Literature Teaching English in The Elementary Grade Through Literature

LESSON 1
TEACHING LITERATURE: AN INTRODUCTION
TOPICS
1. Teaching Literature: An Introduction
2. Defining Literature
3. Teaching Literature: Why and What
4. Reasons for Using Literary Texts in Language Teaching
5. Criteria for Selecting Suitable Literary Texts in Language Classes
6. Benefits of Using Literature to Language Teaching
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. articulate on the meaning of literature as used in language teaching
2. determine the varied reasons and basics of teaching English using
literary text
3. familiarize with the criteria and benefits of using literature in language
teaching
4. Appreciate and justify the benefits of different genres of literature in
language teaching relative to creating programs and policy-making
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Elaborate the various definition of literature in teaching language as (a)
representation of culture and tradition, (b) rich linguistic input, and (c) power
2. Which of the reasons for using literary texts have you personally observed
employed in class as a language learner? What have you figured out about its
significance to language teaching?
3. Which among the criteria for selecting suitable literary texts do you, as a future
teacher, think will be most important to consider? Why?
TOPIC 1: TEACHING LITERATURE: AN INTRODUCTION
Literature plays an important role as a fundamental element and source of

genuine texts of the language curriculum aside from its role as an ultimate aim of
English instruction. It has been gaining recognition. Among language educators, there
has been a heated argument as to now, when, where, and why literature should be
incorporated in English language curriculum. Numerous discussion of how literature and
language instruction can work together and blend for the benefit of students and
teachers has led to the creation of interesting ideas, learning, and improved instruction
for all.
Originally compiled by Maria Victoria S. Mateo
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Duff and Maley (1990: 6) formulate three types of justification for using literary
texts:
 linguistic,
 methodological and
 motivational.
TOPIC 2: DEFINING LITERATURE
Literature is a term used to describe written or spoken material. Generally

speaking, "literature" is used to refer to anything from creative writing to more
technical or scientific works, but the term is most frequently used to pertain to works of
the creative imagination, including works of poetry, drama, fiction, and nonfiction. The
types of literary texts that can be studied inside and outside the English Language
Teaching classroom include short stories, poems, novels, and plays.
Literature
represents language or introduces new

people: culture/ tradition worlds of experience
potential source of
learner motivation Originally compiled by Maria Victoria S. Mateo
The learners enjoy the comedies and the tragedies of poems, stories, and plays;
and may even grow and evolve through literary journey with books.
This definition of literature serves as guide on the role of literature in the English
Language classroom which has been re-assessed by many experts. Many of them view
literary texts as:
 providing rich linguistic input and effective stimuli
 offering a rich source of linguistic input and can help learners to practice the
four language skills -speaking, listening, reading and writing- in addition
 providing opportunities for multi-sensorial classroom experiences and can
appeal to learners with different learning styles;
 justifying on very wide range of styles, registers, and text opportunities
 engage learners in a personal response from their own experiences
 stimulating language acquisition by providing levels of meaning of literary texts
provide; and,
 making the students more aware of the language they are learning, help them
develop skills and strategies they can apply in many different situations and
contexts, increase their interest and motivation, and make the learning of the
language a more enjoyable and worthwhile experience
This information pertaining to literary values is an evidence of reasons of

inclusion of literature in language teaching. Incorporating literature is a good
opportunity for language enrichment.
 Learners can develop their linguistic knowledge, language skills, and language
awareness in literary texts.
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 Learners in literary texts see how words and structures function in sentences.
 Learners see how characters in literary texts interact with each other which help
them develop their communicative competence.
TOPIC 3: TEACHING LITERATURE: WHY AND WHAT
The teaching of literature has been given emphasis in the field of language
learning and teaching. There have been many activities made, basically providing
teachers’ hints of the reasons why use of literature in language teaching is very
essential. To these, they gained rich ideas on what to do in the teaching-learning
process. The illustration presents the scenarios in the field of language learning and
teaching.
Field of foreign language learning and teaching
 Use of literature as a  Emphasis on translation as

technique for teaching an application area covering
become very interesting four basic skills and the fifth
skills
Why
and
With focus on What Translating literary text to
*basic language skills language use
- reading, *gives students the chance to
- writing, practice
- listening and speaking -lexical,
*language areas -syntactic,
- vocabulary, -semantic,
- grammar and -pragmatic and stylistic
- pronunciation knowledge
Originally com
TOPIC 4: REASONS FOR USING LITERARY TEXTS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING

LANGUAGE CLASSES
According to Collie and Slater (1990:3), there are four main reasons which lead a
language teacher to use literature in the classroom. These are valuable authentic
material, cultural enrichment, language enrichment and personal involvement. In
addition to these four main reasons, universality, non-triviality, personal relevance,
variety, interest, economy and suggestive power and ambiguity are some other factors
requiring the use of literature as a
powerful resource in the classroom
context.
1. Valuable Authentic Material

Literature is authentic
material. Most works of literature are
not created for the primary purpose
of teaching a language. Many
authentic samples of language in real-
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life are included within recently developed course materials.
2. Cultural Enrichment
For many language learners, the ideal way to increase
their understanding of verbal / nonverbal aspects of
communication in the country within which that language is
spoken - a visit or an extended stay - is just not probable. For
such learners, literary works, such as novels, plays, short
stories, etc. facilitate understanding how
communication takes place in that country.
This colorful created world can quickly help

the foreign learner to feel for the codes and
preoccupations that shape a real society through
visual literacy of semiotics.
3. Language Enrichment
Literature provides learners with a wide range of individual lexical or syntactic
items. Students become familiar with many features of the written language, reading a
substantial and contextualized body of text.
4. Personal Involvement
Literature can be useful in the language learning process owing to the personal
involvement it fosters in the reader.
Maley (1989:12) lists some of the reasons for regarding literature as a potent
resource in the language classroom as follows:
1. Universality
Because we are all human beings, the themes literature deals with are common
to all cultures despite their different way of treatment - Death, Love, Separation, Belief,
Nature ... the list is familiar. These experiences all happen to human beings.
2. Non-triviality
Many of the more familiar forms of language teaching inputs tend to trivialize
texts or experience. Literature does not trivialize or talk down.
3. Personal Relevance
Since it deals with ideas, things, sensations and events which either constitutes
part of the reader’s experience or which they can enter into imaginatively, they are able
to relate it to their own lives.
4. Variety
Literature includes within it all possible varieties of subject matter. It is, in fact, a
battery of topics to use in ELT.
5. Interest
Literature deals with themes and topics which are intrinsically interesting,
because part of the human experience, and treats them in ways designed to engaged
the readers’ attention.
6. Economy and suggestive power
One of the great strengths of literature is its suggestive power. Even in its
simplest forms, it invites us to go beyond what is said to what is implied.
7. Ambiguity
As it is highly suggestive and associative, literature speaks subtly different
meanings to different people. It is rare for two readers to react identically to any given
text. In teaching, this has two advantages.
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Apart from the above mentioned reasons for using literature in the foreign
language class, one of the main functions of literature is its sociolinguistic richness.
 The use of language changes from one social group to another.
 It changes from one geographical location to another.
 A person speaks differently in different social contexts like school, hospital,
police station and theatre (i.e. formal, informal, casual, frozen, intimate styles
speech).
 The language used changes from one profession to another (i.e. doctors,
engineers, economists use different terminology).
TOPIC 5: CRITERIA FOR SELECTING SUITABLE LITERARY TEXTS IN

LANGUAGE CLASSES
When selecting the literary texts to be used in language classes, the language
teacher should take into account:
S needs
T motivation
U
D interests
E cultural background
N
T language level
It is one major factor to take into account—whether a particular work is able to

reveal the kind of personal involvement by arousing the learners’ interest and eliciting
strong, positive reactions from them. Reading a literary text is more likely to have a
long-term and valuable effect upon the learners’ linguistic and extralinguistic knowledge
when it is meaningful and amusing. Choosing books relevant to the real-life experiences,
emotions, or dreams of the learner is of great importance. Language difficulty has to be
considered as well.
TOPIC 6: BENEFITS OF USING LITERATURE TO LANGUAGE TEACHING
Benefits of Using Short Stories
Short fiction is a supreme resource for observing not only language but life itself.
In short fiction, characters act out all the real and symbolic acts people carry out in daily
lives, and do so in a variety of registers and tones. The world of short fiction both
mirrors and illuminates human lives (Sage 1987:43). The inclusion of short fiction in the
ENGLISH curriculum offers the following educational benefits (Arıoğul 2001:11-18):
 makes the students’ reading task easier
 enlarges the advanced level readers’ worldviews about different cultures and
different groups of people,
 provides more creative, encrypt, challenging texts that require personal
exploration supported
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 motivates learners to read due to being an authentic material,
 offers a world of wonders and a world of mystery,
 gives students the chance to use their creativity,
 promotes critical thinking skills,
 facilitates teaching a foreign culture (i.e. serves as a valuable instrument in
attaining cultural knowledge of the selected community,
 makes students feel themselves comfortable and free, helps students coming
from various backgrounds
communicate with each other because
of its universal language,
 helps students to go beyond the
surface meaning and dive into
underlying meanings,
 acts as a perfect vehicle to help
students understand the positions of
themselves as well as the
Benefits of Using Drama
Using drama in a language classroom is a good resource for language teaching. It

is through the use of drama that learners become familiar with grammatical structures
in contexts and also learn about how to use the language to express, control and inform.
The educational benefits of drama, according to (Lenore 1993), are as follows:

 stimulates the imagination and promotes creative thinking,
 develops critical thinking skills,
 promotes language development,
 heightens effective listening skills,
 strengthens comprehension and learning retention by involving the senses as an
integral part of the learning process,
 increases empathy and awareness of others,
 fosters peer respect and group cooperation,
 reinforces positive self-concept,
 provides teachers with a fresh perspective on teaching.
Some other educational benefits of using drama in a foreign language class can
be listed as follows (Mengü 2002:1-4):
 bringing authenticity into the classroom,
 exposing the learners to the target culture as well as t he social problems a
society may be undergoing,
 increasing creativity, originality, sensitivity, fluency, flexibility, emotional stablity,
cooperation, and examination of moral attitudes, while developing
communication skills and appreciation of literature,
 helping learners improve their level of competence
with respect to their receptive and productive skills,
 providing a solid basis for the learners to bridge the
gap between their receptive
 and productive skills,
 offering students the space and time to develop new
ideas and insights in a range of contexts,
 enabling students to develop new understandings
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and forms of knowing not accessible in other more traditional ways of learning.
Benefits of Using Novel
The use of a novel is a beneficial technique for mastering not only linguistic
system but also life in relation to the target language. Using novel in a foreign language
class offers the following educational benefits:
 develops the advanced level readers’ knowledge about different cultures and
different groups of people,
 increases students’ motivation to read owing to being an authentic material,
 offers real life / real life like settings,
 gives students the opportunity to make use of their creativity,
 improves critical thinking skills,
 paves the way for teaching the target language culture,
 enables students to go beyond what is written and dive into what is meant,
Helton, C.A, J. Asamani and E.D. Thomas (1998:1-5)

expounds the educational benefits of novels as
follows:
 stimulates their imagination,
 helps students to identify the emotions of
the characters so that they can learn how
others cope with situations and problems
similar to their own experiences,
 helps them master the skills that will enable
them to acquire information,
 processes this knowledge, identify problems, formulate alternatives, and arrive
at meaningful, thoughtful, effective decisions and solutions,
 develops oral and written language skills,
 serves as a springboard for a multitude of holistic learning and critical thinking
activities beginning with basic comprehension and writing,
 presents a unique way of teaching reading by getting students involved and
excited about the reading process,
 motivates students to become a lifelong reader.
When selecting a novel to be used in the foreign language class, the language
teacher should pay attention to whether the novel has an intriguing story that will be of
interest to the entire class. Themes and settings captivating their imagination and
exploring the human condition should be included in the nature of the selected novels.
Novel should have a powerful, fast-paced plot and interesting, well delineated,
memorable characters.
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SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES
A. Dyad Activity.
1. Choose an English textbook you have used. Examine its literary contents to
determine which of them satisfy the reasons of regarding literature as a potent
resource in language classroom. Support your analysis with examples. Discuss
any fusion of reasons that you find out.
2. Examine any English language book that used a literary text for language
learning. See if you can detect what a learner can benefit from the literary
text(s) in enhancing his/her language skills. Support your answer (s) with
examples.
3. What kinds of literary texts do you believe will your language learners (future
learners) appreciate the most in learning a language? Be as specific as possible.
Which literary genre(s) would serve your learners the best? Why?
ASSESSMENT:
Direction: Choose the correct letter from the given options.

1. is a fundamental element and source of genuine texts of a language
curriculum.
a. Language c. Universality
b. Variety d. Literature
2. If language teaching used literature as one of the resource in learning a
language, it serves as a .
a. Cultural enrichment c. Personal involvement
b. Language enrichment d. Valuable authentic material
3. Though the world of a novel, play, or short story is an imaginary one, it presents
a full and colorful setting in which characters from many social / regional
backgrounds can be described. It pertains to .
4. Literature provides learners with a wide range of individual lexical or syntactic
items. It serves which reason .
5. They learn about the syntax and discourse functions of sentences, the variety of
possible structures, the different ways of connecting ideas, which develop and
enrich their own writing skills.
6. Different themes of literature are common to all cultures despite of how they
approach life and circumstances. This pertains to the use of literature in
language teaching that deals with
a. Non-triviality c. Variety
b. Personal relevance d. Universality
7. Since literature deals with ideas, things, sensations and events which either
constitutes part of the reader’s experience or which they can enter into
imaginatively, learners are able to relate it to their own lives during language
learning.
a. Non-triviality
b. Personal relevance
c. Variety
d. Universality
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8. Learners can learn a language as they relate to their own lives what literature
deals with such as ideas, things, sensations and events which either constitutes
part of the reader’s experience or which they can enter into imaginatively.
a. Economy and suggestive power
b. Interest
c. Personal relevance
d. Universality
9. Learners interpretation of literature will be a complete convergence as its
sociolinguistic function is very rich. Learners speak differently in different social
contexts.
a. Interest
b. Ambiguity
c. Universality
d. Economy and suggestive power
10. One of the criteria for selecting suitable literary texts in language class includes
all of the following EXCEPT
a. Interest, appeal, relevance and comprehensibility of simple text
b. Needs, motivation, interest, cultural background and language level
c. Arousing interest, eliciting strong positive reactions and effect’s learners’
extralinguistic knowledge
d. Personal relevance, economy and suggestive power, non-triviality, ambiguity
and universality
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LESSON 2
ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING THROUGH LITERATURE
TOPICS
1. English Language Teaching through Literature
2. Approach, Method, and Technique
3. Approaches to Language Teaching
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. explain the basics of the teaching of English using literary text
2. familiarize to concepts methods or approaches involve in the teaching of English
language among children through literature
3. articulate and examine on how the teaching methods influence language
learning
1. What has been the attitude toward the teaching of (a) pronunciation, (b)
grammar, and (c) vocabulary in the nine approaches given?
2. Which of these approaches have you personally experienced as a language
learner? What were your impressions and what is your assessment of the
effectiveness of the approach(es)?
3. Which approach(es) do you, as a future teacher, feel will be most comfortable
with? Why?
TOPIC 1: ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING THROUGH LITERATURE
Besides modern techniques and innovative approaches, Literature has also

become an important phenomenon of English in current global scenario.
According to Professor J. Collie, “To truly know a language, you must know
something of the literature of a language”. There are several benefits that a language
learner can derive from the inclusion of literature
for language teaching.
Literature provides learners with a broad

variety of individual lexical or syntactic items.
Students become acquainted with many types of
the written language, reading a considerable and
contextualized body of text. They study about the
syntax and discourse functions of sentences, the
variety of probable structures, and the different
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ways of linking ideas, which expand and improve their own writing skills. Students also
become more creative and audacious when they start to observe the richness and
diversity of the language they are trying to learn and commence to make use of some of
that potential themselves. Thus, they improve their communicative and cultural
capability in the authentic richness, sincerity of the genuine texts.
TOPIC 2 APPROACH, METHOD, AND TECHNIQUE
Anthony (1963) has provided a useful set of

definitions for these terms.
An approach to language teaching is

something that reflects a certain model or
research paradigm—a theory, if one likes. This
term is the broadest of the three. A method, on
the other hand, is a set of procedures, i.e., a system that spells out rather precisely how
to teach a second or foreign language. It is more specific than an approach but less
specific than a technique. Methods are typically compatible with one (or sometimes
two) approaches.
A technique is a classroom device or activity and thus represents the narrowest

of the three concepts. Some techniques are widely used and found in many methods
(e.g., dictation, imitation, and repetition); however, some techniques are specific to or
characteristic of a given method (e.g., using cuisinaire rods = the Silent Way [Gattegno
1976]).
The most problematic of Anthony’s three terms is method. Methods proliferated

in the 1970s. They were typically very specific in terms of the procedures and materials
that the teacher, who required special training, was supposed to use. They were almost
always developed and defined by one person. This person, in turn, trained practitioners
who accepted the method as gospel and helped to spread the word. Some methods and
their originators follow:
 Silent Wav (Gattegno 1976)

