeletal System

Provides protection, regulates temperature, Provides protection and support, allows
prevents water loss, and helps produce body movements, produces blood cells, and
vitamin D. Consists of skin, hair, nails, and stores minerals and fat. Consists of bones,
sweat glands. associated cartilages, ligaments, and joints.

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 Organ Systems of the Body
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Temporalis Tonsils
Pectoralis Cervical lymph
major Thymus
node
Biceps Axillary
brachii Mammary plexus
lymph
Rectus node
abdominis Thoracic duct
Lymphatic Spleen
Sartorius
vessel Inguinal
Quadriceps
femoris lymph node

Gastrocnemius

Muscular System Lymphatic System

Produces body movements, maintains
posture, and produces body heat. Consists of
muscles attached to the skeleton by tendons.
Removes foreign substances from the
blood and lymph, combats disease,
maintains tissue fluid balance, and
absorbs fats from the digestive tract.
Consists of the lymphatic vessels, lymph
nodes, and other lymphatic organs.
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Organ Systems of the Body
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Nasal cavity Pharynx (throat)

Nose
Pharynx (throat) Oral cavity Salivary glands
Larynx (mouth)
Esophagus
Trachea Stomach
Bronchi
Lungs Pancreas
Small intestine
Liver
Gallbladder Large
intestine
Appendix
Rectum
Anus

Respiratory System Digestive System

Performs the mechanical and chemical
Exchanges oxygen and carbon
processes of digestion, absorption of
dioxide between the blood and air
nutrients, and elimination of wastes.
and regulates blood pH. Consists of
Consists of the mouth, esophagus,
the lungs and respiratory passages.
stomach, intestines, and accessory
organs.
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Organ Systems of the Body
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Brain Hypothalamus
Pineal
Pituitary gland
Spinal cord Thyroid Parathyroids
(posterior part of
Nerve Thymus thyroid)
Cauda
Adrenals
equina Pancreas (islets)
Ovaries Testes
(female) (male)

Nervous System
A major regulatory system that detects
sensations and controls movements,
physiological processes, and intellectual
functions. Consists of the brain, spinal cord,
nerves, and sensory receptors.
Endocrine System
A major regulatory system that influences
metabolism, growth, reproduction, and many
other functions. Consists of glands, such as
the pituitary, that secrete hormones.
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 Organ Systems of the Body
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Carotid
artery
Superior
Jugular vena cava
vein
Pulmonary
Heart trunk
Brachial artery Aorta
Kidney
Inferior vena Femoral Ureter
cava artery and
Urinary
vein
bladder
Urethra

Cardiovascular System Urinary System

Transports nutrients, waste products, gases,
and hormones throughout the body; plays
a role in the immune response and the
regulation of body temperature. Consists of
the heart, blood vessels, and blood.
Removes waste products from the blood and
regulates blood pH, ion balance, and water
balance. Consists of the kidneys, urinary
bladder, and ducts that carry urine.
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 Organ Systems of the Body
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Mammary
gland
(in breast) Seminal vesicle
Uterine tube
Ductus Prostate gland
Ovary
deferens Testis
Uterus

Epididymis Penis
Vagina
Female Reproductive System Male Reproductive System

Produces oocytes and is the site of fertilization
and fetal development; produces milk for the
newborn; produces hormones that influence
sexual function and behaviors. Consists of the
ovaries, vagina, uterus, mammary glands, and
associated structures.
Produces and transfers sperm cells to
the female and produces hormones that
influence sexual functions and behaviors.
Consists of the testes, accessory structures,
ducts, and penis.
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 1.3 Characteristics of Life
1. Organization: condition in which there are
specific relationships and functions
2. Metabolism: all chemical reactions of the body
3. Responsiveness: ability to sense changes and
adjust
4. Growth: increase in size and/or number of cells
5. Development: changes in an organism over time
Differentiation: change from general to specific
Morphogenesis: change in shape of tissues, organs
6. Reproduction: new cells or new organisms

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 1.4 Biomedical Research
• Shared characteristics between
living things drive research
– Single-celled bacteria = cell
– Mammalian research furthers human
surgery and medicine
• Strict laws govern research to minimize
suffering

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 1.5 Homeostasis
• Values of variables fluctuate
around the set point to establish a normal range
of values.
• Set point: the ideal normal value of a variable.
• What is the set point for body temperature?
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Body temperature

98.8° F
(normal range)

98.6° F Set point

98.4° F

Time (min)
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 Feedback Systems
• Two types: negative and positive
• Components
– Receptor: monitors the value of some variable
– Control center: establishes the set point
– Effector: can change the value of the variable
• Stimulus: deviation from the set point;
detected by the receptor
• Response: produced by the effector

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 Negative Feedback
Receptors monitor the value
Of a variable. In this case,
Receptors in the skin monitor
body temperature.
Receptors monitor
Information about the value of body temperature.
the variable is sent to a control
center. In this case, nerves
send information to the part of
the brain responsible for Nerves
Regulating body temperature.
Effector (sweat gland)
The control center Control center responds to changes
compares the value of the (brain) in body temperature.
Sweat gland
variable against the set
point.

