H. J.

THIM TRUST’S
THEEM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

PROJECT REPORT
“PREPARE A CHART OF VARIOUS TYPE OF LCD’S TO
DISPLAY IT’S FEATURES,PIN FUNCTION & STEPS”
IN THE FULFILMENT OF DIPLOMA
IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
YEAR 2021-2022
SUBMITTED BY
AYUSH .H. MOHITE

GUDIYA .R. RAJBHAR

NITISH KUMAR

ARSALAN .G. KHAN

PROJECT GUIDE

PROF. MOIN KHAN

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It’s our pleasure to take this opportunity to thank with deep

sence of gratitude to our guide, staff members of second year
department & everyone who have directly or indirectly
contributed tour project as a success. With immense pleasure
we express our deep sense of gratitude &vote of thanks to our
project guide Prof. Moin Khan for her constant interest,
motivation & valuable guidance during work & completion of
this project report.
We are also very thankful to all those who supported us without
which project would not have been completed successfully.

Ayush.H.Mohite

Chetan.P.Borse

Gudiya.R.Rajbhar

Nitish Kumar

Arsalan.G.Khan
 H. J. THIM TRUST’S

THEEM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Chillar Road, Boisar (East),

Tal. Palghar Dist. Palghar, Pin-401501
Academic Year 2021-2022

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the report has been
submitted by following student

Ayush .H. Mohite

Chetan .P. Borse

Gudiya .R. Rajbhar

Nitish Kumar

Arsalan .G. Khan

This project work has been completed by 2nd Year Student of Electrical Department
as a Part Of Term Work Prescribed by Maharashtra State Board Of Technical
Education, Mumbai. We have guided and assisted the Student for the above work,
which has been Satisfactory/Very Good/Good.

Signature of Signature of

( Prof. Apeksha Bari ) ( Prof. Rashik Khan )

Teacher/Guide H.O.D.

Signature of

( Prof. Sayyad.L.B. )

Principal
 INTRODUCTION

A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or other

electronically modulated optical device that uses the light-
modulating properties of liquid crystals combined with polarizers.
Liquid crystals do not emit light directly, [1] instead using a backlight
or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome. [2] LCDs are
available to display arbitrary images (as in a generalpurpose
computer display) or fixed images with low information content,
which can be displayed or hidden. For instance: preset words, digits,
and seven-segment displays, as in a digital clock, are all good
examples of devices with these displays. They use the same basic
technology, except that arbitrary images are made from a matrix of
small pixels, while other displays have larger elements. LCDs can
either be normally on (positive) or off (negative), depending on the
polarizer arrangement. For example, a character positive LCD with a
backlight will have black lettering on a background that is the color of
the backlight, and a character negative LCD will have a black
background with the letters being of the same color as the backlight.
Optical filters are added to white on blue LCDs to give them their
characteristic appearance.
 Reflective twisted nematic liquid crystal display.
1. Polarizing filter film with a vertical axis to polarize light as it
enters.
2. Glass substrate with ITO electrodes. The shapes of these
electrodes will determine the shapes that will appear when the LCD
is switched ON. Vertical ridges etched on the surface are smooth.
3. Twisted nematic liquid crystal.
4. Glass substrate with common electrode film (ITO) with horizontal
ridges to line up with the horizontal filter.
5. Polarizing filter film with a horizontal axis to block/pass light.
6. Reflective surface to send light back to viewer. (In a backlit LCD,
this layer is replaced or complemented with a light source.)
 LCDs are used in a wide range of applications, including LCD televisions,
computer monitors, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and indoor
and outdoor signage. Small LCD screens are common in LCD projectors and
portable consumer devices such as digital cameras, watches, digital clocks,
calculators, and mobile telephones, including smartphones. LCD screens are
also used on consumer electronics products such as DVD players, video game
devices and clocks. LCD screens have replaced heavy, bulky cathode-ray tube
(CRT) displays in nearly all applications. LCD screens are available in a wider
range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, with LCD screens available
in sizes ranging from tiny digital watches to very large television receivers.
LCDs are slowly being replaced by OLEDs, which can be easily made into
different shapes, and have a lower response time, wider color gamut, virtually
infinite color contrast and viewing angles, lower weight for a given display size
and a slimmer profile (because OLEDs use a single glass or plastic panel
whereas LCDs use two glass panels; the thickness of the panels increases with
size but the increase is more noticeable on LCDs) and potentially lower power
consumption (as the display is only "on" where needed and there is no
backlight). OLEDs, however, are more expensive for a given display size due to
the very expensive electroluminescent materials or phosphors that they use.
Also due to the use of phosphors, OLEDs suffer from screen burn-in and there
is currently no way to recycle OLED displays, whereas LCD panels can be
recycled, although the technology required to recycle LCDs is not yet
widespread. Attempts to maintain the competitiveness of LCDs are quantum
dot displays, marketed as SUHD, QLED or Triluminos, which are displays with
blue LED backlighting and a Quantum-dot enhancement film (QDEF) that
converts part of the blue light into red and green, offering similar performance
to an OLED display at a lower price, but the quantum dot layer that gives these
displays their characteristics can not yet be recycled.
 Since LCD screens don't use phosphors, they rarely suffer image burn-in when
a static image is displayed on a screen for a long time, e.g., the table frame for
an airline flight schedule on an indoor sign. LCDs are, however, susceptible to
image persistence. [3] The LCD screen is more energy-efficient and can be
disposed of more safely than a CRT can. Its low electrical power consumption
enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment more efficiently
than a CRT can be. By 2008, annual sales of televisions with LCD screens
exceeded sales of CRT units worldwide, and the CRT became obsolete for most
purposes.

General characteristics

Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned between

two transparent electrodes, often made of Indium-Tin oxide (ITO) and two
polarizing filters (parallel and perpendicular polarizers), the axes of
transmission of which are (in most of the cases) perpendicular to each other.
Without the liquid crystal between the polarizing filters, light passing through
the first filter would be blocked by the second (crossed) polarizer.
Before an electric field is applied, the orientation of the liquid-crystal
molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a
twisted nematic (TN) device, the surface General characteristics An LCD screen
used as a notification panel for travellers alignment directions at the two
electrodes are perpendicular to each other, and so the molecules arrange
themselves in a helical structure, or twist. This induces the rotation of the
polarization of the incident light, and the device appears gray. If the applied
voltage is large enough, the liquid crystal molecules in the center of the layer
are almost completely untwisted and the polarization of the incident light is
not rotated as it passes through the liquid crystal layer. This light will then be
mainly polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and
the pixel will appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid
crystal layer in each pixel, light can be allowed to pass through in varying
amounts thus constituting different levels of gray.
The chemical formula of the liquid crystals used in LCDs may vary. Formulas
may be patented. [4] An example is a mixture of 2-(4-alkoxyphenyl)-5-
alkylpyrimidine with cyanobiphenyl, patented by Merck and Sharp
Corporation. The patent that covered that specific mixture expired.
Most color LCD systems use the same technique, with color filters used to
generate red, green, and blue subpixels. The LCD color filters are made with a
photolithography process on large glass sheets that are later glued with other
glass sheets containing a TFT array, spacers and liquid crystal, creating several
color LCDs that are then cut from one another and laminated with polarizer
sheets. Red, green, blue and black photoresists (resists) are used. All resists
contain a finely ground powdered pigment, with particles being just 40
nanometers across. The black resist is the first to be applied; this will create a
black grid (known in the industry as a black matrix) that will separate red,
green and blue subpixels from one another, increasing contrast ratios and
preventing light from leaking from one subpixel onto other surrounding
subpixels. [6] After the black resist has been dried in an oven and exposed to
UV light through a photomask, the unexposed areas are washed away, creating
a black grid. Then the same process is repeated with the remaining resists. This
fills the holes in the black grid with their corresponding colored resists.
Another color-generation method used in early color PDAs and some
calculators was done by varying the voltage in a Super-twisted nematic LCD,
where the variable twist between tighter-spaced plates causes a varying
double refraction birefringence, thus changing the hue. They were typically
restricted to 3 colors per pixel: orange, green, and blue.