 Community Language Learning (Curran 1976)
 Total Physical Response (Asher 1977)
 Suggestologv, Suggestopedia, or Accelerated Learning (Lozanov 1978)
However, the lack of flexibility in such methods led some applied linguists (e.g.,
Richards 1984) to seriously question their usefulness and aroused a healthy skepticism
among language educators, who argued that there is no such thing as the best
“method”:
the complex circumstances of teaching and learning languages — with

different kinds of pupils, teachers, aims and objectives, approaches,
methods, and materials, classroom techniques and standards of
achievement— make it inconceivable that any single method could
achieve optimum success in all circumstances. (Strevens 1977, p.
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TOPIC 3 APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE TEACHING
At this point the following are the outline each of the nine approaches listed
above. In addition, any special proficiency or role that the teacher is expected (or not
expected) to fulfill is noted:
1. Grammar-Translation Approach (an extension of the approach used to teach

classical languages to the teaching of modern languages).
 Instruction is given in the native language of the students.
 There is little use of the target language for communication.
 Focus is on grammatical parsing, i.e., the form and inflection of words.
 There is early reading of difficult texts.
 A typical exercise is to translate sentences from the target language into the
mother tongue (or vice versa).
 The result of this approach is usually an inability on the part of the student to use
the language for communication.
 The teacher does not have to be able to speak the target language.
2. Direct Approach (a reaction to the Grammar- Translation Approach and its failure to
produce learners who could communicate in the foreign language they had been
studying)
 No use of the mother tongue is permitted (i.e., the teacher does not need to
knew the students’ native language).
 Lessons begin with dialogues and anecdotes in modern conversational style.
 Actions and pictures arc used to make meanings clear.
 Grammar is learned inductively.
 Literary texts are read for pleasure and are not analyzed grammatically.
 The target culture is also taught inductively.
 The teacher must be a native speaker or have nativelike proficiency in the target
language.
3. Reading Approach (a reaction to the problems experienced in implementing the

Direct Approach; reading was viewed as the most usable skill to have in a foreign
language since not many people traveled abroad at that time; also, few teachers could
use their foreign language well enough to use a direct approach effectively in class)
Only the grammar useful for reading comprehension is taught.
 Vocabulary is controlled at first (based on
frequency and usefulness) and then
expanded.
 Translation is once more a respectable
classroom procedure.
 Reading comprehension is the only language
skill emphasized.
 The teacher does not need to have good oral
proficiency in the target language.
4. Audiolingualism (a reaction to the Reading - approach and its lack of emphasis on

oral-aural -skills: this approach became dominant in the United States during the 1940s,
1950s, and 1960s: it draws from the Reform Movement and me Direct Approach but
adds features from multicultural linguistics [Bloomfield 1933] and behavioral psychology
[Skinner 1957] )
 Lessons begin with dialogues.
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 Mimicry and memorization are used, based on the assumption that language is
habit formation.
 Grammatical structures are sequenced and rules are taught inductively.
 Skills are sequenced: listening, speaking— reading, writing postponed.
 Pronunciation is stressed from the beginning.
 Vocabulary is severely limited in initial stages,
 A great effort is made to prevent learner errors.
 Language is often manipulated without regard to meaning or context,
 The teacher must be proficient only in the structures, vocabulary, etc. that he or
she is teaching since learning activities and materials are carefully controlled.
5. Oral-Situational Approach (a reaction to the Trading Approach and its lack of

emphasis on oral-aural skills; this approach was dominant in Britain during the 1940s,
1950s. and 1960s; it draws from the Reform Movement and the Direct Approach but
adds features from Firthian linguistics the emerging professional field of language
pedagogy)
 The spoken language is primary.
 All language material is practiced orally before being presented in written form i
reading and writing are taught only after an oral base in lexical and grammatical
forms has been established).
 Only the target language should be used in the classroom.
 Efforts are made to ensure that the most general and useful lexical items are
presented.
 Grammatical structures are graded from simple to complex.
 New items (lexical and grammatical) are introduced and practiced situationally
(e.g., at the post office, at the bank, at the dinner table).
6. Cognitive Approach (a reaction to the behaviorist features of the Audiolingual

Approach; influenced by cognitive psychology [Neisser 1967] and Chomskyan linguistics
[Chomsky 1959,1965])
 Language learning is viewed as rule acquisition, not
habit formation.
 Instruction is often individualized; learners are
responsible for their own learning.
 Grammar must be taught but it can be taught
deductively (rules first, practice later) and/ or
inductively (rules can either be stated after practice or
left as implicit information for the learners to process on
their own).
 Pronunciation is de-emphasized; perfection is viewed as
unrealistic and unattainable.
 Reading and writing are once again as important as listening and speaking.
 Vocabulary instruction is once again important, especially at intermediate and
advanced levels.
 Errors are viewed as inevitable, to be used constructively in the learning process.
 The teacher is expected to have good general proficiency in the target language
as well as an ability to analyze the target language.
7. Affective-Humanistic Approach (a reaction to the general lack of affective

considerations in both Audiolingualism and the Cognitive Approach: e.g., Moskowitz
1978 and Curran 1976).
Respect is emphasized for the individual (each student, the teacher) and for his or her
feelings.
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 Communication that is meaningful to the learner is emphasized.
 Instruction involves much work in pairs and small groups.
 Class atmosphere is viewed as more important than materials or methods.
 Peer support and interaction are viewed as necessarv for learning.
 Learning a foreign language is viewed as a self-realization experience.
 The teacher is a counselor or facilitator.
 The teacher should be proficient in the target language and the student’s native
language since translation may be used heavilv in the initial stages to help
students feel at ease; later it is gradually phased out.
8. Comprehension-Based Approach (an outgrowth of research in first language

acquisition that led some language methodologists to assume that second or foreign
language learning is very' similar to first language acquisition; e.g.. Postovsky 1974;
Winitz 1981; Krashen and Terrell 1983)
 Listening comprehension is very important and is viewed as the basic skill that
will allow speaking, reading, and writing to develop spontaneously over time,
given the right conditions.
 Learners should begin by listening to meaningful speech and by responding
nonverbally in meaningful ways before they produce any language themselves.
 Learners should not speak until they feel ready to do so; this results in better
pronunciation than if the learner is forced to speak immediately.
 Learners progress by being exposed to meaningful input that is just one step
beyond their level of competence.
 Rule learning may help learners monitor (or become aware of) what they do, but
it will not aid their acquisition or spontaneous use of the target language.
 Error correction is seen as
unnecessary and perhaps even
counterproductive; the important
thing is that the learners can
understand and can make
themselves understood.
 If the teacher is not a native (or
near-native) speaker, appropriate
materials such as audio- tapes and
videotapes must be available to
provide the appropriate input for the learners.
9. Communicative Approach (an outgrowth of the work of anthropological linguists

[e.g., Hymes 1972] and Firthian linguists [e.g., Halliday 1973], who view language first
and foremost as a system for communication)
 It is assumed that the goal of language teaching is learner ability to communicate
in the target language.
 It is assumed that the content of a language course will include semantic notions
and social functions, not just linguistic structures.
 Students regularly work in groups or pairs to transfer (and, if necessary,
negotiate) meaning in situations in which one person has information that the
other(s) lack.
 Students often engage in role play or dramatization to adjust their use of the
target language to different social contexts.
 Classroom materials and activities are often authentic to reflect real-life
situations and demands.
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 Skills are integrated from the beginning; a given activity might involve reading,
speaking, listening, and also writing (this assumes the learners are educated and
literate).
 The teacher's role is primarily to facilitate communication and only secondarily
to correct errors.
 The teacher should be able to use the target language fluently and appropriately.
The four more recently developed approaches also do this to some extent;
however, each one is grounded on a slightly different theory or view of how people
learn second or foreign languages or how people use languages, and each has a central
point around which everything else revolves:
Cognitive Approach: Affective-Humanistic

Approach:
•Language is rule- •Learning a foreign

governed cognitive language is a process
behavior (not habit of self- realization
formation). and of relating to
other people.
Communicative Approach
Comprehension Approach:
•Language acquisition •The purpose of language

occurs if and only if the (and thus the goal of
learner comprehends language teaching) is
meaningful input. communication.
A. Dyad Activity
1. Select an integrated skills ESL/EFL text that you have used or expect to use.
Examine its contents to determine which approach it seems to follow most
closely. Support your decision with examples. Discuss any mixing of approaches
that you observe.
2. Examine any English language proficiency test, standardized or otherwise. See if
you can detect a methodological bias in the test. Support your conclusion (s)
with examples.
3. What kinds of language learners do you teach (or expect to teach)? Be as specific
as possible. Which approach(es) would serve such a population best? Why?
ASSESSMENT:
1. is a classroom device or activity and thus represents the narrowest of the
three concepts.
a. approach
b. method
c. technique
d. system
15
2. An to language teaching is something that reflects a certain model or
research paradigm—a theory, if one likes.
a. approach
b. method
c. technique
d. system
3. A is a system that spells out rather precisely how to teach a second
or foreign language.
a. approach
b. method
c. technique
d. system
4. is a reaction to the Grammar- Translation Approach and its failure
to produce learners who could communicate in the foreign language they had
been studying.
a. Grammar- Translation Approach
b. Direct Approach
c. Reading Approach
d. Audiolingualism
5. This approach is viewed as the most usable skill to have in a foreign.
b. Direct Approach
c. Reading Approach
d. Audiolingualism
6. This approach used mimicry and memorization are used, based on the
assumption that language is habit formation.
b. Direct Approach
c. Reading Approach
d. Audiolingualism approach
7. The spoken language is the primary in this approach.
a. Audiolingualism approach
b. Cognitive approach
c. Direct Approach
d. Oral-situational approach
8. This approach is influenced by cognitive psychology and by the Chomskyan
linguistics.
c. Direct Approach
d. Oral-situational approach
9. an outgrowth of the work of anthropological linguists [e.g., Hymes
1972] and Firthian linguists [e.g., Halliday 1973], who view language first and
foremost as a system for communication Interest
c. Communicative approach
d. Comprehension-based approach
10. an outgrowth of research in first language acquisition that led
some language methodologists to assume that second or foreign language
learning is very' similar to first language acquisition
a. Audiolingualism approach c. Cognitive approach
b. Communicative approach d. Comprehension-based approach
16
LESSON 3
LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE SKILLS – SPEAKING AND LISTENING SKILLS
TOPICS
1. Literature, Speaking, and Listening
2. Making the Case: The Importance of Listening in Language
Learning
3. Emerging Recognition of the Importance of Listening in
Second/Foreign Language Study
4. Four Perspectives—Four Models of Listening and Language
Instruction
5. Listening in Three Modes: Bidirectional, Unidirectional, and
Autodirectional
6. Psychosocial Functions of Listening: Transactional Listening and
Interactional Listening
7. Developing Listening Comprehension Activities
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. articulate on the details of speaking and listening skills in the teaching
of English using literature;
2. describe the importance of language skills in language teaching using
literary text
3. determine the difference and use of the models, modes and functions
of the language skills in learning English
4. appreciate the different comprehension activities employed in language
teaching
1. Characterize each of the three communicative listening modes: bidirectional,

unidirectional, and autodirectional. From your own personal experience, give
examples of each of these three kinds of communicative listening.
2. Discuss why listening has been called "the neglected skill” of language teaching.
3. Which of these experiences do you find learning a language easy (a) content, (b)
operational?
TOPIC 1: LITERATURE, SPEAKING, AND LISTENING
As literature plays an important role in teaching four basic language skills like
reading, writing, listening and speaking and language areas for example vocabulary,
grammar and pronunciation, employing literature becomes very popular within the field
17
of language learning. And when using literature
in the language classroom, skills should never
be taught in isolation but in an integrated way.
Teachers should try to teach basic

language skills as an integral part of oral and
written language use, as part of the means for
creating both referential and interactional
meaning, not merely as an aspect of the oral
and written production of words, phrases and
sentences.
Oral Reading
Language teachers can make listening comprehension and pronunciation
interesting, motivating and contextualized at the upper levels, playing a recording or
video of a literary work, or reading literature aloud themselves. Having students read
literature aloud contributes to developing speaking as well as listening ability.
Moreover, it also leads to improving pronunciation. Pronunciation may be the focus
before, during, and / or after the reading.
Drama
Needless to say, literature-based dramatic activities are valuable for ENGLISH.
They facilitate and accelerate development of the oral skills since they motivate
students to achieve a clearer comprehension of a work’s plot and a deeper
comprehension and awareness of its characters. Though drama in the classroom can
assume many forms, there are three main types, which are dramatization, role-playing,
improvization.
Dramatization
Dramatization requires classroom performance of scripted materials. Students

can make up their own scripts for short stories or sections of novels, adapting them as
closely as possible to the real text. Based on the story, they must guess what the
characters would say and how they would say it. Scripts written by students are also
probable with plays. Poems comprising one or more personae may also be scripted by
students.
Improvization and Role-Playing
Both improvization and role-playing may be developed around the characters,

plot, and themes of a literary work. Improvisation is a more systematic activity, i.e., a
dramatization without a script. There is an identifiable plot with a beginning, middle,
and end in improvisation. However, in role playing, students picture characters from the
work being read and join in a speaking activity other than a dramatization, such as an
interview or panel discussion.
Group Activities
Making each student responsible for facts

and ideas to be contributed and discussed,
group activities stimulates total participation.
All students are involved and the participation
is multidirectional. When teaching English
18
through literature, some of the group activities used in language classroom are:
 general class discussion,
 small-group work,
 panel discussions, and
 debates
All of these group activities both develop the speaking abilities of the students
and give importance to pronunciation practice. Teachers indicate pronunciation errors
of the students during the act of such activities so as to correct such errors (Stern
1991:337).
TOPIC 2: MAKING THE CASE: THE IMPORTANCE OF LISTENING IN