If a response is necessary to An effector produces a

maintain homeostasis, the
control center causes an
effector to respond. In this
case, nerves send information
to the sweat glands.
response that maintains
homeostasis. In this case,
stimulating sweat glands
lowers body temperature.

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Example of Negative Feedback

Receptors and control centers:

Control centers in the brain increase Effectors:
stimulation of sweat glands and relax Sweat glands
blood vessels in the skin when produce
receptors detect increased body sweat; blood
temperature. vessels in the Sweat gland
skin dilate.

2
HOMEOSTASIS DISTURBED: HOMEOSTASIS RESTORED:
Body temperature increases. Body temperature decreases.

Body temperature
Body temperature

(normal range)
(normal range)

Start Here

HOMEOSTASIS DISTURBED: HOMEOSTASIS RESTORED:

Body temperature decreases. Body temperature increases.

Stimulus Response

Receptors and control centers: Effectors:

Control centers in the brain decrease Sweat glands cease
stimulation of sweat glands and sweat production;
constrict blood vessels in the skin blood vessels in
when receptors detect decreased the skin constrict;
body temperature. skeletal muscle Sweat gland
contracts (shivering).

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 Changes in B.P. During
Exercise
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Blood pressure

Normal BP
during exercise
Normal BP at rest Normal BP
after exercise

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Time
 Positive Feedback
• When a deviation occurs, the response is to make the
deviation greater
– Unusual in normal, healthy individuals, leads away from
homeostasis and can result in death
– Example of normal positive feedback: childbirth
– Example of harmful positive feedback: after hemorrhage, blood
pressure drops and the heart’s ability to pump blood decreases

SUBSTRATE SUBSTRATE

Enzyme A Enzyme A
Inactive intermediate 1 Inactive intermediate 1
Enzyme B Enzyme B
+
Inactive intermediate 2 Inactive intermediate 2

Enzyme C Enzyme C

Active product Active product

Negative feedback Positive feedback

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 1.6 Terminology and the Body Plan
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• Anatomical Position
Right Left
– Body erect, face forward, feet Superior
together, palms face forward Midline
(cephalic)
Proximal
• Other Body Positions
– Supine: lying face upward Medial
Distal
– Prone: lying face downward Lateral

• Directional Terms Inferior

– Superior (Cephalic) vs. (caudal)

Inferior (Caudal) toward or

away from the head
– Medial vs. Lateral relative to
the midline
Distal
– Proximal vs. Distal used to
describe linear structures Proximal

– Superficial vs. Deep relative

to the surface of the body © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Eric Wise, photographer

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 Terminology and the Body Plan
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Superior
(cephalic)

• Directional Terms
Anterior
(ventral)
Posterior Inferior
(dorsal) (caudal)
(cont.)
– Anterior
(Ventral) vs.
Posterior
Proximal
(Dorsal). Anterior
is forward;
posterior is
Distal toward the back.

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 Table 1.2 Directional Terms for Humans
Directional Terms for Humans
Terms Etymology* Definition Examples
Right Toward the right side of the body Right ear
Left Toward the left side of the body Left eye
Superior L. higher A structure above another The chin is superior to the navel.
Inferior L. lower A structure below another The navel is inferior to the chin.

Cephalic G. kephale, head Closer to the head than another structure (usually The chin is cephalic to the navel.
synonymous with superior)
Caudal L. cauda, a tail Closer to the tail than another structure (usually The navel is caudal to the chin.
synonymous with inferior)

Anterior L. before The front of the body The navel is anterior to the spine.
Posterior L. posterus, following The back of the body The spine is posterior to the breastbone.

Ventral L. ventr-, belly Toward the belly (synonymous with anterior) The navel is ventral to the spine.
Dorsal L. dorsum, back Toward the back (synonymous with posterior) The spine is dorsal to the breastbone.

Proximal L. proximus, nearest Closer to the point of attachment to the body than The elbow is proximal to the wrist.
another structure
Distal L. di- plus sto, to stand Farther from the point of attachment to the body than The wrist is distal to the elbow.
apart or be distant another structure

Lateral L. latus, side Away from the midline of the body The nipple is lateral to the breastbone.
Medial L. medialis, middle Toward the midline of the body The nose is medial to the eye.

Superficial L. superficialis, toward Toward or on the surface (not shown in figure 1.10) The skin is superficial to muscle.
the surface
Deep O.E. deop, deep Away from the surface, internal (not shown in figure 1.10) The lungs are deep to the ribs.

