Sets

In order to be successful in the study of probability, we must first study set theory.

A set is a collection of elements.

Every problem that we will consider will have a set associated with it that I like to call the big
set.

A universal set is the set of all elements for a situation.

From this point on, when we refer to a set, we are referring to a collection of elements in the
given universal set. We use U to represent the universal set, and other capital letters (except S -
more on this later) to represent all other sets. We generally try to select a letter associated with
what the set contains.

Ex. Let U = { all students enrolled at COS } be the universal set,

M = { all COS students enrolled in a math class },

W = { all COS students enrolled in Mr. Woodbury's Statistics class }

M and W are sets because they are made up of elements of the universal set U.

A note of caution : the universal set depends on the situation and changes from situation to
situation. It is important to specify the universal set for each and every problem.

Now that we've taken care of the big set and the "in-between" sets, we need to mention the small
set.

The null set ( or empty set ), denoted by , is the set that has no members.

A set A is a subset of another set B, denoted A B, if every element of A is also an element of

B.

Referring to the previous example, W M because everyone taking Mr. Woodbury's Statistics
class is by default taking a math class, namely Statistics.

Can the reverse be said? In other words, is M W ? Since we know that there are students at
COS taking Intermediate Algebra, and we also know that Intermediate Algebra is the
prerequisite for Statistics, then there are elements of M (Intermediate Algebra students ) that are
not elements of W. We denote this situation by M W.

In order to show that a set A is not a subset of another set B, we only need to find one element of
A that is not an element of B.

Set Operations

Set operations are operations that create new sets out of existing sets. Here's the first.
The complement of a set A, denoted by A', is the set of all elements in the universal set U that
are not elements of A.

Ex. Let U = { all students enrolled at COS } be the universal set,

M = { all COS students enrolled in a math class },

W = { all COS students enrolled in Mr. Woodbury's Statistics class }

M' = { all COS students not enrolled in a math class } and

W' = { all COS students not enrolled in Mr. Woodbury's Statistics class }.

The next two set operations are intersection and union. The intersection of two roads is where
the roads cross. A similar definition works for the intersection of two sets.

The intersection of a set A and another set B, denoted by , is the set whose elements
belong to both A and B.

Union is close to the word unite, which may suggest some sort of combination of the two sets
into one bigger set.

The union of a set A and another set B, denoted by , is the set whose elements belong to
either set A, or to set B, or to both sets A and B. Often, in the real world, we would be talking
about elements that are in A and/or B.

Ex. A standard deck of 52 playing cards has cards of 2 different colors.

There are 26 red cards and 26 black cards.
Each color of cards is broken into two suits.
The red cards are divided into hearts () and diamonds (). The black cards are divided into spades
() and clubs (). Each suit has 13 cards in it : Ace (A), 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, Jack (J), Queen (Q),
and King (K).
The Jacks, Queens, and Kings are referred to as face cards, because they each have a face on
them.
Here are the cards in a deck.

A A A A

2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5

6 6 6 6

7 7 7 7
 8 8 8 8

9 9 9 9

10 10 10 10

J J J J

Q Q Q Q

K K K K

Let U = { All 52 cards},

H = {Hearts}, D = {Diamonds},

S = {Spades}, C = {Clubs},

R = {Red}, B = {Black},

F = {Face Cards},

A = {Aces}, 2 = {Twos}, …

A H={A}
A H = { A, A, A, A, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,

8, 9, 10, J, Q, K}
R F = { J, Q, K, J, Q, K}
R F = { A, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
J, Q, K, A, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,

8, 9, 10, J, Q, K, J, Q, K,

J, Q, K}

Two sets A and B are called mutually exclusive if their intersection is empty, in other words, A
B = . With reference to the preceding example, the sets R and B are mutually exclusive. A
card can not be both red and black.

Counting

The cardinality of a set A, denoted n(A), is the number of elements in set A. It is necessary that
set A has only finitely many elements.

Recall the following example.