LANGUAGE LEARNING
It has taken many years to bring the language teaching profession around to
realizing the importance of listening in second and foreign language learning. As
observed by Rivers, long an advocate for listening comprehension.
"Speaking does not of itself constitute communication unless what is said is

comprehended by another person. . . . Teaching the comprehension of spoken
speech is therefore of primary importance if the communication aim is to be
reached” (1966, pp. 196, 204). The reasons for the nearly total neglect of
listening are difficult to assess, but as Morley notes, “Perhaps an assumption
that listening is a reflex, a little like breathing—listening seldom receives overt
teaching attention in one’s native language — has masked the importance and
complexity of listening with understanding in a non-native language” (1972, p.
vii).
In reality, listening is used far more than any other single language skill in normal
daily life. On average, we can expect to listen twice as much as we speak, four times
more than we read, and five times more than we write (Rivers 1981; Weaver 1972).
TOPIC 3: EMERGING RECOGNITION OF THE IMPORTANCE OF

LISTENING IN SECOND/FOREIGN LANGUAGE STUDY
It is easy for us to take listening for granted, often with little conscious
awareness of our performance as listeners. Weaver commented on the elusiveness of
our listening awareness:
“After all. listening is neither so dramatic nor so noisy as talking. The

talker is the center of attention for all listeners. His behavior is overt and
vocal, and he hears and notices his own behavior. Whereas, listening
activity often seems like merely being— doing nothing" (1972, pp. 12-13).
Much of the language teaching field also has taken listening for granted until
relatively recent times (but see Gouin 1880; Nida 1953; Palmer 1917; Sweet 1899).
Modern day arguments for listening comprehension began to be voiced in the mid-
1960s and early 1970s by Rivers (1966) and others.
19
 Newmark and Diller underscored "the need for the systematic development of
listening comprehension not only as a foundation for speaking, but also as a skill
in its own right ..." (1964. p. 20).
 Belasco expressed his concerns as follows; "I was rudely jolted by the realization
that it is possible to develop so-called 'speaking ability' and vet be so virtually
incompetent in understanding the spoken language. . . . [Students] were learning
to audio-comprehend certain specific dialogues and drills, but could not
understand [the language] out of the mouths of native speakers" (1971, pp. 4-5).
 Morley decried the fact that "virtually' no specialized textbook materials exist in
the area of intermediate and advanced listening” (1972, p. vii). and
 Blair (1982) observed that special attention to listening just didn't "self’ until
recent times.
TOPIC 4: FOUR PERSPECTIVES—FOUR MODELS OF LISTENING

AND LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION
Model # 2
Model # I Listening and
Listening and Answering
Repeating Comprehension
Questions
Model # 3 Task Model # 4

Listening Interactive
Listening
Model # I Listening and Repeating

Learner Goals: To pattern-match; to listen and imitate; to memorize.
Instructional material:
 Features audiolingual style exercises and or dialogue memorization;
 based on a hearing-and-pattern- matching model
Procedure: Asks students to
(a) listen to a word, phrase, or sentence pattern;
(b) repeat it (imitate it); and
(c) memorize it (often, but not always, a part of the procedure).
Value:
 Enables students to do pattern drills, to repeat dialogues, and to use memorized
prefabricated patterns in conversation
 Enables them to imitate pronunciation patterns
Model # 2 Listening and Answering Comprehension Questions

Learner Goals: To process discrete-point information; to listen and answer
comprehension questions.
20
 Features a student response pattern based on a listening-and- question-
answering model with occasional innovative variations on this theme.
(a) listen to an oral text along a continuum from sentence length to lecture length and
(b) answer primarily factual questions.
Value:
 Enables students to manipulate discrete pieces of information, hopefully with
increasing speed and accuracy of recall.
 Can increase students' stock of vocabulary units and grammar constructions.
 Does not require students to make use of the information from real
communicative purpose beyond answering the questions; is not interactive two-
way communication.
Model # 3 Task Listening

Learner Goals: To process spoken discourse for functional purposes; to listen and do
something with the information, that is, carry out real tasks using the information
received.
 Features activities that require a student response pattern based on a listening-
and-using (i.e., “Listen-and-Do”) model.
 Students listen, then immediately do something with the information received

(a) listen and process information and
(b) use the orally transmitted language input immediately to complete a task which is
mediated through language in a context in which success is judged in terms of whether
the task is performed.
Value:
 The focus is on instruction that is task-oriented, not question-oriented.
 The purpose is to engage learners in using the informational content presented
in the spoken discourse, not just in answering questions about it.
Two types of tasks are:

(a) language use tasks, designed to give students practice in listening to get meaning
from the input with the express purpose of making functional use of it immediately and
(b) language analysis tasks, designed to help learners develop cognitive and
metacognitive language learning
Model # 4 Interactive Listening

Learner Goals: To develop aural or oral skills in semiformal interactive academic
communication; to develop critical listening, critical thinking, and effective speaking
abilities.
 Features the real-time, real-life give-and-take of academic communication.
 Provides a variety of student presentation and discussion activities, both
individual and small-group panel reports—that include follow-up audience
participation in question / answer sessions as an integral part of the work.
Follows an interactive listening-thinking-speaking model with bidirectional
listening/speaking.
21
 Includes attention to group bonding and
classroom discourse
Procedure: Asks students to participate in

discussion activities that enable them to
develop all three phases of the speech act:
speech decoding, critical thinking, and speech
encoding.
These phases involve

(a) continuous on-line decoding of spoken discourse,
(b) simultaneous cognitive reacting/acting upon the information received, and
(c) instant- response encoding
Value:
 The focus here is instruction that is commu nicative/competence-oriented, as
well as, task oriented.
 Learners have opportunities to engage in and develop the complex array of
communicative skills in the four competency areas
TOPIC 5: LISTENING IN THREE MODES: BIDIRECTIONAL, UNIDIRECTIONAL,

AND AUTODIRECTIONAL
If we consider the roles we play in our listening interactions, we can identify

three specific communicative listening modes: bidirectional, unidirectional, and
autodirectional.
 Bidirectional Listening Mode The obvious mode is two-way or bidirectional

communicative listening. Here the reciprocal speech chain of speaker/listener is
easily observed (Denes and Pinson 1963).
 Unidirectional Listening Mode A second mode is

one-wav or unidirectional communicative
listening. Auditory input surrounds us as we
move through the day. The input comes from a
variety of sources: overheard conversations,
public address announcements, recorded
messages (including those on telephone
answering machines), the media (e.g.. radio,
television, films), instructional situations of
all kinds, and public performances (e.g..
lectures, religious services, plays. operas, musicals, concerts).
 Autodirectional Listening Mode The third communicative listening mode is

autodirectional. We can think of this as self-dialogue communication in which we
may not be aware of our internal roles as both speaker and listener/reactor in
your own thought processes.
In all of these communicative listening modes, notice that listening is not a

passive experience. Each listening mode is a highly active, clearly participators, verbal
experience.
22
Implications for Instruction
SL / FL learners need to have instruction and practice in both the bidirectional

communicative listening mode and in the unidirectional mode. In addition, self-dialog
and the autodirectional communicative listening mode should not be ignored. It is an
important feature of language behavior which should be discussed with students.
TOPIC 6: PSYCHOSOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF LISTENING: TRANSACTIONAL

LISTENING AND INTERACTIONAL LISTENING
Brown and Yule (1983а) suggest dividing language functions into two major
divisions: language for transactional purposes and language for interactional purposes.
Then note that transactional language corresponds to Halliday’s notion of ideational,
while interactional language corresponds to his term interpersonal (Halliday 1970. p.
143).
Transactional Language Function

Transactional language is message oriented and can be viewed as "business-
type" talk with the focus on content and conveying factual or propositional information.
Transactional language is used for giving instructions, explaining, describing, giving
directions, ordering, inquiring, requesting, relating, checking on the correctness of
details, and verifying understanding.
Interactional Language Function

The most important difference between the two tvpes of language use is that
interactional language is "social-type" talk;
it is person oriented more than message
oriented. Its objective is the establishment
and maintenance of cordial social
relationships. Brown and Yule comment that
a great deal of casual conversation contains
phrases or echoes of phrases which appear to
be intended more as contributions to a conversation than as
instances of information giving.

Teachers need to provide practice experiences in both transactional talk and
interactional talk. While the contrast between the two types of talk is usually clear,
sometimes it is not so obvious in an interaction where the two functions may be
intertwined.
Psychological Processes:
Bottom-Up
and
Top-Down
Listening Schemata
23
In accounting for the complex nature of listening to understand spoken
language, it is hypothesized that two different modes work together in a cooperative
process. One is the externally based bottom-up mode while the other is the internally
based top-down mode.
Bottom-Up Processing
The bottom-up mode of language processing involves the listener playing close
attention to every detail of the language input. Bottom-up refers to that part of the
aural comprehension process in which the understanding of the “heard" language is
worked out proceeding from sounds to words to grammatical relationships to lexical
meanings. That is, the meaning of the message is arrived at, bottom to top, based on
the incoming language data.
Top-Down Processing
On the other hand, the top-down facet of listening involves the listener’s ability
to bring prior information to bear on the task of understanding the “heard” language.
This internal resource includes a bank of prior knowledge and global expectations about
language and the world. It is used by the listener to make predictions about what the
incoming message is expected to be at any point, and how the pieces fit into the whole.
Teachers need to provide students with practice in both kinds of language

processing. Many published materials focus heavily on one or another of these
processes, without necessarily labeling them as top- down or bottom-up.
Taking dual perspectives into account, Richards (1990) proposes a model of

materials design for second or foreign
language listening comprehension that
combines language functions
(interactional and transactional) and
language processes (top-down and
bottom-up). He observes that the extent
to which one or the other process
dominates is determined by
(a) whether the purpose for listening is transactional or interactional,
(b) what kind of background knowledge can be applied to the task, and
(c) what degree of familiarity listeners have with the topic.
TOPIC 7: DEVELOPING LISTENING COMPREHENSION ACTIVITIES
Information Processing
Linguistic Functions
DEVELOPING LISTENING
COMPREHENSION
ACTIVITIES
Dimensions of Cognitive
Processing
24
This section focuses on instructional
considerations, while keeping in mind the following three
important points about listening as a language act.
1. Information Processing Listening comprehension

is an act of information processing in which the
listener is involved in bidirectional
communication, or unidirectional communication, and/or autodirectional
communication.
2. Linguistic Functions Broadly speaking, real- world spoken communication can be
viewed as serving two linguistic functions: interactional and transactional.
3. Dimensions of Cognitive Processing The cognitive processing of spoken language
appears to involve simultaneous activation of both top- down and bottom-up
engagement in order for listeners to construct what they believe to be the
intended meaning of the spoken message.
With these features of listening as a language act in mind, we begin with a

discussion of three important principles of materials development. Next, we outline six
kinds of communicative outcomes, with lesson suggestions for each. In the final section
we present some suggestions for creating a self-access, self-study listening center.
Principles
In order to get learners’ attention, to keep them actively and purposefully
engaged in the task at hand, and to maximize the effectiveness of listening/language-
learning experiences, three materials development principles are suggested: relevance,
transferability /applicability, and task orientation.
1. Relevance
Both the listening lesson content (i.e., the information) and the outcome (i.e., the
nature of the use of the information) need to be as relevant as possible to the learner.
This is essential for getting and holding learner attention and provides a genuine
motivational incentive. Lessons need to feature content and outcomes that have "face
validity" for students.
2. Transferability/Applicability
Whatever is relevant is also likely to have potential for transferability. Insofar as
possible, at either the content level or the outcome level, or both, listening lessons need
to have transferability/applicability value, internally (i.e., can be used in other classes),
externally (i.e., can be used in out-of-school situations), or both.
3. Task Orientation
In formal language classes for teenage and adult students and in language
activity lessons for children, it is productive to combine two different kinds of focus:
(1) language use tasks and
(2) language analysis activities.
Language Use Tasks
The purpose here is to give students practice in listening for information and
then immediately doing something with it. This kind of lesson features specific Listen-
and-Do communicative outcomes such as these:
 Listening and performing actions
 Listening and performing operations
25
 Listening and solving problems
 Listening and transcribing
 Listening and summarizing information
 Interactive listening and negotiating of meaning through questioning/answering
routines
These listening and language use tasks help students to build the following two
things:
(i) A Base of Content Experiences

This will help them to develop expectancies, increase their vocabulary, and
build a repertoire of familiar top- down networks of background knowledge
in the second language.
(ii) A Base of Operational Experiences
This will help learners to acquire a repertoire of familiar information-handling
operations in the second language that are applicable to future
communicative encounters in that language.
Language Analysis Tasks
The purpose here is to give students opportunities to analyze selected aspects of

both language structure i i.e.. form) and language use (i.e., function 1 and to develop
some personal strategies to facilitate learning. Activities can focus on one or two points
at a time and can include attention to a variety of features of grammar, pronunciation,
vocabulary, and discourse as well as sociolinguistic and strategic features (Canale and
Swain 1980). Specific activities can include:
 Analysis of some features of “fast speech

 Analysis of phrasing and pause points.
 Analysis of both monologues and dialogue exchanges
 Describing and analyzing sociolinguistic dimensions, including participants and
their roles and relationships, settings, purpose of the communicative episodes,
and expected outcomes.
 Describing and analyzing communicative strategies used
A. Dyad Activity.
1. Select days in a week where you will record your interaction/s to friends or
family members. Examine the record contents to determine whether you are
developing your comprehension skills and which seems to follow most closely to
interactional or transactional. Support your answers with examples from the
records.
2. Examine any English language video clip and observe if the persons involved
show either content or operational experiences in listening. Present your
analysis with example.
3. What kind of listeners your language
learners or expected language learners
will be? Be as specific as possible. Do
you anticipate any potential issues on
listening among your learners? Why?
26
How are you going to address said issues?
ASSESSMENT:

1. The study of in a language class, though being mainly associated with
reading and writing, can play an equally meaningful role in teaching both
speaking and listening.
a. literature
b. listening
c. pronunciation
d. system
2. Having students read literature aloud contributes to developing as well
as ability
a. reading; writing
b. speaking; writing
c. speaking; listening
d. writing; listening
3. may be the focus before, during, and / or after the reading.
a. Literature
b. Listening
c. Pronunciation
d. System
4. facilitate and accelerate development of the oral skills since they
motivate students to achieve a clearer comprehension of a work’s plot and a
deeper comprehension and awareness of its characters. Grammar- Translation
Approach
a. drama
b. role playing
c. group activities
d. none of the above
5. This is used far more than any other single language skill in normal daily life.
a. reading
b. writing
c. listening
d. speaking
6. Much of the language teaching field also has taken for granted until
relatively recent times language is habit formation.
a. reading
b. writing
c. listening
d. speaking
7. The model aims to develop or oral skills in semiformal inteactive academic
communication and at the same time develop criticla listening, critical thinking
and effective speaking abilities
a. Model 1 - Listening and repeating
b. Model 2 - Listening and answering comprehension questions
c. Model 3 - Task listening
d. Model 4 - Interactive listening
8. This mode of listening has the reciprocal speech chain of speaker/listener that
take turns as they engage in face-to-face interaction.
a. bidirectional
b. interactional
27
c. unidirectional
d. autodirectional
9. is message oriented and can be viewed as “business-type” talk
with the focus on content and conveying factual or propositional information.
a. bidrectional
b. transactional
c. interactional
d. unidirectional
10. refers to that part of the aural comprehension process in which
the understanding of the “heard" language is worked out proceeding from
sounds to words to grammatical relationships to lexical meanings.
a. Bottom-up
b. Top-down
c. interactional
d. transactional
28
LESSON 4
LITERATURE AND THE LANGUAGE SKILLS – ORAL OR SPEAKING SKILLS
TOPICS
1. Literature and the Oral or Speaking Skills