*Origin and meaning of the word: L., Latin; G., Greek; O.E., Old English.

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 Body Parts and Regions
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Frontal (forehead)
Head Orbital (eye)
Nasal (nose) Otic (ear)
Oral (mouth) Buccal (cheek)
Mental (chin)
Neck Cervical
Clavicular (collarbone)
Pectoral (chest) Axillary (armpit)
Thoracic Sternal (breastbone)
(thorax) Brachial (arm)
Mammary (breast)

Trunk Antecubital (front of elbow)

Abdominal (abdomen) Upper
Umbilical (navel) Antebrachial (forearm) limb
Pelvic (pelvis)
Inguinal (groin)
Pubic (genital) Carpal (wrist)
Palmar (palm)
Manual (hand)
Digital (fingers)
Coxal (hip)
Femoral (thigh)

Patellar (kneecap)

(a) Crural (leg) Lower

limb

Talus (ankle)
Dorsum (top of foot) Pedal (foot)
Digital (toes)

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 Body Parts and Regions
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Cranial (skull)
Occipital (base of skull)
Nuchal (back of neck)

Acromial (point of shoulder)

Scapular (shoulder blade)

Dorsal
Vertebral (spinal column)
(back)
Olecranon (point of elbow) Upper limb
Lumbar (loin)

Trunk Sacral (between hips)

Dorsum (back of hand)

Gluteal (buttock)
Perineal (perineum)

Popliteal (hollow behind knee)

(b) Sural (calf)

Lower limb

Plantar (sole)
Calcaneal (heel)

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 Abdominal Subdivisions
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display.

Right Left
hypochondriac Epigastric hypochondriac
Right-upper region region region
Left-upper
quadrant quadrant

Right Left
lumbar Umbilical lumbar
region region region

Right-lower Left-lower
quadrant quadrant Right Left
iliac Hypogastric iliac
region
region region

(a) (b)

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 Planes
• Median (through the Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

midline) and Sagittal

(same plane, but to
the left or right of Sagittal
plane
median Transverse,
or horizontal,
• Frontal or Coronal plane

divides body into

anterior and posterior
sections
• Transverse / Cross
Frontal, or
divides body into coronal, plane

superior and inferior

sections
• Oblique: Other than (a)

at a right angle
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Fundamental Cerebrum

Figure 1.12
Cerebellum Nasal cavity
Brainstem
Tongue
Spinal cord Pharynx (throat)

Vertebral
column Trachea

(b) Sagittal section of the head

Sagittal
plane

Transverse,
or horizontal,
plane

Stomach
Liver Large
intestine
Spleen
Kidney Vertebra
Spinal Kidney
cord
Frontal, or
coronal, plane
(c) Transverse section through the abdomen

Skin
Fat
Hip muscle

(a) Coxal bone

Femur (hipbone)
(thighbone)

Thigh muscles

(d) Frontal section through the right hip

a: © McGraw-Hill Higher Education, Inc./Eric Wise, photographer; b-d: © R. T Hutchings
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 Planes Through an Organ
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• Longitudinal: cut
along the length of Longitudinal section

an organ
• Transverse/Cross:
cut at right angle to
Intestine

length of the organ

• Oblique: cut at any
but a right angle

Transverse Oblique
section section

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 Body Cavities
• Diaphragm: divides body cavity into
thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.
• Mediastinum: contains all structures of
the thoracic cavity except the lungs
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Esophagus
Trachea
Mediastinum
(divides thoracic Blood vessels
cavity) Thymus Thoracic
cavity
Heart

Abdominal
cavity
Diaphragm
Abdominal
Abdominopelvic cavity
cavity

Pelvic cavity Pelvic

Symphysis cavity
pubis
(a) (b) 1-32
 Serous Membranes
• Cover the organs of trunk cavities and line the cavity
• Fist represents an organ
• Inner balloon wall represents visceral serous membrane
• Outer balloon wall represents parietal serous membrane
• Cavity between two membranes filled with lubricating serous
fluid that is produced by the membranes
• Inflammation of the serous membranes
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Outer balloon wall (parietal

Outer balloon wall serous membrane)
Inner balloon wall

Cavity Inner balloon wall (visceral serous

Fist (organ) Cavity
membrane)
Fist (organ)

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(a) (b)
 Serous Membrane Names
– Pericardium refers to heart.
– Pleura refers to lungs and thoracic cavity
– Peritoneum refers to abdominopelvic cavity
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display.
Parietal
peritoneum
Visceral
Parietal Organs peritoneum
pericardium surrounded Peritoneal
by visceral
Visceral cavity
peritoneum
pericardium containing
peritoneal
Pericardial
fluid
cavity
containing Retroperitoneal
pericardial Mesenteries organs
fluid Mesentery
Heart

(a)

Parietal Retroperitoneal
pleura organs
Visceral (c)
pleura
Pleural cavity
containing
pleural fluid
Lung