LCD in a Texas Instruments calculator with top polarizer removed from

device and placed on top, such that the top and bottom polarizers are
perpendicular. As a result, the colors are inverted.

The optical effect of a TN device in the voltage-on state is far less dependent
on variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage-off state. Because
of this, TN displays with low information content and no backlighting are
usually operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with
no voltage (the eye is much more sensitive to variations in the dark state than
the bright state). As most of 2010-era LCDs are used in television sets,
monitors and smartphones, they have high-resolution matrix arrays of pixels to
display arbitrary images using backlighting with a dark background. When no
image is displayed, different arrangements are used. For this purpose, TN LCDs
are operated between parallel polarizers, whereas IPS LCDs feature crossed
polarizers. In many applications IPS LCDs have replaced TN LCDs, particularly in
smartphones. Both the liquid crystal material and the alignment layer material
contain ionic compounds.
 If an electric field of one particular polarity is applied for a long period of
time, this ionic material is attracted to the surfaces and degrades the device
performance. This is avoided either by applying an alternating current or by
reversing the polarity of the electric field as the device is addressed (the
response of the liquid crystal layer is identical, regardless of the polarity of the
applied field).

Displays for a small number of individual digits or fixed symbols (as in digital
watches and pocket calculators) can be implemented with independent
electrodes for each segment. [23] In contrast, full alphanumeric or variable
graphics displays are usually implemented with pixels arranged as a matrix
consisting of electrically connected rows on one side of the LC layer and
columns on the other side, which makes it possible to address each pixel at the
intersections. The general method of matrix addressing consists of sequentially
addressing one side of the matrix, for example by selecting the rows one-by-
one and applying the picture information on the other side at the columns
row-by-row. For details on the various matrix addressing schemes see
passivematrix and active-matrix addressed LCDs.
 LCDs, along with OLED displays, are manufactured in cleanrooms
borrowing techniques from semiconductor manufacturing and using
large sheets of glass whose size has increased over time. Several
displays are manufactured at the same time, and then cut from the
sheet of glass, also known as the mother glass or LCD glass substrate.
The increase in size allows more displays or larger displays to be
made, just like with increasing wafer sizes in semiconductor
manufacturing. The glass sizes are as follows:
anel Si e

Ti e
 Generation Length Height Year Of
(mm) (mm) Introduction
Gen1 200-300 200-400 1990
Gen2 370 470
Gen3 550 650 1996-1998
Gen3.5 600 720 1996
Gen4 680 880 2000-2002
Gen4.5 730 920 2000-2004
Gen5 1100 1250-1300 2000-2004
Gen5.5 1300 1500
Gen6 1500 1800-1850 2002-2004
Gen7 1870 2200 2003
Gen7.5 1950 2250
Gen8 2160 2460
Gen8.5 2200 2500 2007-2016
Gen8.6 2250 2600 2016
Gen10 2880 3130 2009
Gen10.5 2940 3370 2018
(also known as
Gen 11)
Until Gen 8, manufacturers would not agree on a single mother glass size and
as a result, different manufacturers would use slightly different glass sizes for
the same generation. Some manufacturers have adopted Gen 8.6 mother glass
sheets which are only slightly larger than Gen 8.5, allowing for more 50 and 58
inch LCDs to be made per mother glass, specially 58 inch LCDs, in which case 6
can be produced on a Gen 8.6 mother glass vs only 3 on a Gen 8.5 mother
glass, significantly reducing waste. [31] The thickness of the mother glass also
increases with each generation, so larger mother glass sizes are better suited
for larger displays. An LCD Module (LCM) is a ready-to-use LCD with a
backlight. Thus, a factory that makes LCD Modules does not necessarily make
LCDs, it may only assemble them into the modules. LCD glass substrates are
made by companies such as AGC Inc., Corning Inc., and Nippon Electric Glass.
History
The origins and the complex history of liquid-crystal displays from the
perspective of an insider during the early days were described by Joseph A.
Castellano in Liquid Gold: The Story of Liquid Crystal Displays and the Creation
of an Industry. [35] Another report on the origins and history of LCD from a
different perspective until 1991 has been published by Hiroshi Kawamoto,
available at the IEEE History Center. [36] A description of Swiss contributions to
LCD developments, written by Peter J. Wild, can be found at the Engineering
and Technology History Wiki.

Background
In 1888, [38] Friedrich Reinitzer (1858–1927) discovered the liquid crystalline
nature of cholesterol extracted from carrots (that is, two melting points and
generation of colors) and published his findings at a meeting of the Vienna
Chemical Society on May 3, 1888 (F. Reinitzer: Beiträge zur Kenntniss des
Cholesterins, Monatshefte für Chemie (Wien) 9, 421–441 (1888)). [39] In 1904,
Otto Lehmann published his work "Flüssige Kristalle" (Liquid Crystals). In 1911,
Charles Mauguin first experimented with liquid crystals confined between
plates in thin layers.
In 1922, Georges Friedel described the structure and properties of liquid
crystals and classified them in three types (nematics, smectics and
cholesterics). In 1927, Vsevolod Frederiks devised the electrically switched light
valve, called the Fréedericksz transition, the essential effect of all LCD
technology. In 1936, the Marconi Wireless Telegraph company patented the
first practical application of the technology, "The Liquid Crystal Light Valve". In
1962, the first major English language publication Molecular Structure and
Properties of Liquid Crystals was published by Dr. George W. Gray. [40] In
1962, Richard Williams of RCA found that liquid crystals had some interesting
electro-optic characteristics and he realized an electro-optical effect by
generating stripe-patterns in a thin layer of liquid crystal material by the
application of a voltage. This effect is based on an electro-hydrodynamic
instability forming what are now called "Williams domains" inside the liquid
crystal.
The MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor) was invented
by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959, and presented
in 1960. [42][43] Building on their work with MOSFETs, Paul K. Weimer at RCA
developed the thin-film transistor (TFT) in 1962. [44] It was a type of MOSFET
distinct from the standard bulk MOSFET

