CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Theoretical Description

 Behaviorist Theories

a. Learning theory by E.L. thorndike: The Law of Effect

His theory is known as connectionism. Quoted in Djiwandono (2006), Thorndike argues
that learning is process of “stapping in” (rememberred), forming and relation between stimuli
and responses. Stimulus is any other things that can stimulate learning activities, such as
mind, feeling, or any other things that can be caught by our five senses. However, response is
any reaction which is coming out from learner when he is attending learning activities. It can
be thought, feeling or action. From that definition, Thorndike argues that the changes of
someone’s behavior is as a result of learning process either concrete that can be seen or
abstract that cannot be seen.

b. Learning theory by J.B. Watson: conditioning Reflect

Watson is one of behaviorists who came after Thorndike. He uses Pavlov’s theory
(classical conditioning) as his fundamental learning theory. He believes that learning is a
process of conditioning reflect (response) through stimuly changes. In his opinion, learning is
an interaction process between stimulus and response; however, stimulus and response must
be in observable behavior that can be measured. In other words, although Watson admits that
there is a mental change during learning process, he does not consider it as important factor
to measure.

c. Learning theory by Clark and Hull

Clark and Hull also use stimulus-response relation variable to define what learning is. Still,
he is influenced by theory of evolution which is developed by Charles Darwin. Unfurnately,
their theory is not really often used in pratical life mainly after Skinner introduces his theory.
However, this theory is still used in some experiment in laboratory.

d. Learning theory by B.F. Skinner: Operant Conditioning

Skinner views reward or reinforcement as the most important aspect in lerning process. He
says that we tend to learn a response if soon followed by reinforcement. Skinner chooses the
term reinforcement than reward, because reward is interpreted as subjective behavior which
is related to pleasure, while reinforcement is a neutral term. Skinner’s concept about learning
can surpass the other behaviorists’ theories. He can make a simple explanation about learning
concept, but it is very comprehensive. According to him, the relation between stimulus and
response which is occuring during interaction in environment and then create behavioral
changing is not easy as like as like what the previous behaviorists explain.In brief,
behaviorism asserts that learning is a behavior changing which is as a result of interaction
between stimulus and response. Someone considered has learnt something if he is able to
show behaviorl changing.Behaviorists’ view admits the importance of input (stimulus) and
output (response). Still, what is happening between stimulus and response considered
unimportant because it cannot be measured and observed. In addition, to use reinforcement in
strengthening behavior, there are some other methods that influence behaviors. These
methods are shaping and modeling.

 Cognitivist Theories

a. Stage theory by Piaget

According to Piaget, cognitive development is a genetic process; it is a process which is
based on serve system development of biological mechanism. By the adding of someone’s
ages, his nerve cell structure will be more complex and his ability will increase. Piaget does
not see cognitive development as something that can be defined quantitatively. He speaks in
brief that child’s thought capacity and mental power that have different ages will be different
qualitatively.

b. Learning theory by David Ausubel : reception learning

According to Ausubel (1963), learning should be a meaningful assimilation for a student.
Learning subject should be assimilated and connected to student’s knowledge that has been
owned in cognitive structure. Cognitive structure, here, is organizational structure in
someone’s mind which integrates separated elements of knowledge into a conceptual unit.

 Constructivists Theories

Generally, constructivists argue that learning is children’s effort to give a meaning in

their experiences through assimilation and accomodation which aims to form their cognitive
structure, which enable them to do an action. Thus, learning is organized to provide a
condition in which can shape children’s charachter optimally.
  Humanists Theories

Humanists argue that the purpose of learning is to humanize human. Learning

process is considered succesful if the children has understood their environment and their
self. In the other words, a children is able to reach self actualization optimally. The learning
application of Humanistic theory in learning activity tends to motivate children thinking
inductively. Also, this theory prioritizes experience factor and children’s involvement in
learning.