Diaphragm

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(b)
 Imaging Techniques
• Radiography
• Ultrasound (US)
• Computed Tomography (CT)
• Dynamic Spatial Reconstruction (DSR)
• Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA)
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
• Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

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Radiography (X-ray)
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© Omikron/Photo Researchers, Inc. 1-36

 Ultrasound (US)
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© Bernard Benoit/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.
 CT and DSRCopyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Computed
Tomography (CT
Scan): computer-
analyzed composite
of radiograph; (a)

shows slices of
body.
• Dynamic Spatial
Reconstruction
(DSR): 3-D version
of CT using multiple
slices. (b)
(a): © Scott Camazine (b): © D. P. M. Ribotsky/Custom Medical Stock Photo

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Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA)
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© ISM/Phototake.com

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
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© Photodisc RF
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Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
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© McGill University/ CNRI/Phototake.com

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 Table 1.1 Anatomical Imaging
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TABLE 1.1 Anatomical Imaging

Imaging Technique
Image Clinical Examples
X-ray This extremely shortwave electromagnetic radiation (see chapter 2) moves through the
body, exposing a photographic plate to form a radiograph (rā′dē-ō-graf ). Bones and
radiopaque dyes absorb the rays and create underexposed areas that appear white on
the photographic film. Almost everyone has had a radiograph taken, either to visualize a
broken bone or to check for a cavity in a tooth. However, a major limitation of
radiographs is that they give only flat, two-dimensional (2-D) images of the body.

Ultrasound Ultrasound, the second oldest imaging technique, was first developed in the early
1950s as an extension of World War II sonar technology. It uses high-frequency sound
waves, which are emitted from a transmitter-receiver placed on the skin over the area to
be scanned. The sound waves strike internal organs and bounce back to the receiver on
the skin. Even though the basic technology is fairly old, the most important advances in
the field occurred only after it became possible to analyze the reflected sound waves by
computer. Once a computer analyzes the pattern of sound waves, the information is
transferred to a monitor and visualized as a sonogram (son′ō-gram) image. One of the
more recent advances in ultrasound technology is the ability of more advanced
computers to analyze changes in position through “real-time” movements. Among other
medical applications, ultrasoundis commonly used to evaluate the condition of the fetus
during pregnancy.
Computed Computed tomographic (tō′mō-graf′ik) (CT) scans, developed in 1972 and originally
Tomograph called computerized axial tomographic (CAT) scans, are computer-analyzed x-ray
y images. A low-intensity x-ray tube is rotated through a 360-degree arc around the
(CT) patient, and the images are fed into a computer. The computer then constructs the
image of a “slice” through the body at the point where the x-ray beam was focused
(a) (b) and rotated (a). Some computers are able to take several scans short distances apart
and stack the slices to produce a 3-D image of a body part (b).

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 Table 1.1 Anatomical Imaging
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TABLE 1.1 Anatomical Imaging

Imaging TechniqueImage Clinical Examples
Dynamic Digital subtraction angiography (an-jē-og′ră-fē) (DSA) is one step beyond CT scanning. A
Subtraction
Angiography
3-D radiographic image of an organ, such as the brain, is made and stored in a computer.
(DSA) Then a radiopaque dye is injected into the blood, and a second radiographic computer
image is made. The first image is subtracted from the second one, greatly enhancing the
differences revealed by the injected dye. These dynamic computer images can be used, for
example, to guide a catheter into a carotid artery during angioplasty, a procedure by which
a tiny balloon compresses the material clogging the artery.

Magnetic Resonance Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) directs radio waves at a person lying inside a large
Imaging (MRI)
electromagnetic field. The magnetic field causes the protons of various atoms to align (see
chapter 2). Because of the large amounts of water in the body, the alignment of hydrogen
atom protons is most important in this imaging system. Radio waves of certain
frequencies, which change the alignment of the hydrogen atoms, then are directed at the
patient. When the radio waves are turned off, the hydrogen atoms realign in accordance
with the magnetic field. The time it takes the hydrogen atoms to realign is different for
various body tissues. These differences can be analyzed by computer to produce very
clear sections through the body. The technique is also very sensitive in detecting some
forms of cancer far more readily than can a CT scan.

Positron Emission Positron emission tomographic (PET) scans can identify the metabolic states of various
Tomography (PET)
tissues. This technique is particularly useful in analyzing the brain. When cells are active,
they are using energy. The energy they need is supplied by the breakdown of glucose
(blood sugar). If radioactively treated (“labeled”) glucose is given to a patient, the active
cells take up the labeled glucose. As the radioactivity in the glucose decays, positively
charged subatomic particles called positrons are emitted. When the positrons collide with
electrons, the two particles annihilate each other and gamma rays are given off. The
gamma rays can be detected, pinpointing the cells that are metabolically active.

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