반도체 공학 2

(Semiconductor Engineering 2)

Semiconductor Junction 2
Contents HONGIK UNIVERSITY

1. Junctions under applied bias

2. Charge carriers in semiconductors : review
3. Carrier density at thermal equilibrium
4. Carrier density at non-equilibrium
(1) Carrier distribution under forward bias
(2) Carrier distribution under reverse bias
→ Carrier distribution of p-n junction in ideal case
5. Current-voltage characteristic in ideal case
6. Current-voltage characteristic in non-ideal case
→ Effect of Generation & recombination current
7. Junction breakdown in p-n junction
(1) Tunneling effect → Zener diode
(2) Avalanche multiplication → Avalanche photodiode
8. Fabrication process of p-n junction

반도체공학2
Junctions under applied bias HONGIK UNIVERSITY

Depletion region
𝑾𝑾 𝑬𝑬𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄
𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑬𝑬𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄
Thermal p-Semi. n-Semi.
equilibrium 𝑬𝑬𝑭𝑭 𝑬𝑬𝑭𝑭
𝑬𝑬𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗
Balance between drift and diffusion currents 𝑬𝑬𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗

𝑞𝑞(𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 − 𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 )
Forward p-Semi. n-Semi.
bias 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓
𝑰𝑰𝒇𝒇
+ 𝑽𝑽𝒇𝒇 −

Reduce electrostatic potential difference → Enhance diffusion

Reverse
bias p-Semi. n-Semi.
𝑞𝑞(𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟 )
𝑰𝑰𝒓𝒓 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟
- 𝑽𝑽𝒓𝒓 +

Increase electrostatic potential difference→ Reduce diffusion

반도체공학2
Ideal pn Junction HONGIK UNIVERSITY

Notation
 Majority carrier : predominant charge carrier (more abundant charge carriers)

- Electrons in the n-type semiconductor : 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

- Holes in the p-type semiconductor : 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

 Minority carrier : less abundant charge carriers

- Electrons in the p-type semiconductor : 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝

- Holes in the n-type semiconductor : 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛

→ play an important role in bipolar transistors and solar cells

Notation At thermal equilibrium, the majority carrier density in the

𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏
neutral region is equal to the doping concentration
Thermal equilibrium
Type of semiconductor 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 ≈ 𝑁𝑁𝐷𝐷 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ≈ 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴
Type of carrier
𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 ≈ 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖2 /𝑁𝑁𝐷𝐷 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ≈ 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖2 /𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴
반도체공학2
Ideal pn Junction HONGIK UNIVERSITY

The ideal current–voltage relationship of a pn junction is derived on the basis of four

assumptions

1. The space charge regions have abrupt boundaries, and the semiconductor is

neutral outside of the depletion region.

2. The Maxwell–Boltzmann approximation applies to carrier statistics.

3. The concepts of low injection and complete ionization apply.

4a. The total current is a constant throughout the entire pn structure.

4b. The individual electron and hole currents are continuous functions through the pn
structure.
4c. The individual electron and hole currents are constant throughout the depletion
region
반도체공학2
Carrier concentration HONGIK UNIVERSITY

At thermal equilibrium
 Carrier concentration as a function of electrostatic potential difference
𝑬𝑬𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄
(𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖 −𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹 )/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 𝑁𝑁𝐷𝐷 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒 = 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 𝑬𝑬𝒊𝒊 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑬𝑬𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = ln 2 𝑬𝑬𝑭𝑭
𝑞𝑞 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒 (𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹 −𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖)/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 𝑁𝑁𝐷𝐷 𝑬𝑬𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗
 If we assume complete ionization, 𝑬𝑬𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 ≈ 𝑁𝑁𝐷𝐷 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ≈ 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑁𝑁𝐷𝐷 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 𝑁𝑁𝐷𝐷
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 − 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 = ln + ln = ln 2
𝑞𝑞 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 𝑞𝑞 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 𝑞𝑞 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = ln Mass action law
𝑞𝑞 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖2 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑁𝑁𝐷𝐷
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 = 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖2 = 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 = − (𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖 − 𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹 )�
𝑞𝑞
=
𝑞𝑞
ln
𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖
𝑥𝑥≥𝑥𝑥
𝑛𝑛