2.2 Review of previously study

Language acquisition of early childhood is closely associated with the flow of the sounds
of language, which the sounds are mixed each other. In auditory, language is a series of
meaningfull sound generated by the human tools articulation. Language sounds are strung in
a systemic forms of speech utterances is meaningful, so the sign language is
understandable.There are some writers who had done the research about children language
acquisition. Budi Santoso, Eva Magfiroh and Ayu Wahyu L.W (Student Guidance and
Counselling, Unisma Malang, 2009) in their research “Language Acquisition of Children in
Family Environment”. In this research, they focused on how children acquire language in the
children’s family background.Safriadi (2010) wrote “Obtaining the first language”, He
explained about how children acquire the first language acquisition based on Noam Chomsky
and Schultz research. Syahrul (2009), a student of English Department of Hasanuddin
University wrote about “Children’s ability to learn English Basic Vocabulary as Second
language (A case study At Brainy college)”. In his thesis, Syahrul said that Children ability to
get English as second language is quite different from adults. The difference could be the
process of acquiring, understanding, and using the language. In his research, he observed how
far is the children’s participation in learning English and their ability to recognize and
remember the phenomes, memorize words, spell and write words.In other word, he observed
the process of language acquisition and the ability in English shown by those children while
learning English.Meanwhile, in his thesis the writer wrote about “Children language
acquisition aged 2-3 years old”. Different from the other writer before who wrote about
children’s ability in language acquisition to learning second language (English) in Brainy
College, in this thesis the writer intends to investigate the language which is acquired by the
children aged 2-3 years old at the level of phonology and vocabulary. Beside language can be
acquired at those level above, the writer also discusses about differences ability of each
children in acquiring language, and also discusses the close emotional relationship between
children and their mothers in acquiring language. The writer believes that this kind of topic
has not been conducted before.

2.3 Theoretical Framework

2.3.1 Psycholinguistics
Malmkjae (2005:476) in the Linguistic Encyclopedia assert “Psycholinguistics is a
disipline in which the insight of linguistics and psychology are brought to bear on the study
of the cognitive aspects of language understanding and production.” Malmkajae calls
psycholinguistics here, as cognitive process of people who is learning and using language in
communiacation. It means that psycholinguistic is a term to use of how the speaker acquires,
understands and produces the language and all the process during these stages. Clark & clark
(1977:5) define psycholinguistics in their book entitled PSYCHOLOGY and LANGUAGE as
follows: “psychology of language or psycholinguistics is fundamentally concerned with two
basic skills. These skills are speaking and listening and their acquisition. In this case, it
includes three basic broad processes; these are comprehension, production, and acquisition. It
also includes the study of children’s acquisition of language.”In Clarks’ (1977:5) statement,
they emphasized two basic skills which are dominantly occuring in the process of acquiring
and using the language. These skills, speaking and listening, develop along with the
development of their ability in acquiring and using the language. They also mentioned three
continuous processes; those are comprehension, production, and the last process is
acquisition. This is a common process that occurs to everyone who is in a process of learning
and using language either as native speaker or second language speaker. Meanwhile, Levelt
(1975) in Mar’at (2005) defines psycholinguistic as the study of language and acquisition by
human. From this definition, we can see two different aspects. Firstly, is language acquisition
which concerns with the ability of people, especilally children study one language. Secondly,
is the use of language by adult.

Futhermore, Levelt (1975) in Mar’at (2005) devides psycholinguistics into three prominent
subdivisions, as follows:
1. General psycholinguistics, study about adult’s observation and perception on language and
how they produce language also about cognitive process which is occuring when a person
uses the language.

2. Developmental psycholinguistics is the psychology on children and adult’s language

acquisition, either the first language acquisition (mother tongue) or the second language.

3. Applied psycholinguistics is the application of psycholinguistics theories in children and

adults’ daily activities. This field is divided into two parts; these are applied general
psycholinguistics and applied developmental psycholinguistics. From these
psycholinguistics’ theories, the writer can conclude that psycholinguistic is basically the
study about how people acquire and use language based on their experiences and
environment that influence them through some phases; starting from childhood, teens, and the
adult. Beside that, there are some development processes that occur during acquiring and
using the language. These processes are comprehension, production, and acquisition.

2.3.2. Language Acquisition

Krashen in Schutz (2006:12) defines language acquisition as “The product of a subconscious

process”, it is very similar to the process children undergo when They acquire their first
language . in the other words, language acquisition is the process of how children in generally
start to speak or acquire their first language. Language acquisition is usually not aware that he
was

getting the language, but just be aware of fact that he was using language for communication.
Schultz (2006:12) added that the results of the competence of language acquisition are also
obtained on the threshold of consciousness.According to Sigeland Cocking (2000:5)
Language acquisition is the process used by the children to adjust a series of hypotheses with
what the old man to the rules of grammar can choose the best and the simplest of language is
concerned. Language acquisition usually takes place in the community environment of
language target which naturally and informally refers to the communication demands. Unlike
the learning formally and artificial as well as referring to the demands of learning (Ricardo
Schultz, 2006:12), language acquisition can be devided into first language acquisition and
second language acquisition. According to Vygotsky’s first language acquisition is obtained
from the child’s interaction with the environment, while the childrenalreadyhave the potential
basic or called by Chomsky as “Language Acquisition Device (LAD)”, the potential will be
developed fully after a stimulus from the environment. And the Second Language
Acquisition comeswhen the child mastering their first language.