1960s
In 1964, George H. Heilmeier, then working at the RCA laboratories on the
effect discovered by Williams achieved the switching of colors by field-induced
realignment of dichroic dyes in a homeotropically oriented liquid crystal.
Practical problems with this new electro-optical effect made Heilmeier
continue to work on scattering effects in liquid crystals and finally the
achievement of the first operational liquid-crystal display based on what he
called the dynamic scattering mode. Application of a voltage to a DSM display
switches the initially clear transparent liquid crystal layer into a milky turbid
state. DSM displays could be operated in transmissive and in reflective mode
but they required a considerable current to flow for their operation.
[46][47][48][49] George H. Heilmeier was inducted in the National Inventors
Hall of Fame [50] and credited with the invention of LCDs. Heilmeier's work is
an IEEE Milestone
In the late 1960s, pioneering work on liquid crystals was undertaken by the
UK's Royal Radar Establishment at Malvern, England. The team at RRE
supported ongoing work by George William Gray and his team at the
University of Hull who ultimately discovered the cyanobiphenyl liquid crystals,
which had correct stability and temperature properties for application in LCDs
The idea of a TFT-based liquid-crystal display (LCD) was conceived by Bernard
Lechner of RCA Laboratories in 1968. Lechner, F.J. Marlowe, E.O. Nester and J.
Tults demonstrated the concept in 1968 with an 18x2 matrix dynamic
scattering mode (DSM) LCD that used standard discrete MOSFETs.

1970s
On December 4, 1970, the twisted nematic field effect (TN) in liquid crystals
was filed for patent by Hoffmann-LaRoche in Switzerland, with Wolfgang
Helfrich and Martin Schadt listed as inventors. Hoffmann-La Roche licensed
the invention to Swiss manufacturer Brown, Boveri & Cie, its joint venture
partner at that time, which produced TN displays for wristwatches and other
applications during the 1970s for the international markets including the
Japanese electronics industry, which soon produced the first digital quartz
wristwatches with TN-LCDs and numerous other products. James Fergason,
while working with Sardari Arora and Alfred Saupe at Kent State University
Liquid Crystal Institute, filed an identical patent in the United States on April
22, 1971. [54] In 1971, the company of Fergason, ILIXCO (now LXD
Incorporated), produced LCDs based on the TN-effect, which soon superseded
the poorquality DSM types due to improvements of lower operating voltages
and lower power consumption. Tetsuro Hama and Izuhiko Nishimura of Seiko
received a US patent dated February 1971, for an electronic wristwatch
incorporating a TN-LCD. [55] In 1972, the first wristwatch with TN-LCD was
launched on the market: The Gruen Teletime which was a four digit display
watch.
In 1972, the concept of the active-matrix thin-film transistor (TFT) liquid-crystal
display panel was prototyped in the United States by T. Peter Brody's team at
Westinghouse, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. [56] In 1973, Brody, J. A. Asars and
G. D. Dixon at Westinghouse Research Laboratories demonstrated the first
thin-film-transistor liquid-crystal display (TFT LCD). [57][58] As of 2013, all
modern high-resolution and high-quality electronic visual display devices use
TFTbased active matrix displays. [59] Brody and Fang-Chen Luo demonstrated
the first flat activematrix liquid-crystal display (AM LCD) in 1974, and then
Brody coined the term "active matrix" in 1975.
In 1972 North American Rockwell Microelectronics Corp introduced the use of
DSM LCDs for calculators for marketing by Lloyds Electronics Inc, though these
required an internal light source for illumination. [60] Sharp Corporation
followed with DSM LCDs for pocket-sized calculators in 1973 [61] and then
mass-produced TN LCDs for watches in 1975.
Other Japanese companies soon took a leading position in the wristwatch
market, like Seiko and its first 6-digit TN-LCD quartz wristwatch, and Casio’s
‘Casiotron’. Color LCDs based on Guest-Host interaction were invented by a
team at RCA in 1968. A particular type of such a color LCD was developed by
Japan's Sharp Corporation in the 1970s, receiving patents for their inventions,
such as a patent by Shinji Kato and Takaaki Miyazaki in May 1975, [64] and
then improved by Fumiaki Funada and Masataka Matsuura in December 1975.
[65] TFT LCDs similar to the prototypes developed by a Westinghouse team in
1972 were patented in 1976 by a team at Sharp consisting of Fumiaki Funada,
Masataka Matsuura, and Tomio Wada, [66] then improved in 1977 by a Sharp
team consisting of Kohei Kishi, Hirosaku Nonomura, Keiichiro Shimizu, and
Tomio Wada. [67] However, these TFT-LCDs were not yet ready for use in
products, as problems with the materials for the TFTs were not yet solved.

1980s
In 1983, researchers at Brown, Boveri & Cie (BBC) Research Center,
Switzerland, invented the super-twisted nematic (STN) structure for passive
matrix-addressed LCDs. H. Amstutz et al. were listed as inventors in the
corresponding patent applications filed in Switzerland on July 7, 1983, and
October 28, 1983. Patents were granted in Switzerland CH 665491, Europe EP
0131216, [68] U.S. Patent 4,634,229 and many more countries. In 1980, Brown
Boveri started a 50/50 joint venture with the Dutch Philips company, called
Videlec. [69] Philips had the required know-how to design and build integrated
circuits for the control of large LCD panels. In addition, Philips had better
access to markets for electronic components and intended to use LCDs in new
product generations of hi-fi, video equipment and telephones. In 1984, Philips
researchers Theodorus Welzen and Adrianus de Vaan invented a video speed-
drive scheme that solved the slow response time of STN-LCDs, enabling
highresolution, high-quality, and smooth-moving video images on STN-LCDs. In
1985, Philips inventors Theodorus Welzen and Adrianus de Vaan solved the
problem of driving high-resolution STN-LCDs using low-voltage (CMOS-based)
drive electronics, allowing the application of highquality (high resolution and
video speed) LCD panels in battery-operated portable products like notebook
computers and mobile phones.
 In 1985, Philips acquired 100% of the Videlec AG company based in
Switzerland. Afterwards, Philips moved the Videlec production lines to the
Netherlands. Years later, Philips successfully produced and marketed complete
modules (consisting of the LCD screen, microphone, speakers etc.) in high-
volume production for the booming mobile phone industry. The first color LCD
televisions were developed as handheld televisions in Japan. In 1980, Hattori
Seiko's R&D group began development on color LCD pocket televisions. [72] In
1982, Seiko Epson released the first LCD television, the Epson TV Watch, a
wristwatch equipped with a small active-matrix LCD television. [73][74] Sharp
Corporation introduced dot matrix TN-LCD in 1983. [62] In 1984, Epson
released the ET-10, the first full-color, pocket LCD television. [75] The same
year, Citizen Watch, [76] introduced the Citizen Pocket TV, [72] a 2.7-inch color
LCD TV, [76] with the first commercial TFT LCD. [72] In 1988, Sharp
demonstrated a 14-inch, active-matrix, full-color, fullmotion TFT-LCD. This led
to Japan launching an LCD industry, which developed large-size LCDs, including
TFT computer monitors and LCD televisions. [77] Epson developed the 3LCD
projection technology in the 1980s, and licensed it for use in projectors in
1988. [78] Epson's VPJ-700, released in January 1989, was the world's first
compact, full-color LCD projector.