Let U = { All 52 cards},

H = {Hearts}, D = {Diamonds},
S = {Spades}, C = {Clubs},

R = {Red}, B = {Black},

F = {Face Cards},

A = {Aces}, 2 = {Twos}, …

A H={A}
A H = { A, A, A, A, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,

8, 9, 10, J, Q, K}
R F = { J, Q, K, J, Q, K}
R F = { A, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
J, Q, K, A, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,

8, 9, 10, J, Q, K, J, Q, K,

J, Q, K}

Then,
n(R) = n(B) = 26,
n(H) = n(D) = n(S) = n(C) = 13,
n(F) = 12,
n(A) = n(2) = … = n(10) = n(J) = n(Q) = n(K) = 4,
n(A H) = 16,
n(R F) = 32

Note that n(A H) n(A) + n(H). The reason is that there are some elements that are members
of both sets A and H, and are therefore counted twice. We can find n(A H) by adding n(A)
and n(H), and then subtracting the number of elements that are in both, namely n(A H). Here's
the formula.

The Addition Principle :

For any sets A and B,

n(A B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A B).

Note, if A and B are mutually exclusive, this formula reduces to

n(A B) = n(A) + n(B).

Venn Diagrams

A Venn Diagram is a way to graphically represent sets and set operations. Each diagram begins
with a rectangle representing the universal set. Then each set is represented by a circle. We will
only be dealing with Venn Diagrams for 2 sets and 3 sets. Here's a Venn Diagram involving two
sets A and B.
Here is the Venn Diagram associated with the set A.

Now for some set operations. Here is the complement of set A. Recall that the complement of A
is everything that is in the universal set but not in the set A, so we shade everything except
what's in the circle A.

Now for . To do a Venn Diagram for a union of two sets, first shade the first set, then
shade the second set. Anything that gets shaded at least one time is in the union.
Now put them together.

Anything that gets shaded at least once is in the union, so here's the finished product.

How about ? First shade each set. The intersection is where the two shaded areas cross.
Recall from above that after shading each set we had the following.

The final Venn Diagram should be shaded only where the two sets cross.
There are the basics, now let's try a couple that are more involved.

Shade each set first, then the final diagram will be where the two cross.

Where do they cross?

First shade what's in the parenthesis.

Now take the complement of that set.

Venn Diagrams for 3 Sets

Here's the beginning diagram associated with 3 sets : A, B, and C.

Complements, unions and intersections are handled in the same way as they were with 2 set
Venn Diagrams.

Multiplication Principle

I was sitting in a restaurant the other day. They had 8 different burgers, 3 different side dishes,
and 12 different beverages. I know you’re probably wondering, so I’ll go ahead and ask the
question for you.

In how many different ways could I order a burger, a side dish, and a beverage?

Well, first we could draw a tree with 8 branches for the 8 different burgers. Then we ask
ourselves can we order any of the 3 side dishes to go with the burger? In other words, are there
any restrictions on our second choice? Since we could order any of the 3 side dishes to go with
our burger, we will add 3 branches to each of the 8 branches from the first choice. How many
branches do we have now? 24. Is there any way we could have gotten 24 without the tree?
. Let’s see what happens when it comes to choosing a beverage. Can we order any of
the 12 different beverages with our burger/side dish combo? Why not, this is a free country
(depending upon where you are reading this). So, for each of our 24 branches above, we add 12
branches for the 12 different beverages. Voila! We now have 288 branches. This means we could
select a burger, a side dish, and a beverage in 288 different ways.

The reason the tree diagram is not the method of preference here is that we’d need an awfully big
sheet of paper to draw this tree ( and probably a few attempts to make it fit right ). Here comes
the multiplication principle.

The Multiplication Principle

If a choice consists of k different steps, the first of which can be made in n1 ways, the second of
which can be made in n2 ways, … , and the last of which can be made in n k steps, then the whole
choice can be made in different ways.