2.3.3. First language acquisition

Skinner(1975) in Littlewood (1987) quoted that “Language is not a mental
phenomenon, but it is behavior. Like other forms of human behavior, it is learnt by a process
of habit-formation.”He emphasizes that habit-formation occurs during children’s first
language acquisition. Children imitate the sound and patterns which they hear around them.
The child makes adults as his model. They attempt to be like adult in speaking. In other to
obtain this reward, the child repeats the sounds and patterns, so that these become habits. In
this way, the child’s verbal behavior is conditioned untill the habits co-ouurr with the adult
model (Littlewood 1987:6).However, most researchers argues about weakness of the
behaviorist approach. As Littlewood (1987:6) said that children are born with an innate
capacity for acquiring language; this is called as innate language-learning capacity or
Language Acquisition Device (LAD). Another view is the language acquisition can be
explained in terms of the same cognitive capacity used by the children in making sense of
other aspects of their world. For example, their ability to discover the relationship between
subject and object in grammar may originate in their more general ability to perceive the
world in terms of agents and objects of action (littlewood 1987:7).Based on the explanations
above, first language acquisition occurs when a child has never learned any language, and
acquire language. This acquisition could be a language or monolingual FLA (First Language
Acquisition), two languages simultancously or sequentially (billingual FLA). It could even be

more then two languages (multilingual FLA).

2.3.4. Second language acquisition

The second language acquisition occurs when a person obtains a language after mastering the
first language or the process of developing one’s skills in a second language or foreign
language. Different from first language, this second language is commonly acquired
consciously; that is through language learning. Krashen (1987:10) explains that the second
way to develop competence in a second language is by language learning. Here, he uses the
term “Learning” which refers to conscious knowledge of a second language, knowing the
rules, being aware of them, and being able to talk about them.According to Krashen
(1987:10), there are five hypothesis mainly with the second language acquisition, such as:

1. The Acquisition Learning hypothesis,

2. The Natural Order Hypothesis,
3. Monitoring hypothesis,
4. Input hypothesis, and
5. Affective Filter hypothesis.

He argued as follow as:

The acquisition learning hypothesis is focusing on the adults who have two distict and
independent ways of developing competence in a second language. The first way is language
acquisition, a process similar to the way children develop ability in their first language.
Language acquisition is a subconscious process. Other ways of describing acquisition include
implicit learning, informal learning, and natural learning. The second way to develop
competence in a second language is by language learning. Some second language theorists
have assumed that children acquire, while adults can only learn.

Natural order hypothesis states that we obtain a sequence of rules of language that can be
expected. Specific rules tend to appear earlier than other rules in that language acquisition.
Various studies reported by Krashen strengthen this hypothesis. Children who acquire
English as a second language suggests a natural order for grammatical morphemes are
acquired not affected by her first language. Sequence of second language acquisition differs
from first language sequences, but the second language user who has different first language
showed significant similarity. The natural order is also seen in adults, Hypothesis observes
pointed out that the acquisition and learning are used in specific way. Usually initiate the
acquisition of speech and we are responsible for our fluency. The study has only one funtion,
namely as monitors or editors. Just play the role of learning to chance our form of speech, it
is produced by the system acquired. This can occur before or after speaking or writing. This
hypothesis implies that the formal rules or consciously learning, only play a limited role in
second language performance.

Monitor hypothesis proposes that acquiring and learning are used in very specific ways.
Normally, acquisition “initiates” our utterances in a second language and is resposible for our
fluency. Learning has only one function, and that is as a Monitor, or editor. Learning comes
into play only to make change in the form of our utterance, after in has been “produced” by
the acquired system. This can happen before we speak or write, or after (self correction). In
brief, acquisition here, is a central and learning more peripheral and then the goal of our
pedagogy should encourage acquisition.

Input hypothesis states that human obtained language only in one way with to understand the
message or accept the input that is understood. Input hypothesis is survived by acquisition
rather than learning. Stated that we acquire by understanding language that contains structure
with little across the existing level of competence. This is helped by the context of
information with extra-linguistic. This hypothesis is consistent on what is known as speech
guard (caretaker speech), the modification made by parents or other adults when talking with
children. Speech guard modified to aid understanding. In the case of second or foreign
language acquisition there is also commonly known as a foreign speech. Foreign speech is
usually obtained by a native speaker when talking to people who have less language
competence. Children who parachuted in a natural environment to acquire the second
language only speak little for a few month since his first exposure to the second language.
The application of first language rules in second language acquisition also support the
hypothesis of this input.
The Affective filter hypothesis to survive with the need for oppenness in language
acquisition. The user need to be opened to input it. The users of Affective filter will inhibit
the use of language in the input. If the filter is only the way, the user may understand what his
perception but it will not reach the input language acquisition device. This happens when the
user unmotivated, lack of confidence or feel uncomfortable about their environment.