1990s
In 1990, under different titles, inventors conceived electro optical effects as
alternatives to twisted nematic field effect LCDs (TN- and STN- LCDs). One
approach was to use interdigital electrodes on one glass substrate only to
produce an electric field essentially parallel to the glass substrates. [79][80] To
take full advantage of the properties of this In Plane Switching (IPS) technology
further work was needed. After thorough analysis, details of advantageous
embodiments are filed in Germany by Guenter Baur et al. and patented in
various countries. [81][82] The Fraunhofer Institute ISE in Freiburg, where the
inventors worked, assigns these patents to Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, a supplier
of LC substances. In 1992, shortly thereafter, engineers at Hitachi work out
various practical details of the IPS technology to interconnect the thin-film
transistor array as a matrix and to avoid undesirable stray fields in between
pixels.
Hitachi also improved the viewing angle dependence further by optimizing the
shape of the electrodes (Super IPS). NEC and Hitachi become early
manufacturers of active-matrix addressed LCDs based on the IPS technology.
This is a milestone for implementing large-screen LCDs having acceptable
visual performance for flat-panel computer monitors and television screens. In
1996, Samsung developed the optical patterning technique that enables multi-
domain LCD. Multi-domain and In Plane Switching subsequently remain the
dominant LCD designs through 2006. [85] In the late 1990s, the LCD industry
began shifting away from Japan, towards South Korea and Taiwan, [77] which
later shifted to China.

2000s–2010s
In 2007 the image quality of LCD televisions surpassed the image quality of
cathode-ray-tubebased (CRT) TVs. [86] In the fourth quarter of 2007, LCD
televisions surpassed CRT TVs in worldwide sales for the first time. [87] LCD
TVs were projected to account 50% of the 200 million TVs to be shipped
globally in 2006, according to Displaybank. [88][89] In October 2011, Toshiba
announced 2560 × 1600 pixels on a 6.1-inch (155 mm) LCD panel, suitable for
use in a tablet computer, [90] especially for Chinese character display. The
2010s also saw the wide adoption of TGP (Tracking Gate-line in Pixel), which
moves the driving circuitry from the borders of the display to in between the
pixels, allowing for narrow bezels. [91] LCDs can be made transparent and
flexible, but they cannot emit light without a backlight like OLED and microLED,
which are other technologies that can also be made flexible and transparent.
Special films can be used to increase the viewing angles of LCDs. In 2016,
Panasonic developed IPS LCDs with a contrast ratio of 1,000,000:1, rivaling
OLEDs. This technology was later put into mass production as dual layer, dual
panel or LMCL (Light Modulating Cell Layer) LCDs. The technology uses 2 liquid
crystal layers instead of one, and may be used along with a mini-LED backlight
and quantum dot sheets.
Illumination
Since LCDs produce no light of their own, they require external light to produce
a visible image. [104][105] In a transmissive type of LCD, the light source is
provided at the back of the glass Illumination stack and is called a backlight.
Active-matrix LCDs are almost always backlit. [106][107] Passive LCDs may be
backlit but many use a reflector at the back of the glass stack to utilize ambient
light. Transflective LCDs combine the features of a backlit transmissive display
and a reflective display.

The common implementations of LCD backlight

technology are:

18 parallel CCFLs as backlight for a 42-inch (106 cm) LCD TV

CCFL: The LCD panel is lit either by two cold cathode fluorescent lamps placed
at opposite edges of the display or an array of parallel CCFLs behind larger
displays. A diffuser (made of PMMA acrylic plastic, also known as a wave or
light guide/guiding plate [108][109] ) then spreads the light out evenly across
the whole display. For many years, this technology had been used almost
exclusively. Unlike white LEDs, most CCFLs have an even-white spectral output
resulting in better color gamut for the display. However, CCFLs are less energy
efficient than LEDs and require a somewhat costly inverter to convert
whatever DC voltage the device uses (usually 5 or 12 V) to ≈1000 V needed to
light a CCFL. [110] The thickness of the inverter transformers also limits how
thin the display can be made.
 EL-WLED: The LCD panel is lit by a row of white LEDs placed at one or more
edges of the screen. A light diffuser (light guide plate, LGP) is then used to
spread the light evenly across the whole display, similarly to edge-lit CCFL LCD
backlights. The diffuser is made out of either PMMA plastic or special glass,
PMMA is used in most cases because it is rugged, while special glass is used
when the thickness of the LCD is of primary concern, because it doesn't expand
as much when heated or exposed to moisture, which allows LCDs to be just
5mm thick. Quantum dots may be placed on top of the diffuser as a quantum
dot enhancement film (QDEF, in which case they need a layer to be protected
from heat and humidity) or on the color filter of the LCD, replacing the resists
that are normally used. As of 2012, this design is the 18 parallel CCFLs as
backlight for a 42-inch (106 cm) LCD TV most popular one in desktop computer
monitors. It allows for the thinnest displays. Some LCD monitors using this
technology have a feature called dynamic contrast, invented by Philips
researchers Douglas Stanton, Martinus Stroomer and Adrianus de Vaan [111]
Using PWM (pulsewidth modulation, a technology where the intensity of the
LEDs are kept constant, but the brightness adjustment is achieved by varying a
time interval of flashing these constant light intensity light sources [112] ), the
backlight is dimmed to the brightest color that appears on the screen while
simultaneously boosting the LCD contrast to the maximum achievable levels,
allowing the 1000:1 contrast ratio of the LCD panel to be scaled to different
light intensities, resulting in the "30000:1" contrast ratios seen in the
advertising on some of these monitors. Since computer screen images usually
have full white somewhere in the image, the backlight will usually be at full
intensity, making this "feature" mostly a marketing gimmick for computer
monitors, however for TV screens it drastically increases the perceived
contrast ratio and dynamic range, improves the viewing angle dependency and
drastically reducing the power consumption of conventional LCD televisions.
WLED array: The LCD panel is lit by a full array of white LEDs placed behind a
diffuser behind the panel. LCDs that use this implementation will usually have
the ability to dim or completely turn off the LEDs in the dark areas of the image
being displayed, effectively increasing the contrast ratio of the display. The
precision with which this can be done will depend on the number of dimming
zones of the display.
The more dimming zones, the more precise the dimming, with less obvious
blooming artifacts which are visible as dark grey patches surrounded by the
unlit areas of the LCD. As of 2012, this design gets most of its use from upscale,
larger-screen LCD televisions.
RGB-LED array: Similar to the WLED array, except the panel is lit by a full array
of RGB LEDs. While displays lit with white LEDs usually have a poorer color
gamut than CCFL lit displays, panels lit with RGB LEDs have very wide color
gamuts. This implementation is most popular on professional graphics editing
LCDs. As of 2012, LCDs in this category usually cost more than $1000. As of
2016 the cost of this category has drastically reduced and such LCD televisions
obtained same price levels as the former 28" (71 cm) CRT based categories.
Monochrome LEDs: such as red, green, yellow or blue LEDs are used in the
small passive monochrome LCDs typically used in clocks, watches and small
appliances.
Mini-LED: Backlighting with Mini-LEDs can support over a thousand of Full-
area Local Area Dimming (FLAD) zones. This allows deeper blacks and higher
contrast ratio. (Not to be confused with MicroLED.)
Today, most LCD screens are being designed with an LED backlight instead of
the traditional CCFL backlight, while that backlight is dynamically controlled
with the video information (dynamic backlight control). The combination with
the dynamic backlight control, invented by Philips researchers Douglas
Stanton, Martinus Stroomer and Adrianus de Vaan, simultaneously increases
the dynamic range of the display system (also marketed as HDR, high dynamic
range television or called Full-area Local Area Dimming (FLAD)
The LCD backlight systems are made highly efficient by applying optical films
such as prismatic structure (prism sheet) to gain the light into the desired
viewer directions and reflective polarizing films that recycle the polarized light
that was formerly absorbed by the first polarizer of the LCD (invented by
Philips researchers Adrianus de Vaan and Paulus Schaareman), generally
achieved using so called DBEF films manufactured and supplied by 3M.
 Improved versions of the prism sheet have a wavy rather than a prismatic
structure, and introduce waves laterally into the structure of the sheet while
also varying the height of the waves, directing even more light towards the
screen and reducing aliasing or moiré between the structure of the prism sheet
and the subpixels of the LCD. A wavy structure is easier to mass-produce than a
prismatic one using conventional diamond machine tools, which are used to
make the rollers used to imprint the wavy structure into plastic sheets, thus
producing prism sheets. A diffuser sheet is placed on both sides of the prism
sheet to make the light of the backlight, uniform, while a mirror is placed
behind the light guide plate to direct all light forwards. The prism sheet with its
diffuser sheets are placed on top of the light guide plate. The DBEF polarizers
consist of a large stack of uniaxial oriented birefringent films that reflect the
former absorbed polarization mode of the light. Such reflective polarizers
using uniaxial oriented polymerized liquid crystals (birefringent polymers or
birefringent glue) are invented in 1989 by Philips researchers Dirk Broer,
Adrianus de Vaan and Joerg Brambring. The combination of such reflective
polarizers, and LED dynamic backlight control make today's LCD televisions far
more efficient than the CRTbased sets, leading to a worldwide energy saving of
600 TWh (2017), equal to 10% of the electricity consumption of all households
worldwide or equal to 2 times the energy production of all solar cells in the
world.
Due to the LCD layer that generates the desired high resolution images at
flashing video speeds using very low power electronics in combination with
LED based backlight technologies, LCD technology has become the dominant
display technology for products such as televisions, desktop monitors,
notebooks, tablets, smartphones and mobile phones. Although competing
OLED technology is pushed to the market, such OLED displays do not feature
the HDR capabilities like LCDs in combination with 2D LED backlight
technologies have, reason why the annual market of such LCD-based products
is still growing faster (in volume) than OLED-based products while the
efficiency of LCDs (and products like portable computers, mobile phones and
televisions) may even be further improved by preventing the light to be
absorbed in the colour filters of the LCD.Such reflective colour filter solutions
are not yet implemented by the LCD industry and have not made it further
than laboratory prototypes. They will likely be implemented by the LCD
industry to increase the efficiency compared to OLED technologies.
Connection to other circuits

