Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics

Pre - Calculus
SY 2021 – 2022

Unit II: Trigonometry

Lesson 3: Graphs of Circular Functions

Introduction

There are many things that occur

periodically. Phenomena like rotation of the
planets and comets, high and low tides, and
yearly change of the seasons follow a
definite pattern. In this lesson, we will graph
the six circular functions and we will see that
they are periodic in nature.

Learning Objectives

After studying this completing this module with 80% to 100% accuracy, you are expected to:

a) determine the domain and range of the different circular functions; and
b) graph the six circular functions with its amplitude, period, and phase shift.

Graphs of Circular Functions

A. Graphs of 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙

Recall that, for a real number x, sin 𝑥 = sin 𝜃 for an angle 𝜃 with measure x radians, and that sin 𝜃 is
the second coordinate of the point 𝑃(𝜃) on the unit circle. Since each x corresponds to an angle 𝜃, we can
conclude that

1. sin 𝑥 is defined for any real number x or the domain of the sine function is ℝ, and
2. the range of sine is the set of all real numbers between -1 and 1 (inclusive).

From the definition, it also follows that 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒙 + 𝟐𝝅) = sin x for any real number x. This means that the
values of the sine function repeat every 2π units. In this case, we say that the sine function is a periodic
function with period 2π.

Table 3.1 below shows the values of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥, where x is the equivalent radian measure of the special
angles and their multiples from 0 to 2π. As commented above, these values determine the behavior of the
function on ℝ.

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Table 3.1

From the table, we can observe that as x increases from 0 to π/2, sin x also increases from 0 to 1.
Similarly, as x increases from 3π/2 to 2, sin x also increases from 1 to 0. On the other hand, notice that as
x increases from π/2 to π, sin x decreases from 1 to 0. Similarly, as x increases from π to 3π/2, sin x
decreases from 0 to -1.

To sketch the graph of y = sin x, we plot the points presented in Table 3.1, and join them with a
smooth curve. See Figure 3.1. Since the graph repeats every 2π units, graph 3.2 shows periodic graph over
a longer interval.

𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 , 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒍 [𝟎, 𝟐𝝅]

Graph 3.1

𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
Graph 3.2

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B. Graphs of 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙

We can make observations about the cosine function that are similar to the sine function.
• y = cos x has domain ℝ and range [-1,1].
• y = cos x is periodic with period 2π. The graph of y = cos x is shown in graph 3.3.

Table 3.2

Table 3.3

𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
Graph 3.3

From the graphs of y = sin x and y = cos x in graphs 3.2 and 3.3, respectively, we observe that sin(−𝑥) =
-sin x and cos (−𝑥) = cos x for any real number x. In other words, the graphs of y = cos (−𝑥) and y = cos
x is the same, while the graph of y = sin (−𝑥) is the same as that of y = −sin x.

In general, if a function f satisfies the property that 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) for all x in its domain, we say that such
function is even. On the other hand, we say that a function f is odd if 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥) for all x in its
domain. For example, the functions x2 and cos x are even, while the functions 𝑥3−3𝑥 and sin x are odd.

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Graphs of y = a sin bx and y = a cos bx

Practice Problem #1

Using a table of values from 0 to 2π, we can sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 3 sin 𝑥 , and compare it to the
graph of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥.

See graph 3.4 wherein the solid curve belongs to 𝒚 = 𝟑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙, while the dashed curve to 𝑦 = sin 𝑥.
For instance, if x = π/2, then y = 1 when 𝑦 = sin 𝑥, and y = 3 when 𝑦 = 3 sin 𝑥. The period, x-intercepts,
and domains are the same for both graphs, while they differ in the range. The range of 𝑦 = 3 sin 𝑥 is
[-3, 3].

Table 3.4

Table 3.5

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Graph 3.4

In general, the graphs of y = a sin x and y = a cos x with 𝑎 > 0 have the same shape as the graphs of
y = sin x and y = cos x, respectively. If 𝑎 < 0, there is a reflection across the x-axis. The range of both
y = a sin x and y = a cos x is [-|a|, |a|].

Figure 2.6

Practice Problem #2

Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 3 cos 𝑥.