Chomsky in Ricardo Schultz (2006:1) seem match in terms of the basic nature of language
problems. In the analysis of language acquisition, he argues that the mystery of action
learning comes from two main facts about the use of language, the language is consistent and
creative. Chomsky added, speakers who knows their constituents and grammatical patterns
can speak it well although not heard yet before, as well as the observer does not can expect to
be able to make a list of constitiuents, and the grammatical pattern because it’s possibilities
combination unlimited.

Meanwhile, Bloomfield said that grammar is an analog giving corresponding to a language,

and learning is a set of discovery procedure while on that way a child form the analogies.
Language acquisition proceeds without the competence of language rules, but more attention
to the message or meaning that is understood. In contrast to learning ‘language’ requires
language competence as a capital for the use of language learned. Children in acquiring the
first language varies, there is a slow, medium, and some even faster (Language
Acquisition.Theory -That Both Acquisition of First(2006). It is certainly strongly influenced
by several vactors, such as the following:

1. Natural factors, meant here is every child born with a set of prosedures and rules of
language are called by Chomsky is Language Acquisition Device (LAD). Potential base will
develop to its full potential after a stimulus from the environment. Acquisition process
through this tool of its nature. Because of its nature, then even though the child is not
stimulated to get the language, the child will accept what is happening around them. Slobin
(1985:63) said that brought about this birth is not the knowledge of the universe is a set of
linguistic categories, such as Chomsky said. Procedures and rules inborn that allows a child
to process the data of linguistics.

2. Cognitive development factors. One’s language development walking with cognitive

development. Both of them have a complementary relationship. In the language acquisition
process is aided by cognitive development, cognitive abilities would otherwise develop with
the help of language. Both were developed within the scope of social interaction. Piaget in
Brainerd, as quoted Ginn(2006:7) defines cognitive as those relating to intellectual and an
introduction by means of disclosure of thoughts, and ideas. Incuding cognitive activity:
mental activity, remember, given sign, categorizing or classifying, problem solving, creating
and imagining. To study its relationship with language cognitive has relationship with
someone language acquisition.

According to Lenneberg (2006:7), the age of two years (cognitive maturity) untill the
age of puberty, the human brain is very flexible that allows a child to acquire the first
language easily and quickly. Lenneberg further stated that acquisition of natural language
after puberty will avoided by the completion odf certain brain function, especially verbal
functioning at the left brain. The child and his wits as an active and constructive agent who
slowly advanced in its own business activities continuously. Any children moving into
adulthood obtain a level of thinking is qualitatively different, that is becoming increasingly
more powerful. Piaget (2006:7) argued that the ability to represent knowledge is a
constructive process that requires a long series action of steps towards environment.

According to Slobin, general cognitive and mental development of children is

determinant of language acquisition. A child’s first language learned or gained by getting to
know and know quite a lot of structure and function of language, and he is actively trying to
expand the boundaries of knowledge about the world around him, as well as developing
language skills in his strategies perception. It has completed the acquisition of the child at the
age of about 3-4 years, and further language development may reflect the child’s general
cognitive growth. The writer conclude that children’s skill to acquiring language is based on
their experiences in life, and depend on their brain to make all the information that they have
got being way to acquiring their first language or second language.

3. Social background factors. Include family structures, social group affiliation, and cultural
environment enables serious differences occur in child language acquisition. The higher level
of social interaction of a family, make grater chances of family members (children) get the
language. Conversely the lower of social interaction in family, make smaller chance of family
members (children) get the language. Another thing that also affect the social status. Children
who come from lower economic class status showed the slow progress in language
acquisition. Differences in language acquisition showed that middle group is more able to
explore and use language that explicity compared with lower class children, especially in
their dialect. Child’s ability to interact with others in a way that is understandable important
point to be a member of the group.Children who are able to communicate well will be better
accepted by the social group and have the opportunity to play better leadership than children
who are less able to communicate or be afraid to use it.

4. Descendants of factors, including:

 Gender. Gender also influence children’s language acquisition.

Usually girls are more superior than boys. Although in many scientific studies about
the fundamental differencess that have not fully be explained by the experts.
 Intellligence. Children’s language acquisition is also influeced by the intelligence co-
owned by the child. It deals with children have the capacity to digest something
through their mind. Every child has a brain strucutre that includes the IQ differences
between one another. The higher one’s IQ, more quickly acquire the language,
whereas the lower IQ, slower language pain.
 Personality and style/acquisition method. Creativity respond to something someone in
determine the acquisition of language, speak and act is the individual’s personality
influences mere or less variations in said language. A child does not suddenly have
the first grammar in the brain, complete with all the rules. First language was acquired
by several stages, and each subsequent stage is closer to the grammar of adults
language.