A pink elastomeric connector mating an LCD panel to circuit board traces, shown next to a
centimeter-scale ruler. The conductive and insulating layers in the black stripe are very small.

A standard television receiver screen, a modern LCD panel, has over six million
pixels, and they are all individually powered by a wire network embedded in
the screen. The fine wires, or pathways, form a grid with vertical wires across
the whole screen on one side of the screen and horizontal wires across the
whole screen on the other side of the screen. To this grid each pixel has a
positive connection on one side and a negative connection on the other side.
So the total amount of wires needed for a 1080p display is 3 x 1920 going
vertically and 1080 going horizontally for a total of 6840 wires horizontally and
vertically. That's three for red, green and blue and 1920 columns of pixels for
each color for a total of 5760 wires going vertically and 1080 rows of wires
going horizontally. For a panel that is 28.8 inches (73 centimeters) wide, that
means a wire density of 200 wires per inch along the horizontal edge.
The LCD panel is powered by LCD drivers that are carefully matched up with
the edge of the LCD panel at the factory level. The drivers may be installed
using several methods, the most common of which are COG (Chip-On-Glass)
and TAB (Tape-automated bonding)
These same Connection to other circuits A pink elastomeric connector mating
an LCD panel to circuit board traces, shown next to a centimeter-scale
ruler..The conductive and insulating layers in the black stripe are very small.
principles apply also for smartphone screens that are much smaller than TV
screens. [127][128][129] LCD panels typically use thinly-coated metallic
conductive pathways on a glass substrate to form the cell circuitry to operate
the panel. It is usually not possible to use soldering techniques to directly
connect the panel to a separate copper-etched circuit board. Instead,
interfacing is accomplished using anisotropic conductive film or, for lower
densities, elastomeric connectors.

Passive Matrix

Prototype of a passive-matrix STN-LCD with 540×270 pixels, Brown Boveri Research, Switzerland,
1984

Monochrome and later color passive-matrix LCDs were standard in most early
laptops (although a few used plasma displays [130][131] ) and the original
Nintendo Game Boy [132] until the mid-1990s, when color active-matrix
became standard on all laptops. The commercially unsuccessful Macintosh
Portable (released in 1989) was one of the first to use an active-matrix display
(though still monochrome).
Passive-matrix LCDs are still used in the 2010s for applications less demanding
than laptop computers and TVs, such as inexpensive calculators. In particular,
these are used on portable devices where less information content needs to be
displayed, lowest power consumption (no backlight) and low cost are desired
or readability in direct sunlight is needed.

A comparison between a blank passive-matrix display (top) and a blank active-matrix display (bottom). A passive-matrix
display can be identified when the blank background is more grey in appearance than the crisper active-matrix display, fog
appears on all edges of the screen, and while pictures appear to be fading on the screen.