2. The Oral Skills Class
3. How ESL Children Approach Oral Language
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. familiarize and discuss the oral or speaking skills
2. describe the oral skills class and appreciate how to respond to learners’
level and perceived needs in a language class
3. appreciate and put into practice the different speaking activities
1. Think about a foreign or second language class you have taken. How were oral
skills addressed? How do you judge your speaking ability as a result of the class?
How could the class have been improved so that your ultimate attainment might
have been better?
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of having (a) a native English
speaker or (b) a non-native English speaker as the teacher in an oral skills class?
3. What would you tell a student who asks you to correct all of his or her oral
language errors (pronunciation, grammar, lexical choice) in till of his or her oral
production work?
4. What considerations go into grouping or pairing students for speaking activities?
5. How would you prepare yourself or your future students to take any oral
examinations?
TOPIC 1: LITERATURE AND THE ORAL OR SPEAKING SKILLS
For most people, the ability to speak a language is synonymous with knowing
that language since speech is the most basic means of human communication.
Nevertheless, "speaking in a second or foreign language has often been s viewed as the
most demanding of the four skills," (Bailey and Savage 1994. p. vii). What specifically
makes speaking in a second or foreign language difficult? Brown (1994) mentions a
number of features that interact to make speaking as challenging a language skill as it is.
To start, fluent speech contains reduced forms, such as contractions, vowel

reduction, and elision; so that learners who are not exposed to or who do not get
29
sufficient practice with reduced speech will retain their rather formal-sounding full
forms.
This is one reason why many of us were shocked and disappointed when we
used our second or foreign language for the first time in real interaction:
We had not been prepared for spontaneous communication and could not
cope with all of its simultaneous demands. That is. speaking is an "activity
requiring the integration of mans' subsystems. . . . all these factors
combine to make speaking a second or foreign language a formidable
task for language learners. . . . set for many people, speaking is seen as
the central skill" (Bailey and Savage 1994. p. vi—vii).
Oral skills have not always figured so centrally in second and foreign language
pedagogy. In classes that utilize comprehension-based approaches to language teaching,
listening skills are stressed before speaking, if speaking is stressed at all.
TOPIC 2: THE ORAL SKILLS CLASS
In deciding how to structure and what to teach in an oral skills class, questions
such as the following should be considered:
Originally compiled by Maria Victoria S. Mateo What am I

expected
Who are the students?
Why are they there?
What do they expect to teach?
to learn?
Level and Perceived Needs
One basic consideration is the level of the students and their perceived needs.
Level may be determined by a placement test administered by the institution or by a
diagnostic test given by the teacher.
Information on learner needs can be obtained
by means of a student information sheet on
which they report the amount of time they
spend speaking English, their future goals, their
goals for the course, and their assessment
(perhaps a four-point scale from “poor" to
“excellent") of their overall speaking ability,
confidence in speaking English, their
pronunciation, social conversation, and listening
ability.
With low level adults, the teachers need to find English language speakers to
help him or her get information on student experiences, educational background, and
needs. It will be especially important with this student group to build on their
30
experiences, to share expertise, and to use realia in order to keep learning as concrete
as possible.
Practice
On the other hand, academic learners will need practice with different sorts of
activities. Based on survey responses from university faculty, Ferris and Tagg (1996a.
1996b) suggest that, in general, what academic ESL students need most is extensive
authentic practice in class participation, such as taking part in discussions, interacting
with peers and professors, and asking and answering questions.
Nowadays, oral skills classes at all levels are often structured around functional
uses of language. In a nonacademic context, these might involve basic greetings, talking
on the telephone, interacting with school personnel, shopping, and the like.
Teachers may, or may not, be given textbooks or materials for teaching the oral
skills class.
Not all materials live up to

their claims about what they
promote or teach in terms
of language content,
teaching methodology, and
textual task authenticity.
For this reason, teachers need to become critical consumers of published

materials by asking questions such as the following:
 Is the text appropriate for the level audience being taught?

 What sorts of content topics are used, and are they appropriate for this group of
students?
 Is the focus on authentic communication?
 Does the text integrate speaking, listening, and pronunciation?
More often than not, teachers will decide to pick and choose activities from a
variety of sources and create some of their own materials as well.
Major Types of Speaking Activities

1. Discussions
2. Speeches
3. Role plays
4. Conversations
5. Audiotaped Oral Dialogue Journals
6. Other Accuracy-Based Activities
Future Trends
Oral skills are not only critical for communication in the ESL classroom, they are
necessary for communication in, and with, the English-speaking world. As a result, all
ESL EFL teachers will want to do whatever they can to promote the development of
speaking, listening, and pronunciation skills in their students.
31
TOPIC 3: HOW ESL CHILDREN APPROACH ORAL LANGUAGE
In some ways, children approach oral language differently than adults do. The
role of language play within language learning is examined by Cook (2000). Children
appear more likely than adults to play with language (Peck 1978) and may learn through
language play (Peck 1980; Tarone 2000). They enjoy rhythmic and repetitive language
more than adults do. They play with the intonation of a sentence, and most are willing
to sing.
Techniques and Resources

1. Using Songs, Poems, and Chants
2. Dramatic Activities
3. Storytelling
A. Dyad Activity.
1. You teach an ESL, oral skills class where some students, perhaps due to their
personalities and or cultural backgrounds, are the most talkative and dominate
class discussions, while others never speak up in class and, even when called on,
merely agree or claim they have no opinion. Develop a set of contingencies you
can draw on to equalize opportunities for class participation.
2. You suspect that the classroom text that you have been assigned to use in your
English class oral skills class presents dialogues containing stilted, awkward
language. How could you test this assumption? In other words, what criteria
would you use to evaluate dialogue authenticity?
3. Imagine you have been assigned to teach a university-level oral skills class for
international teaching assistants. You are required to cover material specifically
tailored to their future teaching needs, but you find that nearly all the students
need practice with and ask for material on informal conversation. What should
you do in such a situation?
ASSESSMENT:

1. The ability to a language is synonymous with knowing that language
since is the most basic means of human communication.
1. speak; speech
2. speech; speak
3. speaking; speak
4. speaking; speech
2. What is missing in a reduced form of a fluent speech?
a. elision
b. level
c. contractions
d. vowel reduction
3. may be determined by a placement test administered by the
institution or by a diagnostic test given by the teacher. Literature
a. elision
b. level
c. contractions
d. vowel reduction
32
4. Learning to speak a language, a learner will need authentic .
a. elision
b. practice
c. oral skills
d. vowel reduction
5. classes at all levels are often structured around functional uses of
language.
a. elision
b. practice
c. oral skills
d. vowel reduction
6. Which of the following should academic adults do as practice activities to
improve oral skills?
a. Leading in discussions
b. Taking part in discussions
c. Giving oral repots
d. Performing all the above
7. Three of the four questions teachers should need to remember to become
critical consumers of published materials for an oral skills class.
a. Is the focus on authentic communication?
b. Is the text appropriate for the level audience being taught?
c. What sorts of content topics are used, and are they appropriate for this
group of students?
d. Does the course activities even more specific?
8. All are major types of speaking activities, EXCEPT ?
a. Filmshowing
b. Discussions
c. Role plays
d. Conversations
9. Which of the following is TRUE?
a. Children approach oral language differently than adults do transactional
b. Children appear more likely than adults to play with language and may learn
through language play unidirectional
c. Children are more likely to laugh at the sounds of a second language, or to be
reminded of a word in the first language.
d. Children are less willing to sing and find no joy in repeating a word or an
utterance
10. ALL of the following are recommended techniques and resources in learning a
language using literature and with emphasis on oral or speaking skills, EXCEPT
a. Using Songs, Poems, and Chants
b. Dramatic Activities
c. Storytelling
d. Games
33
LESSON 5
LITERATURE AND THE LANGUAGE SKILLS – READING SKILLS
TOPICS
1. Literature and Reading
2. Reading Comprehension and Reading as Interactive Process
3. Cognitive Processes, Word Reading and Reading Comprehension
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. describe reading levels in language teaching using literature
2. explain how reading comprehension of literary materials affects language
learning
3. discuss how the cognitive process, working memory and syntactic
awareness work
4. determine how word reading is done and comprehension is achieved
5. as well as, policy-makers and stakeholders, and establish aspects of
language teaching relative to creating programs and policy-making
A. As part of checking the skills of the class, you have asked one child if she can
read you short story from a book she has chosen. When you sit down with her, she
reads it very carefully and deliberately; you notice that she is able to read almost all
of the words accurately. However, when ou later ask her what the story was about,
she has trouble explaining it to vou.
1. How would you account for this?
2. How would you describe her overall reading ability?
3. What are some other reading activities you might ask her to do in order to assess
her ability more thoroughly?
TOPIC 1: LITERATURE AND READING
English teachers should adopt a dynamic, student-centered approach toward

comprehension of a literary work. In reading lesson, a learner reading skills progress
from one level to another and the discussion on the various levels are the following:
Reading Levels
Personal/
Literal level Inferential level
Evaluative level
34
Conversation starts at the literal stage with straight questions of detail regarding
setting, characters, and plot which can be replied by precise reference to the text.When
students master literal understanding, they move to the inferential level, where they
must make speculations and interpretations concerning the characters, setting, and
theme, and where they produce the author’s point of view. After comprehending a
literary selection at the literal and inferential levels, students are ready to do a
collaborative work.
The third level, the personal/evaluative level stimulates students to think

imaginatively about the work and provokes their problem-solving abilities.
Reading a literary text is more likely to have a long-term and valuable effect
upon the learners’ linguistic and extra linguistic knowledge when it is meaningful and
amusing. Choosing books relevant to the real-life experiences, emotions, or dreams of
the learner is of great importance. Language complexity has to be measured as well.
TOPIC 2: READING COMPREHENSION AND READING AS INTERACTIVE PROCESS
Reading proficiency involves the comprehension of a broad array of text types at

a high level. Comprehension is the ultimate goal of reading and comprehension failures
can lead to school failures. Reading comprehension consists of three elements: the
reader, the text, and the activity or purpose for reading.
Cognitively based views of reading comprehension emphasize the interactive

nature of reading (Rumelhart & Ortony, 1977) and provide a complex description of the
reading comprehension process.
Reading comprehension is a complex process that involves the reader, the…cont

extual setting, and the reader’s background knowledge.
Text comprehension draws on many different language skills. These include:
Language Skills word reading

lower- efficiency and
level lexica vocabulary
l skills knowledge
knowledge
sentence- of grammatical
level skills structure and
higher-
level text processi
ng
Inference-
text proces generation and
s-ing skills comprehension
monitoring
35
The literature on reading proposes several critical processes for adequate
reading performance. The most robust predictor of word reading ability is that of
phonological processing. Individuals with reading disabilities often have deficit at the
phonological module level, which impedes their ability to discern and manipulate the
distinctive sound elements that constitute language.
Comprehension difficulties: subtypes
The literature on the reading comprehension of English L1 speakers identifies

two types of comprehension difficulties.
 Focused on poor comprehenders who are also considered poor readers due
to efficient basic level processes. It reflects significant word reading
problems.
 These are children who have developed good word recognition skills but
have poor comprehension.
When word reading ability and written vocabulary knowledge are controlled,
poor comprehenders demonstrate deficits in higher-level skills relative to same-age
good comprehenders. Impairments have also been found on measures of working
memory (Yuill, Oakhill, & Parkin, 1989).
Various theories exist to explain what is involved reading, and much of what
individuals know about reading and literacy comes from research on first language (LI)
learners. However, current research generally views reading as an interactive,
sociocognitive process (Bernhardt 1991), involving a text, a reader, and a sorted context
"within which the activity of reading takes place. In reading, “an individual constructs
meaning through a transaction with written text that has been created by symbols that
represent language.
Within the complex process of reading, six general component skills and
knowledge areas have been identified (Grabe 1991. p. 379):
Six General Component Skills and Knowledge Areas

Automatic recognition skills a virtually unconscious ability, ideally requiring little
mental processing to recognize text, especially for
word identification
Vocabulary and structural a sound understanding of language structure and a
knowledge large recognition vocabulary
Formal discourse structure an understanding of how texts are organized and
knowledge how information is put together into various genres
of text (e.g.. a report, a letter, a narrative)
Content/world background prior knowledge of text-related information and a
knowledge shared understanding of the cultural information
involved in text
Synthesis and evaluation skills the ability to read and compare information from
strategies multiple sources, to think critically about what one
reads, and to decide what information is relevant or
useful for one's purpose
Metacognitive knowledge and an awareness of one’s mental processes and the
skills monitoring ability to reflect on what one is doing and the
strategies one is employing while reading
36
TOPIC 3: COGNITIVE PROCESSES, WORD READING AND READING
COMPREHENSION
Phonological processing
an important
refers to afactor
varietyinof skills
involving the processing
of speech sounds.
Important
Phonological Awareness factor of
reading
ability to segment speech into smaller units comprehension
such as syllables and phonemes, and is
related to word reading skills (e.g.,Share &
Stanovich, 1995; Stanovich & Siegel, 1994).
measured through a variety of techniques, including

rhyming, segmenting sounds, blending sounds and
deleting sounds (Yopp, 1988).).
(in primary level) has a robust association with word

decoding skills (e.g., Perfetti, Beck, Bell, &Hughes, 1987).