Solution. Applying the table of values:

Table 3.6

Table 3.7

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Graph 3.5

See the graph 3.5 wherein the solid curve belongs to 𝑦 = 3 cos 𝑥, while the dashed curve to 𝑦 = cos 𝑥.
For instance, if x = π, then y = -1 when 𝑦 = cos 𝑥, and y = -3 when 𝑦 = 3 co𝑠 𝑥. The period, x-intercepts,
and domains are the same for both graphs, while they differ in the range. The range of 𝑦 = 3 cos 𝑥 is [-
3, 3].

To sketch the graphs of y = a sin bx and y = a cos bx, a, 𝒃 ≠ 𝟎

We may proceed with the following steps:

2𝜋
1. Determine the amplitude |a|, and find the period . To draw one cycle of the graph
|𝑏|
(that is, one complete graph for one period), we just need to complete the graph from
2𝜋
0 to |𝑏|
2. Divide the interval into four equal parts, and get five division points: x 1 = 0, x 2 , x 3 , x 4 ,
2𝜋 𝑥1 +𝑥5
and x 5 = |𝑏|, where x 3 is the midpoint between x 1 and x 5 (that is, = 𝑥3 ), x 2 is
2
the midpoint between x 1 and x 3 , and x 4 is the midpoint between x 3 and x 5 .
3. Evaluate the function at each of the five x-values identified in Step 2. The points will
correspond to the highest point, lowest point, and x-intercepts of the graph.
4. Plot the points found in Step 3 and join them with a smooth curve similar to the graph
of the basic sine curve.
5. Extend the graph to the right and to the left, as needed.

Practice Problem #3

Now, in Table 3.8, we consider the values of 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 on [0,2𝜋].

Table 3.8

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Graph 3.6

Graph 3.6, shows the graphs of y = sin 2x (solid curve) and y = sin x (dashed curve) over the interval [0,
2π]. Notice that, for sin 2x to generate periodic values similar to [0, 2π] for y = sin x, we just need values
of x from 0 to π. We then expect the values of sin 2x to repeat every π units thereafter. The period of y =
sin 2x is π.

Practice Problem #4
Sketch the graph of one cycle of y = 2sin 4x.

Solution.
2𝜋 𝜋
1) The period is = , and the amplitude is 2
4 2
𝜋 𝜋
2) Dividing the interval [0, 2 ] into 4 equal parts, we get the following x-coordinates: 0, 8 ,
𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋
, , and 2 .
4 8
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
3) When x = 0, 4 , and 2 , we get y = 0. On the other hand, when x = 8 , we have y = 2 (the
3𝜋
amplitude), and y = −2 when x = .
8

Table 3.9

4) Draw a smooth curve by connecting the points. There is no need to proceed to Step 5
because the problem only asks for one cycle.

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Graph 3.7

Graphs of 𝒚 = 𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄) + 𝒅 and 𝒚 = 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄) + 𝒅

We first compare the graphs of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 and 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 − 𝜋/3 using a table of values and the 5-
step procedure discussed earlier.

As x runs from π/3 to 7π/3, the value of the expression 𝑥 − 𝜋/3 runs from 0 to 2π. So, for one cycle
of the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝜋/3), we then expect to have the graph of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 starting from 𝑥 =
𝜋/3. This is confirmed by the values in Table 3.8. We then apply a similar procedure to complete one
cycle of the graph; that is, divide the interval [π/3, 7π/3] into four equal parts, and then determine the key
values of x in sketching the graphs as discussed earlier. The one-cycle graph of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 (dashed curve)
and the corresponding one-cycle graph of 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 – 𝜋/3) (solid curve) are shown in Graph 3.8

Table 3.10

Graph 3.8

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Observe that the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝜋/3 shifts π/3 units to the right of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥. Thus, they have the
same period, amplitude, domain, and range.

The graphs of

𝑦 = 𝑎 sin(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) + 𝑑 and 𝑦 = 𝑎 cos(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) + 𝑑

−𝑐
have the same shape as 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝑏𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑎 cos 𝑏𝑥, respectively, but shifted | | units to the right
𝑏
−𝑐 −𝑐 −𝑐 −𝑐
if > 0 and shifted | 𝑏 | units to the left if < 0. The number of is called the phase shift of the
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏

sine or cosine graph.

Practice Problem #5
𝜋
In the same Cartesian plane, sketch one cycle of the graphs of 𝑦 = 3 sin 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 3 sin(𝑥 + 4 ).

Solution. We have sketched the graph of 𝑦 = 3 sin 𝑥 earlier at the start of the lesson. We consider

𝜋
𝑦 = 3 sin(𝑥 + 4 ). We expect that it has the same shape as that of 𝑦 = 3 sin 𝑥, but shifted some units.