Displays having a passive-matrix structure are employing super-twisted

nematic STN (invented by Brown Boveri Research Center, Baden, Switzerland,
in 1983; scientific details were published [133] ) or double-layer STN (DSTN)
technology (the latter of which addresses a color-shifting problem with the
former), and color-STN (CSTN) in which color is added by using an internal
filter. STN LCDs have been optimized for passive-matrix addressing. They
exhibit a sharper threshold of the contrast-vs-voltage characteristic than the
original TN LCDs. This is important, because pixels are subjected to partial
voltages even while not selected. Crosstalk between activated and
nonactivated pixels has to be handled properly by keeping the RMS voltage of
non-activated pixels below the threshold voltage as discovered by Peter J. Wild
in 1972, [134] while activated pixels are subjected to voltages above threshold
(the voltages according to the "Alt & Pleshko" drive scheme).
] Driving such STN displays according to the Alt & Pleshko drive scheme require
very high line addressing voltages. Welzen and de Vaan invented an alternative
drive scheme (a non "Alt & Pleshko" drive scheme) requiring much lower
voltages, such that the STN display could be driven using low voltage CMOS
technologies.
STN LCDs have to be continuously refreshed by alternating pulsed voltages of
one polarity during one frame and pulses of opposite polarity during the next
frame. Individual pixels are addressed by the corresponding row and column
circuits. This type of display is called passivematrix addressed, because the
pixel must retain its state between refreshes without the benefit of a steady
electrical charge. As the number of pixels (and, correspondingly, columns and
rows) increases, this type of display becomes less feasible. Slow response times
and poor contrast are A comparison between a blank passive-matrix display
(top) and a blank active-matrix display (bottom). A passive-matrix display can
be identified when the blank background is more grey in appearance than the
crisper active-matrix display, fog appears on all edges of the screen, and while
pictures appear to be fading on the screen. typical of passive-matrix addressed
LCDs with too many pixels and driven according to the "Alt & Pleshko" drive
scheme. Welzen and de Vaan also invented a non RMS drive scheme enabling
to drive STN displays with video rates and enabling to show smooth moving
video images on an STN display. [70] Citizen, amongst others, licensed these
patents and successfully introduced several STN based LCD pocket televisions
on the market.
Bistable LCDs do not require continuous refreshing. Rewriting is only required
for picture information changes. In 1984 HA van Sprang and AJSM de Vaan
invented an STN type display that could be operated in a bistable mode,
enabling extremely high resolution images up to 4000 lines or more using only
low voltages. [137] Since a pixel may be either in an on-state or in an off state
at the moment new information needs to be written to that particular pixel,
the addressing method of these bistable displays is rather complex, a reason
why these displays did not made it to the market. That changed when in the
2010 "zero-power" (bistable) LCDs became available.
Potentially, passive-matrix addressing can be used with devices if their
write/erase characteristics are suitable, which was the case for ebooks which
need to show still pictures only. After a page is written to the display, the
display may be cut from the power while retaining readable images. This has
the advantage that such ebooks may be operated for long periods of time
powered by only a small battery.
High-resolution color displays, such as modern LCD computer monitors and
televisions, use an active-matrix structure. A matrix of thin-film transistors
(TFTs) is added to the electrodes in contact with the LC layer. Each pixel has its
own dedicated transistor, allowing each column line to access one pixel. When
a row line is selected, all of the column lines are connected to a row of pixels
and voltages corresponding to the picture information are driven onto all of
the column lines. The row line is then deactivated and the next row line is
selected. All of the row lines are How an LCD works using an active-matrix
structure Play media selected in sequence during a refresh operation. Active-
matrix addressed displays look brighter and sharper than passive-matrix
addressed displays of the same size, and generally have quicker response
times, producing much better images. Sharp produces bistable reflective LCDs
with a 1-bit SRAM cell per pixel that only requires small amounts of power to
maintain an image.
Segment LCDs can also have color by using Field Sequential Color (FSC LCD).
This kind of displays have a high speed passive segment LCD panel with an RGB
backlight. The backlight quickly changes color, making it appear white to the
naked eye. The LCD panel is synchronized with the backlight. For example, to
make a segment appear red, the segment is only turned ON when the backlight
is red, and to make a segment appear magenta, the segment is turned ON
when the backlight is blue, and it continues to be ON while the backlight
becomes red, and it turns OFF when the backlight becomes green. To make a
segment appear black, the segment is always turned ON. An FSC LCD divides a
color image into 3 images and it displays them in order. Due to persistence of
vision, the 3 monochromatic images appear as one color image. An FSC LCD
needs an LCD panel with a refresh rate of 180 Hz, and the response time is
reduced to just 5 milliseconds when compared with normal STN LCD panels
which have a response time of 16 milliseconds. FSC LCDs contain a Chip-On-
Glass driver IC can also be used with a capacitive touchscreen.
Samsung introduced UFB (Ultra Fine & Bright) displays back in 2002, utilized
the superbirefringent effect. It has the luminance, color gamut, and most of
the contrast of a TFT-LCD, but only consumes as much power as an STN
display, according to Samsung. It was being used in a variety of Samsung
cellular-telephone models produced until late 2006, when Samsung stopped
producing UFB displays. UFB displays were also used in certain models of LG
mobile phones.

Active-matrix technologies

A Casio 1.8 in color TFT LCD, used in the Sony Cyber-shot DSC-P93A digital compact cameras
Twisted nematic (TN)
Twisted nematic displays contain liquid crystals that twist and untwist at
varying degrees to allow light to pass through. When no voltage is applied to a
TN liquid crystal cell, polarized light passes through the 90-degrees twisted LC
layer. In proportion to the voltage applied, the liquid crystals untwist changing
the polarization and blocking the light's path. By properly adjusting the level of
the voltage almost any gray level or transmission can be achieved.

In-plane switching (IPS)

In-plane switching is an LCD technology that aligns the liquid crystals in a plane
parallel to the glass substrates. In this method, the electrical field is applied
through opposite electrodes on A Casio 1.8 in color TFT LCD, used in the Sony
Cyber-shot DSC-P93A digital compact cameras Structure of a color LCD with an
edge-lit CCFL backlight the same glass substrate, so that the liquid crystals can
be reoriented (switched) essentially in the same plane, although fringe fields
inhibit a homogeneous reorientation. This requires two transistors for each
pixel instead of the single transistor needed for a standard thin-film transistor
(TFT) display. Before LG Enhanced IPS was introduced in 2009, the additional
transistors resulted in blocking more transmission area, thus requiring a
brighter backlight and consuming more power, making this type of display less
desirable for notebook computers. Currently Panasonic is using an enhanced
version eIPS for their large size LCD-TV products as well as Hewlett-Packard in
its WebOS based TouchPad tablet and their Chromebook 11.
Super In-plane switching (S-IPS)
Super-IPS was later introduced after in-plane switching with even better
response times and color reproduction.

M+ or RGBW controversy
In 2015 LG Display announced the implementation of a new technology called
M+ which is the addition of white subpixel along with the regular RGB dots in
their IPS panel technology. [144] Most of the new M+ technology was
employed on 4K TV sets which led to a controversy after tests showed that the
addition of a white sub pixel replacing the traditional RGB structure would
reduce the resolution by around 25%. This means that a 4K TV cannot display
the full UHD TV standard. The media and internet users later called this
"RGBW" TVs because of the white sub pixel. Although LG Display has
developed this technology for use in notebook display, outdoor Close-up of a
corner of an IPS LCD panel. and smartphones, it became more popular in the
TV market because the announced 4K UHD resolution but still being incapable
of achieving true UHD resolution defined by the CTA as 3840x2160 active pixels
with 8-bit color. This negatively impacts the rendering of text, making it a bit
fuzzier, which is especially noticeable when a TV is used as a PC monitor.