(for ESL students) a reliable predictor of word reading skills (e.g., Geva,
Yaghoub-Zadeh,..&.Schuster, 2000; Gottardo, 2002; Muter & Diethelm,
2001).2000; Gottardo, 2002; Muter & Diethelm, 2001).
Working memory Syntactic awareness

the ability to hold information over the the ‘‘ability to reason consciously about
short-term, while the syntactic aspects of language, and to
transforming or manipulating it in some exercise intentional control over the
way application of grammatical rules’’
(Gombert, 1992, p. 39)
relevant to..reading because the important for reading comprehension
reader must decode and/or recognize because it requires making predictions
words while remembering about the word that should come next in a
what has already been read, and then sequence
retrieve information such as grapheme–
phoneme conversion rules
has limited capacity; when there are Willows and Ryan (1986) reported a
more demands on the executive system, predictive relationship between syntactic
less processing space and cognitive processing and early reading achievement,
energy will be available for the even when general cognitive ability and voca
subsidiary systems bulary levels were controlled
has received Tunmer, Nesdale, and Wright (1987) found
increased attention in the monolingual that poor readers had a
literature for its vital role in reading deficitin syntactic awareness even when
processing; important predictors of word compared to a sample of reading-matched
reading performance controls
37
B. If teachers do activities to elicit students' background knowledge before they read a
text,
1. isn’t the teacher merely helping them handle the particular text they are working
on?
2. Will this help students be able to read or handle the next text they encounter
any more easily?
3. What else could a teacher do to help students better handle future reading
tasks?
1. One way to familiarize children with different types of print is to show them that
literacy serves a variety of functions in society (adapted from Halliday 197o), including:
 Providing ways people learn about the world and share these experiences with
others
 Accomplishing various tasks of living
 Establishing and maintaining communication with others
 Expressing differences and similarities among people
 Reflecting and acting upon personal and social problems
 Changing conditions in people’s lives
 Enjoying the beauty of language
 Recognizing different people's cultural heritage
 Understanding what it means to be human
For each function, identify an activity or reading task which your students might
be able to perform to learn more about that literacy function.
2. For one or more of the following, select a book or story that you think would be
particularly suitable for it, and which would allow you to develop a teaching lesson to
illustrate that particular concept to your students. Then design the actual lesson. Explain
why you think our chosen book/story is suitable, and why you designed the lesson in the
manner that you did.
a. Scaffolding
b. Eliciting students' world knowledge
c. Identifying qualities that characterize a particular genre of text
d. Identifying the way a text is organized
ASSESSMENT:
1. Which of the following statements is TRUE?

a. In reading lesson, a learner reading skills progress from one level to another
speech
b. Conversation starts at the literal stage with straight questions of detail
regarding setting, characters, and plot which can be replied by precise
reference to the text.
c. Reading a literary text is more likely to have a long-term and valuable effect
upon the learners’ linguistic and extra linguistic knowledge when it is
meaningful and amusing.
38
d. Reading a literary text is more likely to have a short-term and less effect
upon the learners’ linguistic and extra linguistic knowledge even if materials
used are meaningful and amusing.
2. Conversation starts at the level.
a. Comprehension
b. Literal
c. Inferential
d. Evaluative
3. At this level, the learners make speculations and interpretations concerning the
characters, setting, and theme, and where they produce the author’s point of view.
a. Comprehension
b. Literal
c. Inferential
d. Evaluative
4. is a virtually unconscious ability, ideally requiring little mental processing
to recognize text, especially for word identification
a. Automatic recognition skills
b. Vocabulary and structural knowledge
c. Content/world background knowledge
d. Metacognitive knowledge and skills monitoring
5. an understanding of how texts are organized and how information is put
together into various genres of text (e.g.. a report, a letter, a narrative)
a. Comprehension
b. Reading proficiency
c. Automatic recognition skills
d. Content/world background knowledge
6. involves the comprehension of a broad array of text types at a high level..
a. Automatic recognition skills
b. Content/world background knowledge
c. Formal discourse structure knowledge
d. Metacognitive knowledge and skills monitoring
7. Which skills pertain to word reading efficiency and vocabulary knowledge?
a. Lower-level lexical skills
b. Sentence-level skills
c. Text-processing skills
d. Performing all the above
8. Reading comprehension is a complex process that involves
a. the reader
b. the…contextual setting
c. the reader’s background knowledge
d. all of the above
9. Which refers to a variety of skills involving the processing of speech sounds?
a. Phonological processing
b. Lower-level lexical skills
c. Sentence-level skills
d. Text-processing skills
10. Which of the following is syntactic awareness?
a. important predictors of word reading performance
b. the ability to hold information over the short-term, while..transforming or
manipulating it in some way
c. relevant to..reading because the reader must decode and/or recognize
words while remembering what has already been read
d. the ‘‘ability to reason consciously about
the syntactic aspects of language, and to exercise intentional control
39
LESSON 6
LITERATURE AND THE LANGUAGE SKILLS – WRITING SKILLS
TOPICS
1. Literature and Writing
2. Early Writing Tasks: Coping with the Mechanics (What Do We
Teach?)
3. Sound-Spelling Correspondences
4. How do We Teach Mechanics?
5. More Advanced Writing Tasks: Developing Basic Communication
Tools
6. Emotive Writing Tasks
7. School-Oriented Tasks
8. Literature as a Model For Writing
9. Literature as Subject Matter for Writing
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. 1. describe writing skills in language teaching using literature
2. 2. explain how literature improves writing skills following mechanics
3. 3. discuss how reading and writing are significant
4. 4. determine how the different writing tasks work following the
different model and subject matter as, policy-makers and stakeholders,
and establish aspects of language teaching relative to creating programs and
policy-making
1. Identify an important sound-spelling correspondence in English that ws not

mentioned in the discussion and explain how you might teach it.
2. How should you sequence the teaching of the various sound-spelling
correspondences?
3. How can writing be used to ensure the interaction of all skills at the early stages
of the language course of study? Give an example.
4. Give an example of how the teacher of beginning-level students can combine
elements of the composing process with elements of the mechanics of writing.
5. Identify an important sound-spelling correspondence in English that ws not
mentioned in the discussion and explain how you might teach it.
6. How should you sequence the teaching of the various sound-spelling
correspondences?
7. How can writing be used to ensure the interaction of all skills at the early stages
of the language course of study? Give an example.
8. Give an example of how the teacher of beginning-level students can combine
elements of the composing process with elements of the mechanics of writing.
40
TOPIC 1: LITERATURE AND WRITING
Within the communicative framework of language teaching, the skill of writing

enjoys special 'status—it is via writing that a person can communicate a variety of
messages to a close or distant, known or unknown reader or readers. Such
communication is extremely important in the modern world, whether the interaction
takes the form of traditional paper-and-pencil writing or she most technologically
advanced electronic mail. Writing as a communicative activity needs to be encouraged
and nurtured during the language learner's course of study.
Viewing writing as an act of

communication suggests an interactive
process which takes place between the writer
and the reader via the text. Such an approach
places value on the goal of writing as well as
on the perceived reader audience.
The writing process, in comparison to

spoken interaction, imposes greater demands on the text, since written interaction lacks
immediate feedback as a guide. The writer has to anticipate the reader's reactions and
produce a text which will adhere to Grice's (1975) cooperative principle. According to
this principle, the writer is obligated (by mutual cooperation) to try to write a clear,
relevant, truthful, informative, interesting, and memorable text. The reader, on the
other hand, will interpret the text with due regard for the writer’s presumed intention if
the necessary clues are available in the text. Linguistic accuracy, clarity of presentation,
and organization of idea'' are all crucial in the efficacy of the communicative act. since
they supply the cities for interpretation.
Literature can be a powerful and motivating source for writing in ENGLISH, both
as a model and as subject matter. Literature as a model occurs when student writing
becomes closely similar to the original work or clearly imitates its content, theme,
organization, and /or style. However, when student writing exhibits original thinking like
interpretation or analysis or when it emerges from, or is creatively stimulated by, the
reading, literature serves as subject matter. Literature houses in immense variety of
themes to write on in terms of guided, free, controlled and other types of writing.
TOPIC 2: EARLY WRITING TASKS: COPING WITH THE MECHANICS

WHAT DO WE TEACH?
The first steps in teaching reading and writing skills in a foreign or second
language classroom center around the mechanics of these two skills. By mechanics we
usually refer to letter recognition, letter discrimination, word recognition, and basic
rules of spelling, punctuation, and capitalization, as well as recognition of whole
sentences and paragraphs. These activities are for the most part cognitively
undemanding unless the learners happen to come from a first language with a different
writing system.
The interaction between reading and writing has often been a focus in the
methodology of language teaching, vet it deserves even stronger emphasis at the early
stages in the acquisition of the various component mechanics. In order to learn how to
discriminate one letter from another while reading, learners need to practice writing
these letters; in order to facilitate their perception of words and sentences during the
reading process; they might need to practice writing them first. It is therefore the case
41
that writing plays an important role in early reading—facilitating the development of
both the reading and the writing skills. The importance of this early stage of reading and
writing is emphasized in a study by Ke (1996) on the relationship between Chinese
character recognition and production at the early stages of learning. With the English
alphabet this stage is much simpler, vet it deserves appropriate attention for learners
accustomed to other script types and for adult non-literate learners.
TOPIC 3: SOUND-SPELLING CORRESPONDENCES
English presents the learner with a number of unique problems related to its
orthographic rules, even in raises in which the learner comes from a first language that
uses a version of the Roman alphabet. Students and teachers alike often throw their
arms up in despair, reach to give up on finding reliable rules for English orthography: yet
the English writing system is much more rule governed than many realize. In fact.
English has a very systematic set of sound-spelling correspondences (Chomsky and Halle
1968; Schane 1970: Venezky 1970). These sound-spelling correspondences enable the
second or foreign language teacher to combine the teaching of phonetic units with
graphemic units and to give students practice in pronunciation along with practice in
spelling (Celce-Murcia. Brinton, and Goodwin 1996).
The English Consonants
The first rule to remember about English orthography is that students may tend
to look for a one-to-one letter- sound correspondence and then discover that they get
into a lot of trouble by doing this. For most of the 21 consonant letters, this type of rule
works fairly well (if we disregard allophonic differences in pronunciation, such as an
aspirated initial t as opposed to a non-aspirated, unreleased final t for monosyllabic
words in English). Vet there are consonant letters whose sound depends on the
environment in which they occur: Thus, the letter r can have the sound /к when
followed by the vowel letters a, o, or и or by the consonant letters / or к but it has the
sound s when followed by the vowel letters e or i. Although these rules may appear
confusing to a learner coming from a first language with a simpler phoneme-grapheme
correspondence system, they work quite consistently in English and need to be
practiced from the very start, d he store of the letter r is not finished, however, and now
we come to the part that is less consistent. This is the case when r is followed by the
letter /; and can have the sound of/с/ (chocolate) or к (chair). There is no help we can
give our students in this respect but to tell them to pay
special attention to such weirds and try to remember their
sound according to the meaning of the word. The letter c
also occurs in quite a number of common words followed
by the letter l; (not initially, but in the middle or at the end
of words — such as chicken or lock). The sound in this case
is к and the correspondence should create no difficulty.
The letter c in English demonstrates that even for some of the consonants (such
as g too) we need to alert students to the fact that the correspondence in English is not
between letter and sound but between the letter and its immediate environment and
the most appropriate sound. In many cases such correspondences are quite predictable,
while in others the rules do not work as well.
A helpful generalization for English consonants is related to the letter h. which is

very powerful in changing the sound of the consonant which it follows. Thus, the letter
42
combinations ch, sh. and th represent distinct consonant sounds, and learners need to
recognize these graphic clusters as such.
To summarize, when teaching consonant letters and their sound

correspondences, it seems that for students whose own alphabet is similar to that of
English, we need to focus only on the differences. Yet for students coming from a
completely different writing system, such as Arabic, Hebrew, Chinese, Japanese, or
Korean, it will be necessary to work carefully on the recognition of every consonant
letter. Here learners might have difficulties similar to the ones encountered bv voting
children who learn to read and write in English as their mother tongue, and thev might
need some special exercises for this pm pose (see Appendix A).
The English Vowels
The vowel letters in English present more complex sound—spelling

correspondences. but again there is much more consistency and predictability than
many learners realize. Thus, learners need to be made aware of two basic types of
environments that are very productive in English orthography; Consonant Vowel
Consonant (CYC) (often known as the environment for short vowels) and CV or CYCe
(the latter ending in a silent letter e) (known as the environments for long vowels). The
terms .shan't and long vowels are rather unfortunate, since
for the second or foreign language learner it might,
erroneously, become associated with vowel length rather
than vowel quality. Thus, the main difference between the
vowel sounds in the words pin and pine is not one of length
(or production timed but one of phonetic quality. A difference
in vowel length can be observed in the words pi! and pin.
where the quality of the two vowel sounds is similar but the
one preceding the voiceless stop t is shorter than the one
preceding the voiced nasal n .
Although we often say that the a vowel letters of the English alphabet result in at
least 11 or more vowel sounds (depending on the particular dialect), these sound-
spelling correspondences are. at least in part, consistent and predictable. What teachers
and learners need to take into account is the fact that in English we must consider both
the vowel letter and the environment in which it occurs. The term environment might be
delimited here to those features which mat influence the quality of the vowel sound.
Thus, the environment CYC is quite productive, and all 5 vowel letters a, /, e, o, and и
will occur as simple lax (produced with relatively relaxed muscles), non-diphthongized
vowel sounds, as in the words pan, pin, pen, pol, and hut. However, the same 5 vowel
letters occurring in the CYCe environment will all become tense and diphthongized, as in
the words pane, pine, Pete, rope, and cute. Similarly, those vowels that can occur in the
CY or Y environment are also tense and usually diphthongized: go, he, та, I. Im (;ts in
Lulu). Here again we have a very productive set of sound-spelling correspondence rules,
vet not all of these patterns are equally frequent in English orthography. Thus, the letter
e does not often occur as the vowel in the CYCe environment, and learners have to
study the more common spellings as in meet and meat for the sound iy. In other words,
there are some basic sound—spelling correspondences in English, knowledge of which
can greatly facilitate the acquisition of these correspondences, but there are also quite a
number of exceptions or expansions of these rules that need to be learned individually.
In teaching the basic sound-spelling correspondences in English, it is important

to emphasize the rules which provide the learners with useful generalizations and which
43
therefore help them become effective readers. Once students have assimilated and
internalized the basic features of such correspondences — namely, the distinction
between CYC and CY or CYCe syllables—this will work well not only for all monosyllabic
words but also for polysyllabic ones, in which the stressed sellable can act as a
monosyllabic environment for letter-sound towel correspondences (e.g., dispose).
Furthermore, some of the more advanced spelling rules related to English

morphology can be facilitated by this knowledge. In polysyllabic verbs with the final
syllable stressed, the spelling rules for adding the inflection -ing work in the same
manner as for monosyllabic ones. Thus, learners echo know the rule for consonant
letter doubling when changing sit to sitting will be able to apply the same rule to any
polysyllabic verb that ends with a stressed sellable having the form CYC. Therefore, the
verb begin, since its final sellable is stressed, will undergo doubling of the last consonant
in beginning, as opposed to the verb open, where the final sellable is not stressed and
therefore the -/ng form of open is spelled opening.
However, in spite of all that has been said so far, English orthography has a
notorious reputation because, in addition to all these helpful and relatively reliable
rules, we must account for carious less productive rules. Some' of these are quite
predictable, such as the occurrence of the letter a in front of / or //, which quite
consistently is realized as the sound o as in call or in front of the letter r, which has the
sound a as in car. In general, the letter r affects the sound of the vowel preceding it and
causes it to become more centralized, as in the words world, bird. curd. Furthermore,
the vowel diphthongs have a variety of spellings, such as the following letter
combinations, which all correspond to the same vowel diphthong ow: rope and boat. So,
while it is true that there are quite a few cases in English which need to be remembered
as individual words, there are far fewer than people imagine
(for good sources of rules on sound-spelling correspondences. see Schane 1970:
Venezky, 1970).
In summing up this section dealing with the teaching points relevant to the
mechanics of reading and writing, we should emphasize the fact that it is important for
learners of English as a second or foreign language to realize from the start that English
orthography is by no means a one-to-one letter-sound correspondence system: it has its
own consistence embedded in the combination of letters with their immediate
environments, resulting in what eve tend to call sound-spelling correspondences. By
practicing the proper pronunciation of sounds in relation to given spelling patterns, eve
can provide learners with a good basis f or pronunciation as well as for the skills of
reading and writing.
TOPIC 4: HOW DO WE TEACH MECHANICS?
The stage devoted to the teaching of the mechanics of reading and writing aims
at three different goals: (a) to enhance letter recognition—especially when learners
come from a different writing system, (b) to practice sound-spelling correspondences
via all four language skills, and (c) to help the learner move from letters and words to
meaningful sentences and larger units of discourse.
Recognition and writing drills constitute the first steps in the development of
effective reading and writing habits. However, in order to acquire active mastery of the
sound-spelling correspondences. it is necessary for the learners to arrive at relevant
generalizations concerning these correspondences. Such generalizations will lead to a
better understanding of the systematic representation of sounds in English orthography,
44
and will require learners to master some basic phonological rules in English and to
develop an ability to recognize the distinctive features of each letter within a spelling
pattern.
Three major types of recognition tasks are used at this early stage of reading and
writing, each type incorporating a great variety of drills:
a. Matching tasks
b. Writing tasks
c. Meaningful sound-spelling correspondence practice
An important feature of this early stage of writing is the need to accustom

learners to correct capitalization in English and to basic punctuation rules. While
practicing sound-spelling correspondences, students can be writing meaningful
sentences (accompanied by pictures) with proper capitalization and punctuation, such
as the following:
1. There is a cat on the mat and a cake on the plate.
2. The ball is near the tall boy next to the wall.
These sentences contain words which exemplify sound-

spelling correspondences and, at the same time, they are words
that students have probably just learned. They may not work out
too well as a store or an interesting piece of discourse since our
focus in this case is first and foremost on the sound-spelling
correspondence. But eventually, discourse units will grow and
incorporate more meaningful and interesting texts. The language
knowledge the students gain can be the basis for developing
more sophisticated and interesting texts, however.
TOPIC 5: MORE ADVANCED WRITING TASKS: DEVELOPING BASIC