Back to our problem, the first step (burger) can be made in 8 different ways, the second step
(side dish) can be made in 3 different ways, and the third step can be made in 12 different ways.
So, in terms of the multiplication principle, k = 3, n1 = 8, n2 = 3, and n3 = 12. To calculate the
number of different ways to make the choice, we multiply to get a final answer of 288
different ways.

You can get anything you want at Alice’s Restaurant, or so I’ve heard. Alice’s has 25 different
types of pie, and 4 kinds of coffee. In how many different ways could you order a piece of pie
and a cup of coffee?

Use the multiplication principle with k = 2, multiply 25 by 4 to produce an answer of 100

different ways to order a piece of pie and coffee.

Permutations

A permutation is an ordered arrangement of a group of objects.

The number of permutations of r objects selected from a set of n distinct objects is

So, what does the exclamation point mean in the above formula? Are you supposed to yell n as
loud as you can? n! is math notation for n factorial, which is the product of all the integers
between 1 and n. We define 0! and 1! to be equal to 1.

There are a few conditions that must be present to use the above formula. First, each step of the
choice must be made from the n distinct objects. Second, none of the n objects can be used more
than once. Third, there must be a distinct difference between being chosen at each different step,
in other words, order matters.

Ex. Seven horses are running in a race. In how many ways can they finish 1st, 2nd and 3rd?

Can any of the seven finish in first, second or third? Yes. Can any of the horses finish in more
than one position? No. Is there a difference between finishing first or second or third? Yes. So
this problem requires permutations. Since we are selecting from a group of 7 distinct horses, n =
7. Since we are interested in selecting 3 horses from that group of 7, r = 3.

Another way to work this out :

A third way to work it out : learn how to use the built in permutation key on your calculator!

Permutations Question 1
16 students enter a poetry contest. In how many ways can a winner and a runner up be chosen?

n = 16 and r = 2.

There are 240 ways to select a winner and a runner up.

Permutations Question 2

There are 50 contestants in the Miss America Pageant. In how many different ways can the
contestants finish first through fifth?

n = 50 and r = 5.

So, there are 254,251,200 different ways that the contestants could finish first through fifth.
That's a lot of ways!

Permutations Question 3

A math instructor decides to choose 3 students at random and excuse them from the final exam
with grades of A, C, and F respectively. If there are 32 people in the class, in how many ways
can this be done?

n = 32 and r = 3.
So, there are 29,760 different ways the instructor could do this.

Combinations

A combination is similar to a permutation, except that the order in which the objects are selected
does not matter. Suppose your statistics instructor were to pick 2 students at random and excuse
them from the final with a grade of A. (This, by the way, will never happen!) If Stephanie is
chosen first and Tina is chosen second, isn't that the same result as Tina being chosen first and
Stephanie second? Of course it is - they'd both be pretty happy, and both would receive the same
thing. If we used permutations to find the number of ways that this could be accomplished, the
above situations would count twice instead of once, as they should. Our answer will be twice
what it should have been.

The number of combinations of r objects selected from a group of n distinct objects is given by
the formula

Notice the extra r! in the denominator - that's what takes care of the repeated combinations.

Ex. A math class has 30 students in it on the first day of class. The instructor tells the class "I
want each person in this class to shake the hand of every other person in this class. How many
handshakes will it take?"

Our first guess might be 30 times 29, because each person has to shake the other 29 classmates'
hands. However, using this reasoning ignores the fact that when 2 people shake hands, it's only
one handshake. The correct solution involves combinations. In this problem n = 30 because we
are choosing from a group of 30 people, and r = 2 because we are looking to choose 2 people to
shake hands.
So, 435 handshakes would be required. I have not worked out the math completely for you, the
procedure is similar to the one we used for permutations. Besides, you should be punching this
into your calculator anyway.

Ex. The COS Faculty Senate has 20 members. The Senate decides to send 4 Senators to a
conference to represent the school. In how many ways can this be done?

We know that we are choosing 4 from a group of 20, but does the order matter? No, whether a
Senator is picked first, second, third or fourth, that Senator is still going to the conference.