𝜋
Here, we have 𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = 1, and 𝑥 = − 4 . From these constants, we get the amplitude, the period,
𝜋
and the phase shift, and these are 3, 2𝜋, and − 4 , respectively.

𝜋 𝜋 7𝜋
One cycle starts at 𝑥 = − 4 and ends at 𝑥 = − 4 + 2𝜋 = . We now compute the important vales
4

of x.

𝜋 7𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋 7𝜋
− + 3𝜋 − + 𝜋 + 5𝜋
4 4 4 4 4 4
= , = , = ,
2 4 2 4 2 4

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Table 3.11

Graph 3.9

−𝑐
While the effect of | 𝑑 | in 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) and 𝑦 = 𝑎 cos(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) is a horizontal shift of their

graphs from the corresponding graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝑏𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑎 cos 𝑏𝑥, the effect of d in the equation
𝑦 = 𝑎 sin(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) + 𝑑 and 𝑦 = 𝑎 cos(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) + 𝑑 is a vertical shift. That is, the graph of 𝑦 =
𝑎 sin(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) + 𝑑 has the same amplitude, period, and phase shift as that of 𝑦 = 𝑎 cos(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) + 𝑑, but
shifted d units upward when d > 0 and |d| units downward when d < 0 or simple the midline y = d.

Graphs of Cosecant and Secant Functions

1
We know that csc 𝑥 = sin 𝑥 if sin 𝑥 ≠ 0. Using this relationship, we can sketch the graph of y = csc 𝑥.

First, we observe that the domain of the cosecant function is

{𝒙 ∈ ℝ ∶ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 ≠ 𝟎} = {𝒙 ∈ ℝ ∶ 𝒙 ≠ 𝒌𝝅, 𝒌 ∈ ℤ}.

Table 3.12 shows the key numbers (that is, numbers where 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 crosses the x-axis, attain its
maximum and minimum values) and some neighboring points, where “undefined” stands for “undefined,”
while Figure 3.3 shows one cycle of the graphs of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 (dashed curve) and 𝑦 = csc 𝑥 (solid curve).
Notice the asymptotes of the graph 𝑦 = csc 𝑥.

Table 3.12

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Graph 3.10

We could also sketch the graph of csc 𝑥 directly from the graph of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 by observing the following
facts:

1. If sin 𝑥 = 1 (or − 1), then csc 𝑥 = 1 (or − 1).

2. At each x-intercept of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 , 𝑦 = csc 𝑥 is undefined; but a vertical asymptote is formed
because, when sin 𝑥 is close to 0, the value of csc 𝑥 will have a big magnitude with the same sign
as sin 𝑥.

Refer to graph 3.10 and 3.11 for the graphs of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 (dashed curve) and 𝑦 = csc 𝑥 (solid curve)
over a larger interval.

Graph 3.11

Like the sine and cosecant functions, the cosine and secant functions are also reciprocals of each other.
Therefore, 𝑦 = sec 𝑥 has domain

𝑘𝜋
{𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∶ cos 𝑥 ≠ 0} = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∶ 𝑥 ≠ , 𝑘 odd integer}.
2

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Similarly, the graph of 𝑦 = sec 𝑥 can be obtained from the graph of 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 .These graphs are shown
in graph 3.12.

Graph 3.12

Practice Problem #6
𝑥
Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 2 csc 2.

𝑥
Solution. First, we sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 2 csc 2, and use the technique discussed above to sketch the
𝑥
graph of 𝑦 = 2 csc 2.

Graph 3.13

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𝑥 𝑥
The vertical asymptotes of 𝑦 = 2 csc are the x-intercepts of 𝑦 = 2 sin : 𝑥 = 0, ±2𝜋, ±4𝜋, ….
2 2
𝑥
After setting up the asymptotes, we now sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 2 csc 2 as shown below.

Graph 3.14

Graphs of Tangent and Cotangent Functions

sin 𝑥
We know that tan cos 𝑥, where cos 𝑥 ≠ 0. From this definition of the tangent function, it follows that its

domain is the same as that of the secant function, which is

𝑘𝜋
{𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∶ cos 𝑥 ≠ 0} = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∶ 𝑥 ≠ , 𝑘 odd integer}
2

We note that tan 𝑥 = 0 when sin 𝑥 = 0 (that is, when 𝑥 = 𝑘𝜋, k any integer), and that the graph of
𝑦 = tan 𝑥 has asymptotes 𝑥 = 𝑘𝜋/2, k odd integer. Furthermore, by recalling the signs of tangent from
Quadrant I to Quadrant IV and its values, we observe that the tangent function is periodic with period.