COMMUNICATION TOOLS
More advanced writing activities which start shifting their goal from the focus on
the mechanics of writing to basic process-oriented tasks will need to incorporate some
language work at the morphological and discourse level. Thus, these activities will
enable focus on both accuracy and content of the message. In this discussion, since we
are concerned with the beginning level, we will work with categories of practical writing
tasks, emotive writing tasks, and school-oriented tasks (Nevo, Weinbach, and Mark
1987).
In order to develop and use these more demanding writing activities in the
ESL/EFL classroom, we need to develop a detailed set of specifications which will enable
both teachers and students to cope successfully with these tasks. Such a set of
specifications should include the following:
Task Description: to present students with the goal of the task and its importance.
Content Description: to present students with possible content areas that might be
relevant to the task.
Audience Description: to guide students in developing an understanding of the intended
audience, their background, needs, and expectations.
Format Cues: to help students in planning the overall organizational structure of the
written product.
45
Linguistic Cues: to help students make use of certain grammatical structures and
vocabulary choices.
Spelling and Punctuation Cues: to help students focus
their attention on spelling rules which they
have learned and eventually on the need to use
the dictionary for checking accuracy of spelling,
and to guide students to use acceptable
punctuation and capitalization conventions.
Practical Writing Tasks
These are writing tasks which are procedural in nature and have a predictable
format. This makes them particularly suitable for writing activities that focus primarily
on spelling and morphology. Lists of various types, notes, short messages, simple
instructions, and other such writing tasks are particularly useful in reinforcing classroom
work.
Lists can be of many types:
'‘things to do" “things

lists completed” lists “shopping” lists
Each of these list types provides us with an opportunity to combine some

spelling rules with morphological rules and with the logical creation of a meaningful
message.
“Things to do" lists are useful for practicing verb base forms and reinforcing
various sound-spelling correspondences. When assigning such an activity, the teacher
will have to indicate whether the list is personal or intended for a group. The content
specification will have to indicate "whether this is a list of things to do in preparation for
some event or just a plan for someone’s daily routine. For example, a list for a group of
students who are preparing a surprise birthday party might look like this:
Things to Do
1. Buy a present for Donna (Sharon).
2. Call Donna's friends (Gail).
3. Write invitations (Dan), etc.
Following up on this tvpe of list, we can easily move on to the “things

completed” list, which specifies the things that have already been taken care of and is
therefore useful for practicing past forms of verbs. As part of this activity, students will
need to review' the regular past tense formation of verbs where -ed is added and its
exceptions in spelling are taught, such as the deletion of a final e before adding -ed, as in
lived; the doubling of the last consonant in monosyllabic bases of the form CVC, as in
canned, and the same doubling rule when the final syllable of a polysyllabic verb is
stressed, such as in occurred but not in opened: the replacement of v with (when the
base ends in C + V, as in tried. Such an activity also enable' students to practice the
spelling of irregular past-tense formations. For example, the above list might look like
this when partially completed:
46
Things Completed
1. Planned the games for the party.
2. Wrote the invitations.
3. Bought the present.
4. Called the friends.
5. Tried to call Donna's mother.
Shopping lists provide ns with a very good opportunity to practice the spelling of
the plural ending of countable nouns and the use of quantifiers. The sound-spelling
correspondences here consist of the plural inflection with two of its three phonetic
variants—/s/. /z/—which can be combined with the spelling pattern s as in pens, pencils,
whereas in words like brushes or oranges the plural takes the phonetic form /эz . an
additional sellable, with such words ending in the spelling pattern -es.
Another type of practical writing task is notes and messages that are left for
another person. These allow students to practice brief and simple sentences with
proper punctuation and a meaningful message. To make the activity more interesting,
students can design their own message headings and then fill them in. Here is ar.
example:
Messages for My Little Sister
Wash the dishes in the sink.
Feed the dog.
Watch your favorite program on TV and have a good time.
Other types of practical writing activities might include the filling in of forms and
the preparation of invitations, “greetings” and “than! you” notes, and other such
written communications. All of these activities, when carried out in class, will require
the set of specifications mentioned above, with appropriate focus on orthographic,
mechanical, and linguistic accuracy (For various examples of such tasks see the
appendices.)
TOPIC 6 EMOTIVE WRITING TASKS

Emotive
writing tasks
concerned with personal writing
narratives
letters to describing personal diaries
friends personal journals
experiences
format Emphasis on entries or writing

punctuation Entries can take
spelling narrative format form of personal
of phrases and letters
expressions
47
It seems that emotive waiting, to serve the personal needs of the learners, has to be
quite fluent. How can this be done in the early stages of an ESL/EFL course of study?
 The different types of emotive writing activities are, of course, suitable for the
more advanced stages of the course, but they can be carried out, in a more
limited manner, even at the initial stages.
 Personal letters can be limited to the level of structural and vocabulary
knowledge of the students at each point in time.
 Journal and personal writing activities can reflect the learner's proficiency level.
 It is important, however, in all cases to provide students with the specifications
of the task, limiting it to their level of knowledge.
TOPIC 7: SCHOOL-ORIENTED TASKS
One of the most important functions of writing in a student’s

life is the function it plays in school. It is still the case that much
individual learning goes on while students are writing assignments,
summaries, answers to questions, or a variety of essay-type
passages. In most cases, the audience for these writing tasks is the
teacher, but gradually students must learn to write to an unknown
reader who needs to get the information being imparted exclusively
via writing.
Dialogue Journal Writing at the Early Stages
Dialogue journals enable students and teachers to interact on a one-to-one basis

at any level and in any learning context. They are, therefore, also very useful
communicative events at the early stages of learning to write in a new language. The
dialogue journal enables the beginner to generate some personal input and receive the
teacher’s direct feedback on it.
Dialogue
Journal
Young Non-literate
children adults
Beginning Writers in a Second Language
According to Peyton and Reed (1990), both young children who are beginning
writers in a second language and non-literate adults can start a dialogue journal as soon
as they are comfortable in the classroom. It can start out as an interactive picture book
in which first the teacher and later the learners label the pictures and provide brief
descriptions. Gradually, the texts become more detailed and the communication
process is enhanced.
The dialogue journal, like any other type of writing activity, can be done via e-
mail and the communication between students and teachers can take on this more
modern form of interaction. Multimedia programs often include such correspondence,
allowing learners to interact with the teacher, other learners, or a designated tutor.
48
It has been the objective of this discussion to encourage teachers to use a variety
of writing tasks at all levels and particularly at the beginning level. Writing, in addition to
being a communicative skill of vital importance, is a skill which enables the learner to
plan and rethink the communication process. It therefore provides the learner with the
opportunity to focus on both linguistic accuracy and content organization.
TOPIC 8: LITERATURE AS A MODEL FOR WRITING
Controlled Writing
Guided Writing
Reproducing the Model

Kinds of writing
(based on literature as a Originally compiled by Maria Victoria S. Mateo
model)
Controlled Writing: Controlled model-based exercises which are used mostly in

beginning-level writing typically require rewriting passages in arbitrary ways to practice
specific grammatical structures.
Guided Writing: This activity corresponds to intermediate-level ENGLISH. Students

respond to a series of questions or complete sentences which, when put together, retell
or sum up the model. In some cases, students complete the exercise after they receive
the first few sentences or the topic sentence of a summary, paraphrase, or description.
Reproducing the Model: This activity comprises techniques like paraphrase, summary,
and adaptation. These techniques are very beneficial ENGLISH writing exercises.
Reproducing the Model

(techniques)
paraphrase summary adaptation
In paraphrasing, students are required to use their own words to rephrase the
things that they see in print or hear aloud
Summary work goes well with realistic short stories and plays, where events
normally follow a chronological order and have concrete elements like plot, setting, and
character to guide student writing.
Adaptation requires rewriting prose fiction into dialog or, reversely, rewriting a
play or a scene into narrative.
49
TOPIC 9: LITERATURE AS SUBJECT MATTER FOR WRITING
Finding appropriate material for their writing classes is sometimes difficult for
composition teachers since writing has no subject matter of its own.
One benefit of having literature as the reading content of a composition course

is that the readings become the subject matter for compositions. In a composition
course whose reading content is literature, students make inferences, formulate their
own ideas, and look closely at a text for evidence to support generalizations.
Kinds of Writing
Based on literature as subject matter
writing “on or
writing “out of ”
about”
LITERATURE
Writing “On or About” Literature
Writing “on or about literature” comprises the traditional assignments – written

responses to questions, paragraph writing, in-class essays, and take-home compositions
– in which students analyze the work or in which they speculate on literary devices and
style.
Writing “on or about” can occur before students begin to read a work. The
teacher generally discusses its theme or an issue it raises, and the students write about
it with reference to their own life experience. This helps interest them in the work and
makes them ready for reading and writing about it. Most writing assignments done
during as well as after the reading, however, derive from class discussion. They take
many forms, such as questions to be answered, assertions to be debated, or topics to be
expanded, discussion groups to be established.
Writing “Out of” Literature
Writing “out of” literature means making use of a literary work as a springboard
for composition - creative assignments developed around plot, characters, setting,
theme, and figurative language. There are many forms of writing out of literature, such
as Adding to the Work, Changing the Work, Drama-Inspired Writing and A Letter
Addressed to Another Character, etc.
Adding to the Work: This comprises writing imaginary episodes or sequels, or, in the
case of drama, “filling in” scenes for off-stage actions that are only referred to in the
dialog.
50
Changing the Work: Students can make up their own endings by comparing the author’s
ending to their own. Short stories can be rewritten in whole or in part from the point of
view of a character versus a third person narrator or of a different character.
Drama-Inspired Writing: It is possible to derive drama-inspired writing activities from

plays, short stories, novels, and sometimes poetry. The student steps into the
consciousness of a character and writes about that character’s attitudes and feelings.
A Letter Addressed to Another Character: The student can write a letter to one of the
characters, in which he / she gives the character personal advice about how to
overcome a particular problem or situation (Stern 1991: 336).
A. Dyad Activity.
1. Prepare a game or a set of cards to practice the difference between the vowel
sounds in the environment CVC and CVCe, example: hat, kit versus hate, kite.
Incorporate many words as might be meaningful for an intended student
population. You may have to use some new words that serve the sound-spelling
correspondence but are not known to your students. What will you do to
present the new words to your students before you practice the spelling
patterns?
2. Design a lesson to focus on the different sounds associated with the letter c. First
present the various environments and then develop some challenging activities
to practice the relevant sound-spelling correspondence.
3. Find a picture or a number of pictures that depict various words with unusual
spelling patterns. All of these should be useful words. Play a memory game with
your student. They are allowed to look at the picture for two whole minutes,
then, the picture is taken away. The students write on a piece of paper all the
words that they remember. How does this activity work?
ASSESSMENT:
1. Which of the following statements is FALSE?
a. Within the communicative framework of language teaching, the skill of
writing enjoys special 'status.’
b. Viewing writing as an act of communication suggests an interactive
process which takes place between the writer and the reader via the text.
c. The writing process, in comparison to spoken interaction, imposes
greater demands on the texts.
d. Writing starts a conversation level.
2. The first steps in teaching reading and writing skills in a foreign or second
language classroom center around the mechanics of these two skills. By
mechanics we usually refer to
a. letter recognition, letter discrimination, word recognition, and basic rules
of spelling
b. punctuation, capitalization and recognition of whole sentences and
paragraphs.
c. A and B only
d. None of the above
3. The interaction between has often been a focus in the
methodology of language teaching, yet it deserves even stronger emphasis at
the early stages in the acquisition of the various component mechanics.
51
a. reading
b. writing
c. reading and writing
4. When teaching consonant letters and their sound correspondences, it seems
that for students whose own alphabet is similar to that of English, we need to
focus only on the
a. similarities
b. differences
c. mechanics
d. syllabication
5. English orthography is by no means a letter-sound
correspondence system
a. one-to-one
b. dual
c. none
d. all of the above
6. English has its own consistence embedded in the combination of letters
with their immediate environments Automatic recognition skills
a. writing
b. mechanics
c. orthography
7. The three different goals in the teaching of the mechanics of reading and writing
includes:
i. to enhance letter recognition—especially when learners come from a different
writing system,
ii. to practice sound-spelling correspondences via all four language skills, and
iii. to help the learner move from letters and words to meaningful sentences and
larger units of discourse.
iv. to provide learners with a good basis for pronunciation
b. 123 only
a. 234 only
b. 124 only
c. 134 only
8. It is a writing activity which specifically guide students in developing an
understanding of the intended audience, their background, needs, and
expectations.
a. Task description
b. Content description
c. Audience description
d. Spelling and punctuation cues
9. Which refers to practical writing task that provides with a very good opportunity
to practice the spelling of the plural ending of countable nouns and the use of
quantifiers?
a. School-oriented task
b. Journal writing
c. Shopping lists
d. Emotive writing
10. Which of the following is concerned with personal writing?
a. Controlled writing
b. Emotive writing
c. Journal writing
d. School-oriented task
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LESSON 7
LITERATURE AND THE LANGUAGE SKILLS – VIEWING SKILLS
TOPICS
1. Literature and Viewing Skills
2. What is Viewing?
3. Viewing Frameworks
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. explain the reasons behind teaching literature, the learners impressions to
teaching and the suggestions to an effective learning experience
2. describe learners viewing comprehension
3. identify the different viewing frameworks and their significance to language
teaching
A. To address the skills of learners, you provide children a particular film about a
famous literary piece to watch. When you group them in pairs, selected children
narrate the entire story vividly; you notice that they are very interested and they
express the details accurately. However, when you ask them you observe that aside
from it being told in fragments, you also observe, both have trouble retelling it to
you in English.
1. How would you explain it?
2. How would you describe the children’s overall viewing ability?
3. What are some other viewing activities you might ask the children to do in order
to assess their ability more thoroughly?
B. It is a challenge to all teachers today to handle digital natives or millennial learners

in class.
1. If you are the teacher, how will you help improve their linguistic potentials using
the visual elements from video, television, film and multimedia presentations?
2. Will the students be able to strongly employ or apply what they have viewed in a
communicative situation more easily?
3. What else could a teacher suggest as contextualized viewing teaching techniques
for certain language tasks?
53
TOPIC 1: LITERATURE AND VIEWING SKILLS
Literature is often perceived as one of the most uninteresting subjects in the

academe.
Main Reasons
traditional ways of teaching in class
Teachers
 stand in front of all the students
 narrate all the details of the literary pieces
 Monotonous; non-participative ways of

teaching
 combined with all the info to keep in mind
Literature becomes incomprehensible and

difficult subject matter
However, this impression can be transformed into something favorable to

literature students nowadays. It basically depends on how the information being taught
is being packaged.
Suggestions to professors:
 create inventive ways of discussing the subject matters
 make it interactive so students take part of the discussion
 encourage students participation and not just stay as passive listeners
Thus, changing this impression about literature is basically on the hands of the
teachers. Because on their choice of presentation depends whether or not students will
be able to understand and appreciate the literature subjects and the learning
experience as a whole.
Given that literature if filled with all the interesting revelations and discoveries
about the world and the human race, it can be said students indeed deserve to learn
such relevant information in the most interesting and motivating manner of teaching.
There are some of the most important questions that a teacher should address first
before designing an effective learning experience to specific students. First thing to
know and ask are:
what kind of learners are