IPS in comparison to AMOLED

In 2011, LG claimed the smartphone LG Optimus Black (IPS LCD (LCD NOVA))
has the brightness up to 700 nits, while the competitor has only IPS LCD with
518 nits and double an active-matrix OLED (AMOLED) display with 305 nits. LG
also claimed the NOVA display to be 50 percent more efficient than regular
LCDs and to consume only 50 percent of the power of AMOLED displays when
producing white on screen. [149] When it comes to contrast ratio, AMOLED
display still performs best due to its underlying technology, where the black
levels are displayed as pitch black and not as dark gray. On August 24, 2011,
Nokia announced the Nokia 701 and also made the claim of the world's
brightest display at 1000 nits. The screen also had Nokia's Clearblack layer,
improving the contrast ratio and bringing it closer to that of the AMOLED
screens.
This pixel-layout is found in S-IPS LCDs. A chevron-shape is used to widen the viewing-cone (range of
viewing directions with good contrast and low color shift

Advanced fringe field switching (AFFS)

Known as fringe field switching (FFS) until 2003, [150] advanced fringe field
switching is similar to IPS or S-IPS offering superior performance and color
gamut with high luminosity. AFFS was developed by Hydis Technologies Co.,
Ltd, Korea (formally Hyundai Electronics, LCD Task Force). [151] AFFS-applied
notebook applications minimize color distortion while maintaining a wider
viewing angle for a professional display. Color shift and deviation caused by
light leakage is corrected by optimizing the white gamut which also enhances
white/gray reproduction. In 2004, Hydis Technologies Co., Ltd licensed AFFS to
Japan's Hitachi Displays. Hitachi is using AFFS to manufacture high-end panels.
In 2006, HYDIS licensed AFFS to Sanyo Epson Imaging Devices Corporation.
Shortly thereafter, Hydis introduced a high-transmittance evolution of the
AFFS display, called HFFS (FFS+). Hydis introduced AFFS+ with improved
outdoor readability in 2007. AFFS panels are mostly utilized in the cockpits of
latest commercial aircraft displays. However, it is no longer produced as of
February 2015.
Vertical alignment (VA)
Vertical-alignment displays are a form of LCDs in which the liquid crystals
naturally align vertically to the glass substrates. When no voltage is applied,
the liquid crystals remain perpendicular to the substrate, creating a black
display between crossed polarizers. When voltage is applied, the liquid crystals
shift to a tilted position, allowing light to pass through and create a gray-scale
display depending on the amount of tilt generated by the electric field. It has a
deeper-black background, a higher contrast ratio, a wider viewing angle, and
better image quality at extreme temperatures than traditional twisted-nematic
displays. Compared to IPS, the black levels are still deeper, allowing for a
higher contrast ratio, but the viewing angle is narrower, with color and
especially contrast shift being more apparent.

Blue phase mode

Blue phase mode LCDs have been shown as engineering samples early in 2008,
but they are not in mass-production. The physics of blue phase mode LCDs
suggest that very short switching times (≈1 ms) can be achieved, so time
sequential color control can possibly be realized and expensive color filters
would be obsolete.

Quality control
Some LCD panels have defective transistors, causing permanently lit or unlit
pixels which are commonly referred to as stuck pixels or dead pixels
respectively. Unlike integrated circuits LCD panels with a few defective
transistors are usually still usable. Manufacturers' policies for the acceptable
number of defective pixels vary greatly. At one point, Samsung held a zero
tolerance policy for LCD monitors sold in Korea. As of 2005, though, Samsung
adheres to the less restrictive ISO 13406-2 standard. Other companies have
been known to tolerate as many as 11 dead pixels in their policies.
Dead pixel policies are often hotly debated between manufacturers and
customers. To regulate the acceptability of defects and to protect the end user,
ISO released the ISO 13406-2 standard, which was made obsolete in 2008 with
the release of ISO 9241, specifically ISO9241-302, 303, 305, 307:2008 pixel
defects.
 However, not every LCD manufacturer conforms to the ISO standard and the
ISO standard is quite often interpreted in different ways. LCD panels are more
likely to have defects than most ICs due to their larger size. For example, a 300
mm SVGA LCD has 8 defects and a 150 mm wafer has only 3 defects. However,
134 of the 137 dies on the wafer will be acceptable, whereas rejection of the
whole LCD panel would be a 0% yield. In recent years, quality control has been
improved. An SVGA LCD panel with 4 defective pixels is usually considered
defective and customers can request an exchange for a new one.
Some manufacturers, notably in South Korea where some of the largest LCD
panel manufacturers, such as LG, are located, now have a zero-defective-pixel
guarantee, which is an extra screening process which can then determine "A"-
and "B"-grade panels. Many manufacturers would replace a product even with
one defective pixel. Even where such guarantees do not exist, the location of
defective pixels is important. A display with only a few defective pixels may be
unacceptable if the defective pixels are near each other. LCD panels also have
defects known as clouding (or less commonly mura), which describes the
uneven patches of changes in luminance. It is most visible in dark or black
areas of displayed scenes. [161] As of 2010, most premium branded computer
LCD panel manufacturers specify their products as having zero defects.

"Zero-power" (bistable) displays

The zenithal bistable device (ZBD), developed by Qinetiq (formerly DERA), can
retain an image without power. The crystals may exist in one of two stable
orientations ("black" and "white") and power is only required to change the
image. ZBD Displays is a spin-off company from QinetiQ who manufactured
both grayscale and color ZBD devices. Kent Displays has also developed a "no-
power" display that uses polymer stabilized cholesteric liquid crystal (ChLCD).
In 2009 Kent "Zero-power" (bistable) displays demonstrated the use of a
ChLCD to cover the entire surface of a mobile phone, allowing it to change
colors, and keep that color even when power is removed.

In 2004, researchers at the University of Oxford demonstrated two

new types of zero-power bistable LCDs based on Zenithal bistable
techniques.
Several bistable technologies, like the 360° BTN and the bistable cholesteric,
depend mainly on the bulk properties of the liquid crystal (LC) and use
standard strong anchoring, with alignment films and LC mixtures similar to the
traditional monostable materials. Other bistable technologies, e.g., BiNem
technology, are based mainly on the surface properties and need specific weak
anchoring materials

Specifications

Resolution: The resolution of an LCD is expressed by the number of

columns and rows of pixels (e.g., 1024×768). Each pixel is usually composed 3
sub-pixels, a red, a green, and a blue one. This had been one of the few
features of LCD performance that remained uniform among different designs.
However, there are newer designs that share sub-pixels among pixels and add
Quattron which attempt to efficiently increase the perceived resolution of a
display without increasing the actual resolution, to mixed results.

Spatial performance: For a computer monitor or some other display

that is being viewed from a very close distance, resolution is often expressed in
terms of dot pitch or pixels per inch, which is consistent with the printing
industry. Display density varies per application, with televisions generally
having a low density for long-distance viewing and portable devices having a
high density for close-range detail. The Viewing Angle of an LCD may be
important depending on the display and its usage, the limitations of certain
display technologies mean the display only displays accurately at certain
angles.

Temporal performance:The temporal resolution of an LCD is how well it

can display changing images, or the accuracy and the number of times per
second the display draws the data it is being given. LCD pixels do not flash
on/off between frames, so LCD monitors exhibit no refresh-induced flicker no
matter how low the refresh rate. [164] But a lower refresh rate can mean
visual artefacts like ghosting or smearing, especially with fast moving images.
Individual pixel response time is also important, as all displays have some
inherent latency in displaying an image which can be large enough to create
visual artifacts if the displayed image changes rapidly.
Color performance: There are multiple terms to describe different
aspects of color performance of a display. Color gamut is the range of colors
that can be displayed, and color Specifications depth, which is the fineness
with which the color range is divided. Color gamut is a relatively straight
forward feature, but it is rarely discussed in marketing materials except at the
professional level. Having a color range that exceeds the content being shown
on the screen has no benefits, so displays are only made to perform within or
below the range of a certain specification. [165] There are additional aspects to
LCD color and color management, such as white point and gamma correction,
which describe what color white is and how the other colors are displayed
relative to white.