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴

𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = ln = ln 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 = − (𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖 − 𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹 )� =− ln
𝑞𝑞 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑞𝑞 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑜 𝑞𝑞 𝑥𝑥≤−𝑥𝑥 𝑝𝑝
𝑞𝑞 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖

𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉
( 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 ) (− 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 ) Electron and hole concentration as a function
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒
𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉 of 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 (electrostatic potential difference) at
( 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 ) (− 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 )
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 thermal equilibrium

반도체공학2
Carrier concentration HONGIK UNIVERSITY

At thermal equilibrium Depletion region

𝑾𝑾
 Carrier concentration at the boundaries
p-Semi. n-Semi.
𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉
(− 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 ) 𝑬𝑬𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄
𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 − 𝑥𝑥𝑝𝑝
𝑬𝑬𝒊𝒊 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑬𝑬𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄
𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉 𝑬𝑬𝑭𝑭
(− 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 )
𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 𝑬𝑬𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗
𝑬𝑬𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗

Electron and hole densities at the two 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑾𝑾

𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
boundaries ( −𝑥𝑥𝑝𝑝 , 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 ) of depletion
region are related through the 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 at 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖
thermal equilibrium
𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

𝑥𝑥
−𝑥𝑥𝑝𝑝 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛
Carrier distribution
반도체공학2
Carrier concentration HONGIK UNIVERSITY

At non-equilibrium
p-Semi. n-Semi.

 Carrier concentration under forward bias + 𝑽𝑽𝒇𝒇 −

 When forward bias is applied, the electrostatic
potential reduced to :
𝑞𝑞(𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 − 𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 )
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 − 𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓
𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓
 Net electric field in the space charge region is reduced
→ balance between diffusion and the E-field force at
thermal equilibrium is upset
→ majority carrier electrons from the n side are injected
across the depletion region into the p material, and
majority carrier holes from the p side are injected
across the depletion region into the n material

 Non-equilibrium electron/hole density at the two boundaries of depletion region

𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉 𝑞𝑞(𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 −𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 )
( 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 ) ( )
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉 𝑞𝑞(𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 −𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 )
( 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 ) ( )
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

반도체공학2
Carrier concentration HONGIK UNIVERSITY

At non-equilibrium
p-Semi. n-Semi.

 For the low-injection condition, + 𝑽𝑽𝒇𝒇 −

- The majority carrier electron concentration does
not change significantly
𝑞𝑞(𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 − 𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 )
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 ≈ 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 , 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ≈ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
- The minority carrier concentration 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 can deviate 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓

from its thermal-equilibrium value 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 by orders of

magnitude

𝑞𝑞(𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 −𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 ) −𝑞𝑞(𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 −𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 ) −𝑞𝑞(𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 −𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 )

( ) ( ) ( )
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛0 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

−𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓
𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛0 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓
When forward bias voltage is applied, the junction is no longer in
= 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
thermal equilibrium. The total minority carrier electron in p
region is now greater than the thermal equilibrium value
반도체공학2
Carrier concentration HONGIK UNIVERSITY

At non-equilibrium
p-Semi. n-Semi.

 Carrier concentration at boundaries under + 𝑽𝑽𝒇𝒇 −

forward bias 𝑞𝑞(𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 − 𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 )

 Electron density at the boundary of the 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓

depletion region on the p-side (𝑥𝑥 = −𝑥𝑥𝑝𝑝 )
𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓
𝑳𝑳𝒏𝒏 𝑾𝑾 𝑳𝑳𝒑𝒑
𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 = 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 − 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑝 (𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1)
𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖
 Hole density at the boundary of the 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛
depletion region on the n-side (𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 ) 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛0 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥
𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 − 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛0 = 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛0 (𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1) −𝑥𝑥𝑝𝑝 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛
Carrier distribution
Note that the minority carrier densities at the boundaries
반도체공학2 increase above their equilibrium values under forward bias!!!!
Carrier concentration HONGIK UNIVERSITY

At thermal equilibrium At non-equilibrium

𝑾𝑾 𝑳𝑳𝒏𝒏 𝑾𝑾 𝑳𝑳𝒑𝒑
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖

𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛
𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
−𝑥𝑥𝑝𝑝 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 −𝑥𝑥𝑝𝑝 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛

Carrier distribution

반도체공학2
Carrier concentration HONGIK UNIVERSITY

At non-equilibrium

 Note that the minority carrier densities at the boundaries increase above their
equilibrium values under forward bias

𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 𝑞𝑞 1
𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 (−𝑥𝑥𝑝𝑝 ) = 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 (𝑥𝑥𝑝𝑝 ) = 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛0 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 =
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 0.0259

𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖2 1.5 × 1010 2 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖2

𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑝 = = = 3.75 × 104 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚−3 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛0 = = 2.25 × 104 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚−3
𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 6 × 1015 𝑁𝑁𝐷𝐷

0.60 14 −3
𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 −𝑥𝑥𝑝𝑝 = 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑝 exp = 4.13 × 1014 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚−3 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 (𝑥𝑥𝑝𝑝 ) = 2.59 × 10 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚
0.0259
반도체공학2
Carrier concentration HONGIK UNIVERSITY

At non-equilibrium p-Semi. n-Semi.

 Carrier concentration under reverse bias - 𝑽𝑽𝒓𝒓 +

 When reverse bias is applied, the electrostatic

potential reduced to :
𝑞𝑞(𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟 )
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟

 Electron density at the boundary of the

𝑳𝑳𝒏𝒏 𝑾𝑾 𝑳𝑳𝒑𝒑
depletion region on the p-side (𝑥𝑥 = −𝑥𝑥𝑝𝑝 ) 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉
− 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑟𝑟
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 = 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑒𝑒
𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖
 Hole density at the boundary of the
depletion region on the n-side (𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 ) 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
−𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛0 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝
𝑥𝑥
−𝑥𝑥𝑝𝑝 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛
Note that the minority carrier densities at the boundaries
반도체공학2 decrease above their equilibrium values under reverse bias!!!!
 Carrier concentration : review HONGIK UNIVERSITY

Carrier distribution of p-n junction in ideal case

𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉

− 𝑟𝑟
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 )
(
𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 = 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 = 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 −𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟
( 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 )
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛0 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛0 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

반도체공학2
Carrier concentration HONGIK UNIVERSITY

For electron in a p-type semiconductor

 Boundary conditions
𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓
𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 (𝑥𝑥 = −𝑥𝑥𝑝𝑝 ) 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑝 (𝑥𝑥 = −∞)

 Minority Carrier Concentration

𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥𝑝𝑝 +𝑥𝑥
∆𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝0 = 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝0 (𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1)𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛 (𝑥𝑥 ≤ −𝑥𝑥𝑝𝑝 )

The minority carrier concentrations decay exponentially with distance away from the
junction to their thermal-equilibrium values

반도체공학2
Carrier concentration HONGIK UNIVERSITY

For hole in a n-type semiconductor

 Boundary conditions
𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓
𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛0 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 (𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 ) 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛0 (𝑥𝑥 = ∞)

 Minority Carrier Concentration

𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 −𝑥𝑥
𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝
∆𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛0 = 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛0 (𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1)𝑒𝑒 (𝑥𝑥 ≥ 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 )

The minority carrier concentrations decay exponentially with distance away from the
junction to their thermal-equilibrium values

반도체공학2
Current-voltage characteristic in ideal case HONGIK UNIVERSITY

Ideal pn Junction Current

 From the assumptions for the ideal I-V relationship of pn junction,

- The total current in the junction is constant through the depletion region.
- Since the electron and hole currents are continuous functions through the pn junction,
→ the total pn junction current will be the minority carrier hole diffusion current
at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 plus the minority carrier electron diffusion current at 𝑥𝑥 = −𝑥𝑥𝑝𝑝

 In the ideal condition with forward bias, hole current at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐽𝐽𝑝𝑝 = 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝜇𝜇𝑝𝑝 ℇ − 𝑞𝑞𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝 𝐽𝐽𝑝𝑝 (𝑥𝑥) = −𝑞𝑞𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 −𝑥𝑥
𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝
∆𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑛 (𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1)𝑒𝑒

𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 = 𝑥𝑥
𝑞𝑞𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 −𝑥𝑥 𝑞𝑞𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓
𝐽𝐽𝑝𝑝 (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑛 (𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1)𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝 𝐽𝐽𝑝𝑝 (𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 ) = (𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1)
𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝 𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝
 Forward-bias condition is in the +x direction, which is from the p to the n region