they
who are our students what are their
characteristics
what are their interests
54
Today’s students are particularly visually literate. They are known as:
“Digital natives” or “millennial learners”
 Students who have grown up surrounded by new technologies such as
computers, video games, and cell phones (Brumberger, 2011).
 Their repeated exposure to these technologies has resulted in “enhanced
thinking skills in several areas; many of which are visually oriented” therefore
having implicit visual literacy skills.
 They have an inherent ability to read images; that [they] are ‘intuitive visual
communicators’ who are ‘able to weave together text, images and sound in a
natural way”.
Today's Literature
no longer relies on print alone
expanded to other multimedia

films/movies presentations
viewing teaching techniques becomes more urgent

Viewing Comprehension
To clarify, viewing comprehension refers to the ability of the learners to

understand what they are viewing. It involves interpreting, analyzing and evaluating the
significance of visual images- the messages and meanings (visual representation).
Visual World
(Visual Representation)
advent of the internet and

ubiquity of mobile devices
the digital revolution
allow capture of still and moving images easily
appearance of video-sharing platforms
emergence of social media networks
extraordinary rise of visual communication
increasing rise of moving image (primary mode of communication)
55
The majority of texts young people are encountering and creating are
multimodal. (A multimodal text is one where the meaning is communicated by more
than one mode – e.g. written text, audio, still pictures, moving pictures, gesture, use of
space, etc. Digital multimodal texts can include, for example, videos, slideshows and
web pages, while live multimodal texts can include theatre, storytelling and dance.) The
fact that communication nowadays is largely multimodal changes the construct of
communicative competence. This has huge implications for our educational systems.
The changing nature of communication is reflected by the fact that in the English
language curricula of a number of countries – for example, Singapore, Canada and
Australia – two new skills, ‘viewing’ and ‘visually representing’, have been added to the
traditional skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking.
TOPIC 2: WHAT IS VIEWING?
In the Canadian Common Curriculum Framework, viewing is defined as

follows:‘An active process of attending and comprehending visual media, such as
television, advertising images, films, diagrams, symbols, photographs, videos, drama,
drawings, sculpture and paintings.’
So ‘viewing’ is about ‘reading’ – analysing, evaluating and appreciating – visual

texts. Viewing is an active rather than a passive process.
Why is viewing important?
Language teachers, obviously, should focus on the written and spoken word in
classes. Images, or multimodal texts that use images, matter at all to language teachers.
Many teachers argue that language and text-based approaches should take priority and
that the image just distracts from the word. However, as the majority of texts our
students are accessing outside the classroom are visual texts and multimodal texts
which use images, surely we should give our students’ opportunities to ‘read’ – analyse
and evaluate – these types of texts in the classroom.
As students are dealing with mainly multimodal texts, they need

to understand them and to become more effective, active and
critical viewers to be able to participate fully in society.
Importance of
It helps students develop the knowledge and skills to analyse and
Viewing
evaluate visual texts and multimodal texts that use visuals.
It helps students acquire information and appreciate ideas and
experiences visually communicated by others.
What do active viewers do?
According to the Canadian Common Curriculum Framework, active and effective

viewers would ask themselves a series of questions such as:
 What is the text representing?

 How is the text constructed?
 What assumptions, interests, beliefs, biases and values are portrayed by the text?
 What is the purpose of the text?
 To whom is the text directed? Who does the text exclude?
 What is my reaction to the text? What causes this reaction?
 What personal connections and associations can I make with this text?
56
It is important that students are aware that understanding the viewing process is
as important as understanding the listening and reading process. Students should
understand that effective, active viewers engage in the following procedure:
Pre-viewing
 Students prepare to view by activating their schema (the prior knowledge

they bring to the study of a topic or theme), anticipating a message,
predicting, speculating, asking questions, and setting a purpose for viewing.
During viewing
 Students view the visual text to understand the message by seeking and
checking understanding, by making connections, making and confirming
predictions and inferences, interpreting and summarising, pausing and
reviewing, and analysing and evaluating. Students should monitor their
understanding by connecting to their schema, questioning and reflecting.
After viewing/responding
 Students should be given opportunities to respond personally, critically and

creatively to visual texts. Students respond by reflecting, analysing,
evaluating and creating.
TOPIC 3: VIEWING FRAMEWORKS

Three frameworks have been developed by prestigious institutions to help
students become better viewers. These models were tried and tested with great success
with thousands of students at schools and universities around the world help to
systematise viewing effectively into the language classroom.
Film and video: The 3Cs and 3Ss

This framework was developed by Into Film and is used widely in schools in the
UK. The 3Cs (Colour, Camera, Character) and the 3Ss (Story, Setting, Sound) framework
can be used to help students discuss and analyse all the elements of a film text.
Story, Setting, Sound, Colour, Character and Camera are simple headings with discussion
questions teachers can use as an easy way for exploring any film. Here are some of the
discussion questions:
Colour
 What colours do you see?
 What do the colours make you feel?
 Why do you think certain colours are used?
 What mood do you think the colours create?
Camera
 What shots have been used? Can you name them?
 Through whose eyes do we see the story?
 When do we see different characters’ point of view?
 When does the camera move and when does it stay still?
Character
 What do the main characters look like?
 How do they speak and what do they say?
57
 How do they behave?
 Which character interests you the most? Why?
Story
 What happens in the beginning, middle and at the end of the story?
 What are the most important things (events) that happen in the story?
 How do we know where the story takes place?
 How long does the story take place in ‘real’ time?
Setting
 Where does the action take place?
 When and how does the setting change?
 How could you tell where the story was taking place?
 How could you tell when the story was taking place?
Sound
 How many different sounds do you hear? What are they?
 How does the music make you feel?
 Are there any moments of silence?
 Can you hear any sound effects?
The simplicity of the 3Cs and 3Ss framework makes it easy to remember and use.
Paintings and photographs: See, Think, Wonder
The See, Think, Wonder routine is one of the Visible Thinking

Routines developed by researcher-educators for Project Zero at Harvard University. This
routine helps students make careful observations and develop their own ideas and
interpretations based on what they see when viewing a painting or photograph by
asking these three questions.
What do you think What does it make

What do you see?
about what you you wonder?
see?
By separating the two questions – ‘What do you see?’ and ‘What do you think
about what you see?’ – the routine helps students distinguish between observations
and interpretations. By encouraging students to wonder and ask questions, the routine
stimulates students’ curiosity and helps students reach for new connections.
This routine is designed to be easy to remember, practical and invite a broad

range of thinking moves. Watch this video to see the See, Think, Wonder routine being
put into practice with secondary school students for an example and guide. Follow this
link https://www.onestopenglish.com/professional-development/advancing-learning-
the-fifth-skill-viewing/557577.article
The Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS)

The Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS) approach was co-developed by Abigail
Housen and Philip Yenawine 30 years ago. It finds meaning in imagery and develops
visual literacy skills through learning in the arts, fostering thinking and communication
skills through listening carefully and expressing oneself. The approach works in the
following way:
 Student silently examine carefully selected art images
58
 The teacher asks these three open-ended questions
 What’s going on in this picture?
 What do you see that makes you say that?
 What more can we find?
 Students then …
 Look carefully at the image
 Talk about what they observe
 Back up their ideas with evidence
 Listen and consider the views of others
 Discuss many possible interpretations
 construct meaning together
 The teacher …
 Listens carefully to each comment
 Paraphrases student responses demonstrating language use
 Points to features described in the artwork throughout the discussion
 Facilitates student discussions
 Encourages scaffolding of observations and interpretations
 Validates individual views
 Links related ideas and points of agreement/disagreement
 Reinforces a range of ideas
Watch these videos to see the Visual Thinking Strategies approach being put into
practice here https://www.onestopenglish.com/professional-development/advancing-
learning-the-fifth-skill-viewing/557577.article for primary school students,
and with secondary school students.
Viewing helps students to slow down, reflect and think about the images they
are seeing, and develop the knowledge and skills to analyse and evaluate visual texts
and multimedia texts that use visuals. Viewing also helps students acquire information
and appreciate ideas and experiences visually communicated by others. Undoubtedly,
viewing will become part of English language curricula in many more countries in the
near future and we, as teachers, need to be able to help our students become more
effective viewers. To achieve this there needs to be specific multimodality and visual
literacy training on pre-service and in-service training courses.
A. Dyad Activity
1. Select a film of a known story that you think would be particularly suitable for your
learners, and which would allow them opportunities to develop their potentials
in learning a language as they retold the story. Then prepare the actual lesson.
Explain why you think the chosen story is suitable, and why you crafted the
lesson in the manner that you did.
2. Following the above mentioned situation, do group viewing of a film and choose one
of the following for the task:
a. The 3Cs and 3Ss
b. Paintings and photographs: See, think and wonder
c. Vision thinking strategies
ASSESSMENT:
1. 1 Which is one of the reasons why literature is considered incomprehensible and
difficult subject matter?
59
a. Traditional ways of teaching in class
b. Use of interactive approaches in teaching
c. Integrating literature with language learning
d. All of the above
2. What do professors in the academe do in order to achieve a well participated
and interesting language-literature class? Which of the following?
a. create inventive ways of discussing the subject matters
b. make it interactive so students take part of the discussion and not just stay as
passive listeners
c. A only
d. B only
3. Basic questions to keep in mind in designing an effective learning experience is
1. Who are our students?

2. What kind of learners are they?
3. Waht are their characteristics?
4. What are their interests?
a. 1 and 2 only
b. 2 and 3 only
c. 123
d. 1234
4. Who are digital natives? All express about them, EXCEPT
1. They grew up surrounded by new technologies such as computers, video
games, and cell phones.
2. They have repeated exposure to technologies resulting in “enhanced thinking
skills” in several areas.
3. They are ‘intuitive visual communicators’ who are ‘able to weave together
text, images and sound in a natural way”.
4. They are monotonous, non-participative and passive learners.
a. 1 and 2 only
b. 2 and 3 only
c. 123
d. 1234
5. What are the clear manifestations that viewing techniques becomes urgent?
a. Most literary products expanded to films and movies.
b. There are literary materials in different multimedia presentations.
c. Many of the literary genres can be presented in visual images.
d. All of the given options are the manifestations.
6. It refers to the ability of the learners to understand what they are viewing.
a. Viewing
b. Viewing comprehension
c. Viewing skills
d. Viewing techniques
7. is one where the meaning is communicated by more than one
mode – e.g. written text, audio, still pictures, moving pictures, gesture, use of
space, etc.
a. Multimodal
b. Digital multimodal
c. Visual world
d. Visual representation
8. Viewing is .
a. an active process of attending and comprehending visual media, such as
television, advertising images, films, diagrams, symbols, photographs, videos,
drama, drawings, sculpture and paintings
60
b. about ‘reading’ – analysing, evaluating and appreciating – visual texts
c. an active rather than a passive process.
d. all of the above
9. This is the procedure in viewing wherein students view the visual text to
understand the message by seeking and checking understanding, by making
connections, making and confirming predictions and inferences, interpreting and
summarising, pausing and reviewing, and analysing and evaluating.
a. Pre-viewing
b. During viewing
c. After viewing/responding
d. Not any of the given options
10. Which framework can help students discuss and analyse all the elements of a
film text
a. The 3Cs and 3Ss
b. See, Think, Wonder
c. Visual Thinking Strategies
d. All of the above
61
LESSON 8
METHODS IN TEACHING LITERATURE: THE MAIN POSSIBILITIES
TOPICS
1. Methods in Teaching Literature: The Main Possibilities
2. The Purpose of Learning
3. The Roles and Activities
4. How to Use Literature Meaningfully in the Language Classroom
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the varied possible methods in teaching literature in language
learning
2. describe how the principles and concepts serve to influence language
users, teachers, as well as, policy-makers and stakeholders and
establish aspects of language teaching relative to creating programs
and policy-making.
6. Articulate on the varied terminologies, as well as, principles and concepts
relative to language programs and policDescribe how the principles and concepts
serve to QUESTIONS
DISCUSSION influence language users, teachers, as well as, policy-makers and
stakeholders, and establish aspects of language teaching relative to creating
programs and policy-making
1. Elaborate the various results of the possibilities of teaching language through
literature. Provide additional source/s or specific examples.
2. Which of the methods and activities for using literary texts in teaching
language have you personally observed employed in class as a language
learner? What have you figured out about its significance to language
teaching?
3. Which among the Socratic and Freudian approach do you find suitable in
employing literary texts do you, as a future teacher, think will be most
important to utilize? If both can be applicable, why?
TOPIC 1: METHODS IN TEACHING LITERATURE: THE MAIN POSSIBILITIES

Over decades of years, major changes have taken place in the way literary texts
are studied and taught, especially in second- and foreign-language contexts.
use of literary
texts
appropriate
field of teaching and
learning resource
developing
developing
language skills
and awareness
62
The approaches discussed in previous lessons are based from reviewed main
forms of teaching strategy employed in teaching literature. Drawn the relevant
comparisons and contrasts between the teaching of literature in both the First Language
(L1) and Second Language (L2) contexts, as well as, the changing roles literary texts have
played in different kinds of language and literature courses, the possibilities of
'interactive' or 'student-centered' approaches to teaching literature in English surfaced.
In order to get a sense of the need for, and possible scope of,
methodological innovation within the teaching of literature, it is necessary to review at
the outset the major forms of contact which currently take place. Such a review is
especially necessary because relatively little attention is paid in literature teaching to
educational processes, as compared with the content of what is taught.
Each of the different modes described serves a visibly different educational

function (e.g. transmitting information, developing discussion skills, etc.); and each has
its own distinctive interactional dynamic and implicit set of power relations.
TOPIC 2: THE PURPOSE OF LEARNING
Literature teaching has a long history of 'interactive' approaches, of course -

including small-group discussion and personal feedback; and it has placed considerable
importance on them. For this reason it is important to set contemporary ideas and
proposals with regards to the future in the larger methodological and historical
perspective.
The use of literature facilitates language learning because when it is properly

introduced, students enjoy the literary style. In addition, they will inevitably forge
strong connections with the plots, themes, and the ideological assumptions of
literature, thereby becoming active learners who embrace critical thinking in English.
Purposely, the possibilities offered in the use of literature in language teaching,

specifically, is to:
 provide opportunities for foreign language classes
 appeal to the students with various learning styles
 help the students practice the four skills–speaking, listening, reading and writing.
 help the students enhance their perception of other cultures and societies.
Also, literary texts can consider authentic subjects like love and war that one
may experience in the real world. Indeed, literature is representational instead of
referential.
Language of Literature
Referential Representational
-considers the
-tends to students and
communicate involves their
at only one feelings and
level perceptions
63
TOPIC 3: THE ROLES AND ACTIVITIES
Role of the Student

