Atoms

This is the smallest part of an element. Atomic structures contain a central nucleus consist of
proton and neutron while on the shell(s) there are electron(s); Neutrons are neutral and have no
charge but Protons are positively charged while electrons negatively charged.

Fig 1. An atom
Elements
A fundamental material of which all matter (organic or inorganic) are made. Elements are made
up of the same types of atoms. Egs. Carbon made of carbon atoms only
Note: Carbon is found in all organic compounds it is usually bonded to H, O, N
Other chief elements of organic compounds include Phosphorus and Nitrogen

Ions
Ions elements or diatoms with a charge due to unequal amounts of protons to electrons. Ions
therefore have one or more positive charges (Cation egs. H+, Cu2+) or negative charges (Anions
egs. Cl-, OH-).

Molecule-
A substance containing two or more elements chemically bonded together. Some molecules are
made of the same element.

Compound
A type of molecule made up two or more different elements. Therefore, all compounds are
molecules with different elements chemically bonded. Example water molecule H2O Hydrogen
and Oxygen elements are chemically bonded.
 Chemical Bonds
Atoms are trying to reach the most stable or lowest-energy state. In order to do this, most try to
satisfy the octet rule (have 8 electrons on their outermost shell) or try to have at least 2. Many
atoms will have to gain, lose or share electrons with another atom in order to achieve this and
this is done through the formation of chemical bonds.

Fig2. Chemical Bonding

What is dipole?
Structurally, dipoles are created due to the separation of positive and negative charges to separate
poles or angles within a molecule. This can be seen in water molecules.
Let’s compare dipole hydrogen to methane
Note:
Hydrogen bonding are very weak bonds. However, it is responsible for most of water emergent
properties such as water being:
Cohesive-🡪 high surface tension, Viscous
Adhesive
High heat of vapourization- hydrogen has to break first before they can vaporize so a lot more
heat needed. Not so easy to change water temperature.
Fig3 Dipolar Water

Watch the video below on properties of water.

Properties of Water | Hydrogen Bonding in Water | Biology | Biochemistry - YouTube

Also refer to Page 27 of Biology Unit 1 for CAPE Examinations Text by Myda Ramesar et al.
Or Pages 4-5 Biology Unit 1 for CAPE Examinations study guide by Nelson Thorne
Or Pages 80-82 of Biological Science 1 and 2 third edition by D.J. Taylor et al.