반도체공학2
Current-voltage characteristic in ideal case HONGIK UNIVERSITY

Ideal pn Junction Current

 In the ideal condition with forward bias, electron current at 𝑥𝑥 = −𝑥𝑥𝑝𝑝

𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛
𝐽𝐽𝑛𝑛 = 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝜇𝜇𝑛𝑛 ℇ + 𝑞𝑞𝐷𝐷𝑛𝑛 𝐽𝐽𝑛𝑛 (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑞𝑞𝐷𝐷𝑛𝑛
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥𝑝𝑝 +𝑥𝑥

∆𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝0 = 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝0 (𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1)𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛

𝑥𝑥𝑝𝑝 +𝑥𝑥 −𝑥𝑥𝑝𝑝 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑞𝑞𝐷𝐷𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝0 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓

𝑞𝑞𝐷𝐷𝑛𝑛 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓
𝐽𝐽𝑛𝑛 (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑛𝑛 (𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1)𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛 𝐽𝐽𝑛𝑛 (−𝑥𝑥𝑝𝑝 ) = (𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1)
𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛 𝑝𝑝0 𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛

 In the ideal condition, total current electron current under applied bias 𝑉𝑉

𝐽𝐽 = 𝐽𝐽𝑛𝑛 (𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 ) + 𝐽𝐽𝑝𝑝 (−𝑥𝑥𝑝𝑝 ) → Constant through the device

반도체공학2
Current-voltage characteristic in ideal case HONGIK UNIVERSITY

반도체공학2
Current-voltage characteristic in ideal case HONGIK UNIVERSITY

Ideal pn Junction Current

 In the ideal condition, total current electron current under applied bias 𝑉𝑉

𝐽𝐽 = 𝐽𝐽𝑛𝑛 (𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 ) + 𝐽𝐽𝑝𝑝 (−𝑥𝑥𝑝𝑝 ) → Constant through the device

𝑞𝑞𝐷𝐷𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝0 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉 𝑞𝑞𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉

= (𝑒𝑒 − 1) +
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 (𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1)
𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛 𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝

𝑞𝑞𝐷𝐷𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝0 𝑞𝑞𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉

=( + )(𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1)
𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛 𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝

𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉
𝐽𝐽 = 𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 (𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1)
𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 : reverse saturation current density (dependent on
materials quality)
Ideal diode equation (Shockley’s equation)

반도체공학2
Current-voltage characteristic in ideal case HONGIK UNIVERSITY

Ideal pn Junction Current

𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉
𝐽𝐽 = 𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 (𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1)
𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉
 At room temperature, =
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 0.0259

 For positive 𝑉𝑉, current increase exponentially

 When negative bias −𝑉𝑉 applied, the exponential
term approaches zero and the current density is
saturated at −𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠

Non ideal Diodes 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉

𝐽𝐽 = 𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 (𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1)
n = ideality factor, a number between 1 and 2 which typically increases as
the current decreases.

반도체공학2
Current-voltage characteristic in ideal case HONGIK UNIVERSITY

Neuman 8.3

𝑞𝑞𝐷𝐷𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝0 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 𝑞𝑞𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓

𝐽𝐽𝑛𝑛 = (𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1) 𝐽𝐽𝑝𝑝 = (𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1)
𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛 𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝

𝑞𝑞𝐷𝐷𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝0 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 𝐷𝐷𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖2 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓

𝐽𝐽𝑛𝑛 = (𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1) = 𝑞𝑞 (𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1)
𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛 𝜏𝜏𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑜 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴

𝐿𝐿2𝑝𝑝 = 𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝 𝜏𝜏𝑝𝑝

10 )2
−19
25 = (1.5 × 10 0.65
20 = (1.6 × 10 ) (𝑒𝑒 0.0259 − 1) 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 = 1.01 × 1015 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚−3
5 × 10−7 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴

𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 = 𝑥𝑥
𝑁𝑁𝐷𝐷 = 2.25 × 1015 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚−3

반도체공학2
Current-voltage characteristic in ideal case HONGIK UNIVERSITY

Neuman 8.4

𝑞𝑞𝐷𝐷𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝0 𝑞𝑞𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉

𝐽𝐽 = ( + )(𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1)
𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛 𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝
𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉
= 𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 (𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1)

= 3.295 𝐴𝐴/𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2

Total current density far from the junction in the n region

→ Electron (majority carrier) drift current, so

𝐽𝐽𝑛𝑛 ≈ 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝜇𝜇𝑛𝑛 ℇ = 𝑞𝑞𝑁𝑁𝐷𝐷 𝜇𝜇𝑛𝑛 ℇ ℇ = 1.525 𝑉𝑉/𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