Brightness and contrast ratio: Contrast ratio is the ratio of the

brightness of a full-on pixel to a full-off pixel. The LCD itself is only a light valve
and does not generate light; the light comes from a backlight that is either
fluorescent or a set of LEDs. Brightness is usually stated as the maximum light
output of the LCD, which can vary greatly based on the transparency of the
LCD and the brightness of the backlight. Brighter backlight allows stronger
contrast and higher dynamic range (HDR displays are graded in peak
luminance), but there is always a trade off between brightness and power
consumption.

Advantages and disadvantages

Some of these issues relate to full-screen displays, others to small displays as
on watches, etc. Many of the comparisons are with CRT displays.

Advantages
-Very compact, thin and light, especially in comparison with bulky, heavy CRT
displays.
-Low power consumption. Depending on the set display brightness and
content being displayed, the older CCFT backlit models typically use less than
half of the power a CRT monitor of the same size viewing area would use, and
the modern LED backlit models typically use 10–25% of the power a CRT
monitor would use.
-Little heat emitted during operation, due to low power consumption
-No geometric distortion.
-The possible ability to have little or no flicker depending on backlight
technology
-Sharp image with no bleeding or smearing when operated at native
resolution.
-Emits almost no undesirable electromagnetic radiation (in the extremely low
frequency range), unlike a CRT monitor.
-Can be made in almost any size or shape.
-No theoretical resolution limit. When multiple LCD panels are used together
to create a single canvas, each additional panel increases the total resolution
of the display, which is commonly called stacked resolution.
-Can be made in large sizes of over 80-inch (2 m) diagonal.
-Masking effect: the LCD grid can mask the effects of spatial and grayscale
quantization, creating the illusion of higher image quality
-Unaffected by magnetic fields, including the Earth's, unlike most color CRTs.
-As an inherently digital device, the LCD can natively display digital data from a
DVI or HDMI connection without requiring conversion to analog. Some LCD
panels have native fiber optic inputs in addition to DVI and HDMI
-Many LCD monitors are powered by a 12 V power supply, and if built into a
computer can be powered by its 12 V power supply.
-Can be made with very narrow frame borders, allowing multiple LCD screens
to be arrayed side by side to make up what looks like one big screen.
Disadvantages
- Limited viewing angle in some older or cheaper monitors, causing color,
saturation, contrast and brightness to vary with user position, even within the
intended viewing angle.
- Uneven backlighting in some monitors (more common in IPS-types and older
TNs), causing brightness distortion, especially toward the edges ("backlight
bleed").
- Black levels may not be as dark as required because individual liquid crystals
cannot completely block all of the backlight from passing through.
- ion blur on moving objects caused by slow response times (>8 ms) and eye
tracking on a sample-and-hold display, unless a strobing backlight is used.
However, this strobing can cause eye strain, as is noted next:
- As of 2012, most implementations of LCD backlighting use pulse-width
modulation (PWM) to dim the display, [172] which makes the screen flicker
more acutely (this does not mean visibly) than a CRT monitor at 85 Hz refresh
rate would (this is because the entire screen is strobing on and off rather than
a CRT's phosphor sustained dot which continually scans across the display,
leaving some part of the display always lit), causing severe eye-strain for some
people. [173][174] Unfortunately, many of these people don't know that their
eye-strain is being caused by the invisible strobe effect of PWM. [175] This
problem is worse on many LED-backlit monitors, because the LEDs switch on
and off faster than a CCFL lamp.
- Only one native resolution. Displaying any other resolution either requires a
video scaler, causing blurriness and jagged edges, or running the display at
native resolution using 1:1 pixel mapping, causing the image either not to fill
the screen (letterboxed display), or to run off the lower or right edges of the
screen.
- Fixed bit depth (also called color depth). Many cheaper LCDs are only able to
display 262144 (2 18 ) colors. 8-bit S-IPS panels can display 16 million (2 24 )
colors and have significantly better black level, but are expensive and have
slower response time.
- Input lag, because the LCD's A/D converter waits for each frame to be
completely been output before drawing it to the LCD panel. Many LCD
monitors do post-processing before displaying the image in an attempt to
compensate for poor color fidelity, which adds an additional lag. Further, a
video scaler must be used when displaying non-native resolutions, which adds
yet more time lag. Scaling and post processing are usually done in a single chip
on modern monitors, but each function that chip performs adds some delay.
Some displays have a video gaming mode which disables all or most processing
to reduce perceivable input lag.
- Dead or stuck pixels may occur during manufacturing or after a period of use.
A stuck pixel will glow with color even on an all-black screen, while a dead one
will always remain black.
- Subject to burn-in effect, although the cause differs from CRT and the effect
may not be permanent, a static image can cause burn-in in a matter of hours in
badly designed displays.
- In a constant-on situation, thermalization may occur in case of bad thermal
management, in which part of the screen has overheated and looks discolored
compared to the rest of the screen.
-Loss of brightness and much slower response times in low temperature
environments. In sub zero environments, LCD screens may cease to function
without the use of supplemental heating.
- Loss of contrast in high temperature environments

Chemicals used
Several different families of liquid crystals are used in liquid crystals. The molecules used have to be
anisotropic, and to exhibit mutual attraction. Polarizable rod-shaped molecules (biphenyls,
terphenyls, etc.) are common. A common form is a pair of aromatic benzene rings, with a nonpolar
moiety (pentyl, heptyl, octyl, or alkyl oxy group) on one end and polar (nitrile, halogen) on the other.
Sometimes the benzene rings are separated with an acetylene group, ethylene, CH=N, CH=NO, N=N,
N=NO, or ester group. In practice, eutectic mixtures of several chemicals are used, to achieve wider
temperature operating range (−10+60 °C for low-end and −20..+100 °C for highperformance
displays). For example, the E7 mixture is composed of three biphenyls and one terphenyl: 39 wt.% of
4'-pentyl[1,1'-biphenyl]-4-carbonitrile (nematic range 24..35 °C), 36 wt.% of 4'-heptyl[1,1'-biphenyl]-
4-carbonitrile (nematic range 30..43 °C), 16 wt.% of 4'-octoxy[1,1'- biphenyl]-4-carbonitrile (nematic
range 54..80 °C), and 9 wt.% of 4-pentyl[1,1':4',1-terphenyl]-4- carbonitrile (nematic range 131..240
°C).
Environmental impact
The production of LCD screens uses nitrogen trifluoride (NF3 ) as an etching
fluid during the production of the thin-film components. NF3 is a potent
greenhouse gas, and its relatively long half-life may make it a potentially
harmful contributor to global warming. A report in Geophysical Research
Letters suggested that its effects were theoretically much greater than better-
known sources of greenhouse gasses like carbon dioxide. As NF3 was not in
widespread use at the time, it was not made part of the Kyoto Protocols and
has been deemed "the missing greenhouse gas".
Critics of the report point out that it assumes that all of the NF3 produced
would be released to the atmosphere. In reality, the vast majority of NF3 is
broken down during the cleaning processes; two earlier studies found that only
2 to 3% of the gas escapes destruction after its use. [178] Furthermore, the
report failed to compare NF3 's effects with what it replaced, perfluorocarbon,
another powerful greenhouse gas, of which anywhere from 30 to 70% escapes
to the atmosphere in typical use.
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