To sketch the graph of y = tan x, it will be enough to know its one-cycle graph on the open interval (-π/2
, π/2) See Table 3.13 and graph 3.15.

Table 3.13

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Graph 3.15

In the same manner, the domain of y = cot x = cos x/sin x is

and its period is also π. The graph of y = cot x is shown in graph 3.16.

Graph 3.16

In general, to sketch the graphs of y = a tan bx and y = a cot bx, a≠0 and b > 0, we may proceed with the
following steps:

1. Determine the period π/b. Then we draw one cycle of the graph on (-π/2b, π/2b) for y = a tan bx,
and on (0, π/b) for y = a cot bx.
2. Determine the two adjacent vertical asymptotes. For y = a tan bx, these vertical asymptotes are
given by x = ± π/2b. For y = a cot bx, the vertical asymptotes are given by x = 0 and x = π/b.
3. Divide the interval formed by the vertical asymptotes in Step 2 into four equal parts, and get
three division points exclusively between the asymptotes.
4. Evaluate the function at each of these x-values identified in Step 3. The points will correspond to
the signs and x-intercept of the graph.
5. Plot the points found in Step 3, and join them with a smooth curve approaching to the vertical
asymptotes. Extend the graph to the right and to the left, as needed.

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Practice Problem #6

Sketch the graph of y = 1/2 tan 2x.

Solution. The period of the function is π/2, and the adjacent asymptotes are x = ± π /4, ±3 π/4,.... Dividing
the interval (-π/4, π/4) into four equal parts, the key x-values are – π/8, 0, and π /8.

Table 3.14

Graph 3.17

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Key Concepts

✓ The amplitude dictates the height of the graph of Circular functions denoted as |𝑎| .
2𝜋
✓ A period refers to length of one cycle of the curve of the graph. To identify the period, we use |𝑏|.

✓ A shift means the change of the position of the trigonometric function.

−𝑐
• phase shift (left/right) is or solve for x in 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0.
𝑏

• Vertical shift (upward/downward) is the midline of the graph written as y = d.

Learning Activity
1. Sketch the graph of one cycle of 𝑦 = ½ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥
2. Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = − 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑥
𝜋
3. Sketch one cycle of the graphs of 𝑦 = 3 cos 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 3 cos (𝑥 + 3 ) − 1.
1 1 𝜋
4. Sketch one cycle of the graphs of 𝑦 = − 4 sin 2𝑥 and 𝑦 = 2 − 4 sin (2𝑥 − 4 ).
5. Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = −sec 𝑥 on the interval [0, 2𝜋].
6. Sketch the graph of one cycle of 𝑦 = 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (− 𝑥/3)
7. Sketch the graph of two cycles of 𝑦 = −2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( −𝑥/2)
𝜋
8. Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 2 sin ( 2 − 𝑥) − 2.
9. Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 2 csc 4𝑥 − 1 on the interval [−𝜋/2, 𝜋/2].
10. Sketch the graph of y = 2 tan x 4 on the interval [-2π, 2π]

Tutorial Videos

Here are some YouTube videos you can watch to help you to have a better understanding about
the lesson.

✓ Graphing Sine and Cosine Trig Functions With Transformations, Phase Shifts, Period - Domain
& Range
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vw-RwPBWS8g&t=910s
✓ How To Graph Tangent and Cotangent Functions With Transformations & Phase Shift
Trigonometry
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sKoR8KHx4uU&t=276s
✓ How To Graph Secant and Cosecant Functions With Transformations
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AGe2-EG8ZDU&t=790s

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References

YouTube Videos

➢ The Organic Chemistry Tutor (2016, February) Graphing Sine and Cosine Trig Functions With
Transformations, Phase Shifts, Period - Domain & Range
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vw-RwPBWS8g&t=910s
➢ The Organic Chemistry Tutor (2017, October 15) How To Graph Tangent and Cotangent
Functions With Transformations & Phase Shift Trigonometry
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sKoR8KHx4uU&t=276s
➢ The Organic Chemistry Tutor (2017, October 16) How To Graph Secant and Cosecant Functions
With Transformations
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AGe2-EG8ZDU&t=790s

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