There are 4845 different ways to pick 4 Senators to go to the conference.

Combinations Questions

1) At the local SPCA Pet Adoption Day, a family with 4 children decides to adopt 4 dogs. If
there are 15 dogs available, in how different many ways can the family choose 4 dogs for
adoption? (Remember: Help control the pet population. Please have your pet spayed or
neutered.)

Answer
1) At the local SPCA Pet Adoption Day, a family with 4 children decides to adopt 4 dogs. If
there are 15 dogs available, in how different many ways can the family choose 4 dogs for
adoption?

2) A third-grade bully wants to extort milk money from 3 of his classmates. If there are 20 other
children in the class, in how many different ways can he choose 3 to extort?

Answer
2) A third-grade bully wants to extort milk money from 3 of his classmates. If there are 20 other
children in the class, in how many different ways can he choose 3 to extort?
3) There are currently 30 museums in the Central Valley. If a father and son decide to visit 5 of
these museums this year, in how many different ways could they choose 5 to visit?

Answer
3) There are currently 30 museums in the Central Valley. If a father and son decide to visit 5 of
these museums this year, in how many different ways could they choose 5 to visit?

Does it matter which order the father and son visit the 5 museums in? Not according to the
question.

Here we use the combinations formula with n = 30 and r = 5.

So, they could choose 5 museums in 142,506 different ways.

4) A math final exam has 8 problems on it. Students are instructed to answer any 7. In how many
different ways could a student choose 7 questions to answer?

Answer
4) A math final exam has 8 problems on it. Students are instructed to answer any 7. In how many
different ways could a student choose 7 questions to answer?

Is there any suggestion that the order that the questions are answered in matters? For instance,
are they worth different amounts? There is no suggestion of that here.

Here we use the combinations formula with n = 8 and r = 7.

So, a student could choose 7 questions to answer in 8 different ways. Does this answer make
sense? Think of it this way - isn't choosing 7 to answer the same as choosing 1 of the 8 to skip?
In how may ways can you pick 1 of the 8 to skip? 8.

5) A local Chinese restaurant has a family dinner special. Each member of the family is allowed
to pick one entrée, but no repetition of entrees is allowed. If there are 12 entrees on the menu, in
how many different ways can a family of 5 order dinner?
Answer
5) A local Chinese restaurant has a family dinner special. Each member of the family is allowed
to pick one entrée, but no repetition of entrees is allowed. If there are 12 entrees on the menu, in
how many different ways can a family of 5 order dinner?

Is there any suggestion that the order that the entrees is picked in matters? There is no suggestion
of that here.

Here we use the combinations formula with n = 12 and r = 5.

So, the family can pick 5 entrees in 792 different ways.

Classical Probability

First, let's begin with some definitions.

Experiment: Any process that allows researchers to obtain data.

Outcome: A particular result of an experiment.

Sample Space: The set of all possible outcomes, denoted by the letter S.

Event: A subset of the sample space.

Probability: The likelihood that an event will occur.

Example Roll a fair six-sided die and record what number turns up on its face. This is an
experiment.

What are the possible outcomes of this experiment? The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, so S = {1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6}.

Let A be the event that the roll is odd. Then A = {1, 3, 5}.

Let B be the event that the roll is less than 3. Then B = {1, 2}.

Let C be the event that the roll is a prime number. Then C = {2, 3, 5}.
Suppose that each outcome in the sample space for an experiment is equally likely to occur. The
probability that event A will occur, denoted P(A), is given by the following formula:

Referring to the previous example,

A: Roll is odd B: Roll is less than 3 C: Roll is a prime number

Example A box contains 12 markers, of which 3 are dried up and 9 are still working. If 3
markers are drawn from the box at random, find the probability that all 3 are still working.