Literature has the power to create opinions and individual meanings for
students; hence they can initiate and sustain activities based on literary themes. This
will also help students become active classroom participants and will, in turn, lead to
autonomous learning. Their vocabulary also grows and they easily grasp the usage of
the newly learned words.
Role of the Teacher
Teachers are no longer arbitrary dispensers of knowledge; gone are the days
when students used to listen and the teachers used to speak. Teachers have become
facilitators and guides when it comes to offering a choice of texts and ways to interpret
them. Far from being a passive observer, the teacher must plan and prepare to involve
students in lessons and encourage them to express the viewpoints, using the literary
text becomes useful only when the student is able to comprehend, understand, and
interpret the text and gives his or her personal response to it. Thus, while teaching
language aspects of a text, integrating methods and activities that train the students to
speak so that they can easily express whatever they he understood. A few are detailed
such as:
Activities in the Classrooms
The study of literature is amiable to student-centered activities that offer

opportunities for collaborative group activities such as drama, enactment, roleplaying,
poetry reading, and watching movies based on texts prescribed in the syllabus. Visual
stimuli can be effectively used in various ways as initiators for interactions. Short scenes
and anecdotes can be shown and used to express and frame opinions. Important
messages can be imparted through this medium. Students’ vocabulary can be
immensely enhanced through these innovative methods.
Lectures. Lectures are perhaps the most-used method in teaching literature, especially
for exposition of individual texts or groups of texts to large numbers of students.
Typically they are monologues (sometimes monologues with time set aside for
questions or discussion at the end); and they appear appropriate to transferring
information from the lecturer to a group of students, or for providing an uninterrupted
opportunity for a lecturer to develop a complex critical argument as a model of
individual interpretation or critical thought.
As is widely acknowledged, nevertheless, we should not over-estimate how

much information or critical argument gets across. If the usefulness of lectures is
assessed on the basis of how many of the notes taken by those present accurately
represent what has been said, or how many new ideas are assimilated (rather than on
the basis of what materials have been "covered" in the text of the lecture itself), a far
less optimistic view is likely to be reached regarding how effective talking to people in a
lecture actually is.
Little regard can realistically be given to the differing needs of individual

students in the audience; and problems of memory and attention span, coupled with
difficulties of audibility, distraction and intermittent boredom, often intervene in the
'transmission' process, producing – even with groups of diligent students - major
64
asymmetries and distortions in terms of the content transmitted and the content
received.
Informal dialogue. At the other end of a spectrum of pedagogic interaction, there are
tutorials or research supervisions (often associated in Britain with Oxbridge, where the
method of regular one-to-one exchange is a luxury still widely offered even at
undergraduate level).
Very often, the image of this technique is of an egalitarian process, open and
eminently 'democratic'; its lack of apparent structure allows it to appear an ideally non-
authoritarian, liberal mode of education. But interaction in dialogue is never completely
'unstructured'. It is possible to identify regularities in such dialogue here by drawing
attention - using two slightly comic descriptions – to roles in these 'dialogue' sessions.
One type of session might be called 'Socratic dialogue'; the other 'Freudian
monologue'.
Socratic
monologue
' The philosopher asks repeated questions of a young person,
who gives answers which are typically defective in some
respect.
The philosopher extends and adapts each answer, not only
to show the young person its limitations, but also to offer
new impetus to the philosophical dialectic.
This analogy by no means exhausts what goes on in the
Socratic dialogues in philosophy, of course; but the term
does crystallise an interactional structure characteristic of
supervision or tutorial teaching.
Freudian
In this scenario, the student is asked by the supervisor to report on monologue
what she or he has been doing; the supervisor then sits back for an '
extended answer, while the student talks in detail about what she
or he has read and thought. The supervisor defers feedback until
much later, when 'therapeutic intervention' makes fresh
development in the work possible
This scenario resembles the Freudian monologue insofar as in the
student's monologue - addressed to a silent room – are revealed
symptomatic absences or blind spots: areas that have not been
explored, problems which get hurried over or which are returned
to obsessionally.
Workshops. Workshops generally take the form of simulations, tasks and role-play. hey
involve, essentially, a concern to impose structure on learning-events, by specifying a
task which offers students a clear idea of what they are supposed to do, and achievable
goals or outcomes to motivate and direct the learning process.
65
Workshops derive from a recognition that to be requested to do or discuss
something without it being clear what you are supposed to do can be a frustrating
experience; not achieving much results in an assumption that you are not participating
well, rather than that the class is ineffectively managed. Workshop methodology seeks
to structure the process of a session in a way evident to everyone involved; it offers
types of involvement and satisfaction to students unlikely to be available in classes
structured either around passive, collective listening or around open conversational
discussion.
Discussion classes end, for example, when time runs out, often without even a
provisional conclusion. The process of discussion itself displaces any other shared
objective. Although capable students are likely to be able to assess the usefulness of
what they have learnt or experienced, less capable or motivated students may find
difficulty in identifying benefits that can be fitted into the rest of their learning.
Self-access learning. Alongside these modes of interactive learning (which presuppose

co-presence of students and teacher), it is necessary also to consider the increasing role
played by self-access, distance learning materials, including hypertext software. These
approaches, where available, have the effect of freeing students from the constraint of
having to work together at the same pace, or in the same sequence; they can also
provide a high degree of individualised learner-feedback. On the other hand, they
displace (or even eradicate) the acquisition of social and interactional skills that are
likely to come from the collaborative work which can take place in other methods
traditionally valued in literature teaching.
TOPIC 3: HOW TO USE LITERATURE MEANINGFULLY IN THE LANGUAGE CLASSROOM
Here is a concrete, step-by-step process to get started on enjoying literature

with students. This process can be tweaked to fit the individual class’s needs.
1. Choose a book that suits your students’ levels and interests.

Finding the right book is everything! Take into account the students’ age,
hobbies and socioeconomic background. For example, chances are that the older teens
will not find much to relate to in a picture book for young children. And if there is a class
of students who are into sports, they may not be interested in a Victorian romance. But
a book about a famous athlete might just do the trick.
How exactly do
teachers choose a Ask for
good book for the recommendations!
class?
 By talking to colleagues and finding out what books they have found successful
in their classrooms;
 Reaching out to parents and teachers in the target-language country and
soliciting their ideas about books that kids or adult learners enjoy.
Another convenient way to find book recommendations is

through Goodreads or Amazon. Both of these popular book recommendation platforms
66
have the option of searching for books in the target language. Results can be filtered to
search specifically for children’s or young adult books if applicable.
Here are a few examples.

 English. For primary-aged children, “The Name Jar” by Yangsook Choi offers
some wonderful perspectives on cultural differences, as a Korean student
searches for a new name to fit in at her American school. For older students, a
classic like J.M. Barrie’s “Peter Pan” or E.B. White’s “Charlotte’s Web” is always a
hit, providing life lessons in an engaging manner that transcends cultural
differences.
 Spanish: Carlos Ruiz Zafón’s “La Sombra del Viento” (The Shadow of the
Wind) offers a compelling mystery, with the added bonus of a window on life in
1945 Barcelona. Another great choice is Isabel Allende’s “La Casa de los
Espiritus” (The House of the Spirits).
 Mandarin Chinese: Younger students will find much to relate to in the portrayal
of a group of friends coming of age in Shanghai in Guo Jingming’s “Tiny Times
1.0.” You might also consider Weijia Huang and Ao Qun’s “Readings in Chinese
Culture” or Jiang Rong’s “Wolf Totem.”
 French: Although originally published in 1959, you still just can’t beat the
relatable childhood humor in René Goscinny’s classic “Le Petit Nicolas” (Little
Nicolas). Other great French books for language learners: Albert
Camus’ “L’Étranger” (The Stranger) and Bernard Werber’s trilogy “Les
Fourmis” (The Ants).
2. Pre-teach vocabulary for discussing literature.

Give students a repertoire of words for discussing things like genre, symbolism,
theme and setting. Once they feel confident about the use of these terms, they can
discuss stories in a more meaningful way.
3. Activate their prior knowledge.

Ask students to write down all the things they know or have heard about the
book, the author and/or the historical period. This exercise will provide a relevant
context for the book.
4. Model your process of thinking about literature.

While reading the first part of discussions, do some thinking out loud about the
story. (“I wonder why the story began that way. I wonder what this character is going to
do next.”) By modeling this process in simple language with vocabulary from the book,
you can instill confidence in the students to have a deeper discussion.
5. Have students listen to an audio recording of the text while they read.
You can often find famous books or poetry recorded in the voice of the author,
or that of a famous actor. Hearing the text read aloud makes the task less arduous and
helps with pronunciation.
6. Provide discussion questions to be completed or discussed at the end of each

chapter/section.
Formulate questions that help students get to a deeper understanding about the
plot, the characters, the theme and the language. The questions should require them to
dig deep with examples from the text.
7. Allow them to express their ideas about the story or poem by drawing a picture or
acting out a scene.
67
1. Pair up for a micro-teaching. Choose a literary material by observing the

principles and guides you learned from previous topics. Craft your lesson
plans and materials for a microteaching in class
2. As your turn or part s are done, provide a rubric which your team decide to
use in rating other teams in their demonstration of their chosen lesson. Do
you find the rubric essential? Which ones in the rubric you used should be
considered and no?
3. Document the microteaching. Come up with a record or list of your
constructive criticisms.
68
(MICRO) DEMO-TEACHING
My Language Class and their Fave Lit!
(Documentation)
69
REFERENCES
Amer, Aly. (2012). Using Literature in Reading English as Second/Foreign Language.
Retrieved from
https://www.academia.edu/12137518/Using_Literature_in_Reading_English_as
_Second_Foreign_Language
Celce-Murcia Mariam. (2001). Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. 3rd
edition. — Heinle ELT, 2001. — 584 p. — ISBN-10: 0838419925. Retrieved from
https://www.academia.edu/36244291/Celce_Murcia_ed_Teaching_English_as_a
_Second_or_Foreign_Language_pdf
Celce-Murcia, M., et al. (2014). Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. 4th
ed. National Geographic Learning. ISBN 10: 1111351694 ISBN 13:
9781111351694. Retrieved from
https://www.academia.edu/36244291/Celce_Murcia_ed_Teaching_English_as_a
_Second_or_Foreign_Language_pdf
Chouhan, A., et al. (2016). Teaching English Language through Literature: A critical
Study. International Journal o English Langauge, Literature and Humanities. Vol.
4, Issue VIII. Retrieved from
https://www.academia.edu/34303601/Teaching_English_Language_through_Lit
erature_A_Critical_Study
Daskalovska, et al. (2012). Why should literature be used in the language classroom?
Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 46 ( 2012 ) 1182 – 1186. Retrieved
from https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/
Durant, A. Introduction to ‘Language through Literature’ approaches to teaching
Literature in English in L2 contexts
Gardner, Amy. (2020). Enux Education Limited. Lit Learning: A Guide to Literature in
Language Teaching. Retrieved from
https://www.fluentu.com/blog/educator/literature-in-language-teaching-and-
learning/
Hismanoglu, Murat. (2005). Teaching English Through Literature. Joournal of Language
and Linguistic Studies. Vol. 1, No. 1. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281379160_Teaching_English_throu
gh_literature
Kashyap, Manjeet. (2016). Teaching of English through Literature. The Opinion, Vol. 5,
No 9. Retrieved from
https://www.academia.edu/28237858/Teaching_of_English_through_Literature
Rahayu, Mundi. (2011). LiNGUA Jurnal Ilmu Bahasa dan Sastra.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284074316_LITERATURE_IN_LANGU
AGE_TEACHING
Ruzbeh, B.,, et al. (2014). Significance of Literature in Foreign Language Teaching.
International Education Studies; Vol. 7, No. 4; 2014 ISSN 1913-9020 E-ISSN 1913-
9039 Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education. Retrieved from
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1069281.pdf
Sanur, Isabella. (n.d.). Definition of Literature. Retrieved from
https://www.academia.edu/17544006/Definition_literatureSiegel, L. (2011).
The development of reading comprehension skillsin children learning
English as a second language. Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011
https://www.academia.edu/18742756/The_development_of_reading_compreh
ension_skills_in_children_learning_English_as_a_second_language
Shiro, Aditya. (2005).Teaching English Through Literature. Journal of Language and
Linguistic Studies. Vol. 1, No.1, april 2005 Retrieved July 24, 2020 at
https://www.academia.edu/36558019/Teaching_English_Through_Literature
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Taher, Ahmed. (n.d). Teaching English Through Literature. Retrieved from
https://www.academia.edu/25702722/Teaching_English_through_literatureTugr
ul, C. (2016). THE USE OF LITERATURE IN LANGUAGE TEACHING. JOURNAL OF
EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD May 2016, Volume:
6 Issue: 2 Article: 09 ISSN: 2146-7463. Retrieved from
http://www.wjeis.org/FileUpload/ds217232/File/09.cagri_tugrul_mart.pdf
RA No. 10533
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Literature Teaching English in The Elementary Grade Through Literature

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LESSON 1

TEACHING LITERATURE: AN INTRODUCTION

TOPIC 1: TEACHING LITERATURE: AN INTRODUCTION

Literature plays an important role as a fundamental element and source of

TOPIC 2: DEFINING LITERATURE

Literature is a term used to describe written or spoken material. Generally

represents language or introduces new

This information pertaining to literary values is an evidence of reasons of

TOPIC 3: TEACHING LITERATURE: WHY AND WHAT

Field of foreign language learning and teaching

 Use of literature as a  Emphasis on translation as

Originally compiled by Maria Victoria S. Mateo

TOPIC 4: REASONS FOR USING LITERARY TEXTS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING

1. Valuable Authentic Material

This colorful created world can quickly help

TOPIC 5: CRITERIA FOR SELECTING SUITABLE LITERARY TEXTS IN

It is one major factor to take into account—whether a particular work is able to

TOPIC 6: BENEFITS OF USING LITERATURE TO LANGUAGE TEACHING

Benefits of Using Short Stories

Benefits of Using Drama

Using drama in a language classroom is a good resource for language teaching. It

The educational benefits of drama, according to (Lenore 1993), are as follows:

Benefits of Using Novel

Helton, C.A, J. Asamani and E.D. Thomas (1998:1-5)

Direction: Choose the correct letter from the given options.

Originally compiled by Maria Victoria S. Mateo

TOPIC 1: ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING THROUGH LITERATURE

Besides modern techniques and innovative approaches, Literature has also

Literature provides learners with a broad

TOPIC 2 APPROACH, METHOD, AND TECHNIQUE

Anthony (1963) has provided a useful set of

An approach to language teaching is

A technique is a classroom device or activity and thus represents the narrowest

The most problematic of Anthony’s three terms is method. Methods proliferated

 Silent Wav (Gattegno 1976)

the complex circumstances of teaching and learning languages — with

1. Grammar-Translation Approach (an extension of the approach used to teach

3. Reading Approach (a reaction to the problems experienced in implementing the

4. Audiolingualism (a reaction to the Reading - approach and its lack of emphasis on

5. Oral-Situational Approach (a reaction to the Trading Approach and its lack of

6. Cognitive Approach (a reaction to the behaviorist features of the Audiolingual

7. Affective-Humanistic Approach (a reaction to the general lack of affective

8. Comprehension-Based Approach (an outgrowth of research in first language

9. Communicative Approach (an outgrowth of the work of anthropological linguists

Cognitive Approach: Affective-Humanistic

•Language is rule- •Learning a foreign

•Language acquisition •The purpose of language

Originally compiled by Maria Victoria S. Mateo

1. Characterize each of the three communicative listening modes: bidirectional,

TOPIC 1: LITERATURE, SPEAKING, AND LISTENING

Teachers should try to teach basic

Dramatization requires classroom performance of scripted materials. Students

Improvization and Role-Playing

Both improvization and role-playing may be developed around the characters,

Making each student responsible for facts

TOPIC 2: MAKING THE CASE: THE IMPORTANCE OF LISTENING IN

"Speaking does not of itself constitute communication unless what is said is

TOPIC 3: EMERGING RECOGNITION OF THE IMPORTANCE OF

“After all. listening is neither so dramatic nor so noisy as talking. The

TOPIC 4: FOUR PERSPECTIVES—FOUR MODELS OF LISTENING

Model # 3 Task Model # 4

Originally compiled by Maria Victoria S. Mateo