반도체공학2
Deviation from idealized condition HONGIK UNIVERSITY

Deviation from idealized condition

𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉
𝐽𝐽 = 𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 (𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1)

1) Surface effect (surface channels, leakage current)

2) Generation & recombination in the depletion layer
3) High injection conditions
4) Series resistance effects
5) Tunneling of carriers between states in bandgap
Reverse bias
6) Avalanche multiplication
( junction breakdown)

반도체공학2
Deviation from idealized condition (option) HONGIK UNIVERSITY

Reverse biased generation current

 Generation current density

𝑊𝑊
𝐽𝐽𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = � 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞
0

 To simplify, assume trap level is at the intrinsic level

and generation rate is constant throughout the space
charge region
𝑊𝑊
𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 𝑊𝑊
𝐽𝐽𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = � 𝑞𝑞 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑞𝑞
0 2𝜏𝜏 0 2𝜏𝜏0

 Total reverse current density

𝐽𝐽𝑟𝑟 = 𝐽𝐽𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 + 𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 → 𝐽𝐽𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 is function of depletion region width

𝑊𝑊 (𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡)
→ function of reverse bias voltage

반도체공학2
Deviation from idealized condition (option) HONGIK UNIVERSITY

Forward biased recombination current

 Empirically modified current density

𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉 10-1 Si
𝐽𝐽 = 𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 (𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1) T= 300 K c) High injection
& series resistance
10-3

IF (A)
𝜼𝜼 = 𝟏𝟏
𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉
b) Diffusion current
𝐽𝐽 ≈ 𝑒𝑒 𝜂𝜂𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 10-5
dominates

10-7
a) G & R current
𝜂𝜂 (ideality factor) 𝜼𝜼 = 𝟐𝟐 dominates
- Diffusion current : 𝜂𝜂 = 1 (ideal) 10-9 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
- G & R current : 𝜂𝜂 = 2
VF (V)

반도체공학2
Junction breakdown in p-n junction HONGIK UNIVERSITY

Two breakdown mechanism under large reverse bias applied

1/2
2𝜖𝜖𝑠𝑠 (𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 − 𝑉𝑉) 1 1
1) Tunneling effect (Heavily doped junction) 𝑊𝑊 =
𝑞𝑞
( + )
𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 𝑁𝑁𝐷𝐷
2) Avalanche multiplication (Lightly doped junction)
→ maximum current should be limited by external circuit

반도체공학2
Junction Breakdown HONGIK UNIVERSITY

Junction Breakdown

반도체공학2
Junction breakdown in p-n junction HONGIK UNIVERSITY

Two breakdown mechanism under large reverse bias applied

 Tunneling effect (Heavily doped junction) → Zener effect

 Tunneling of electrons from the p-side valence band to the n-side conduction
band constitutes a reverse current from 𝑛𝑛 to 𝑝𝑝 → this is the Zener effect

- Typical field for tunneling Si and GaAs ~ 106 V/cm

- Doping concentration > 5 x 1017 cm-3

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Junction breakdown in p-n junction HONGIK UNIVERSITY

Two breakdown mechanism under large reverse bias applied

 Avalanche multiplication (impact ionization process)

E ① Thermally generated electron in

1
𝑬𝑬𝒄𝒄 the depletion region

2 ② Gain kinetic energy from ℇ

𝑬𝑬𝒗𝒗 ③ If ℇ is sufficiently high, the electron

4 collision with atom break the lattice
3 bond → create e-h pair

5 ④ Newly created e-h pair gain kinetic

energy from ℇ
⑤ Newly created e-h pair create
other e-h pair
⑥ This process continued

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 HONGIK UNIVERSITY

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Fabrication process of p-n junction HONGIK UNIVERSITY

1) Wafer 3) PR coating 4) PR exposure through mask

2) Oxidation
hv

mask
Photoresist
SiO2 SiO2 PR
n-Si n-Si SiO2
n-Si

5) Development of PR 7) Doping (Diffusion 8) Metallization

6) SiO2 removal or ion implantation)
B atom

p-Metal
PR
SiO2
SiO2 SiO2 p-Si
p-Si
n-Si n-Si
n-Si

n-Metal
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