In this problem it is too tedious to list all of the possible outcomes in the sample space, so we
will rely on our counting skills (namely, combinations) instead. In how many different ways can
3 markers be drawn from the box? Since order doesn't matter, we will use combinations. There
are or 220 different ways to draw 3 markers from the box. So there are 220 outcomes in the
sample space. What is the event that we are interested in in this problem? The event of interest in
this problem is drawing 3 working markers from the box. We will denote this event as A. How
many different ways are there to draw 3 working markers from the box? We are selecting 3
markers from the 9 working markers, so there are or 84 different ways to draw 3 working
markers from the box. So,

The Law of Large Numbers

The Law of Large Numbers: If an experiment is repeated over and over, the proportion of
successes will get closer and closer to the actual probability of success.
Suppose you flip a coin 5 times, and only 1 time does the coin turn up heads. Is 1/5 or 20% a
good estimate of the probability that a fair coin turns up heads? No. The problem is that it is hard
to estimate a probability based on only 5 trials. If you were to flip a coin 50 times, or 100 times,
or 500 times, the proportion of successes would be a better estimate of the probability that a coin
turns up heads.

Ex If an NBA basketball player has made 320 of his 800 free throw attempts this season, the
probability that he makes a free throw is approximately 320/800 or 40%.

Ex A random sample of 125 Compaq computers purchased last year revealed that only 15 of
them required service in the first year. What is the probability that a Compaq computer requires
service in the first year? Approximately 15/125 or 12%.

Law of Large Numbers - Practice Problems

1) In a study of 200 randomly selected patients who underwent surgery for Carpal Tunnel
Syndrome, it was observed that 42 returned to work within 2 years of their surgery. Estimate the
probability that a patient who undergoes surgery for Carpal Tunnel Syndrome returns to work
within 2 years.

2) The weather in Denver and Chicago is good today. Under similar conditions, 912 out of 1200
randomly selected flights from Denver to Chicago arrived on time. Estimate the probability that
a flight from Denver to Chicago will arrive on time today.

3) A survey of 1325 physicians revealed that 848 recommended an aspirin substitute for their
patients. Estimate the probability that a patient recommends an aspirin substitute for their
patients.

Answers to Law of Large Numbers Practice Problems

1) Approximately 42 / 200 or 21%.

2) Approximately 912 / 1200 or 76%.

3) Approximately 848 / 1325 or 64%.

The Addition Rule

Recall from set theory that the word or goes with the set operation union. Now that we are
studying probability we need to associate the word or with addition. Here is the general addition
rule:
In words, whenever we want to find the probability of event A or event B occurring, we add the
probability of event A occurring to the probability of event B occurring, and then subtract the
probability of both A and B occurring.

Ex At a fast food restaurant, the probability that Charlie orders a hamburger is 0.75, the
probability that he orders french fries is 0.65, and the probability that he orders both a hamburger
and fries is 0.5. Find the probability that Charlie orders a hamburger or french fries.

Let H be the event that Charlie orders a hamburger and F be the event that Charlie orders french
fries. So, , and . Now, let's use the formula.

Ex Find the probability that a card drawn from a well shuffled, standard 52-card deck is a spade
or a face card (Jack, Queen or King).

Let A be the event that a spade is drawn and let B be the event that a face card is drawn.

, because there are 13 cards that are spades. , because there are 12 face

cards (3 in each suit). Finally, because there are 3 cards that are spades and face
cards, namely the Jack of spades, the Queen of Spades, and the King of spades. Let's go to the
formula.

There is a special addition rule to cover the case when the two events are mutually exclusive.
Recall that mutually exclusive means that the two events do not intersect, in other words,
. Well, if , then
Ex A woman needs to buy her newborn a baptism dress. She will buy only one dress. The
probability that she buys the dress at Sears is 0.35 and the probability that she buys the dress at J
C Penney is 0.55. Find the probability that she buys the dress at Sears or J C Penney.

Let A be the event that she buys the dress at Sears, and let B be the event that she buys the dress
at J C Penney. So

The Complement Rule

Sometimes it is easier to find the probability of an event's complement than the actual event
itself. However, this will lead us to the event's probability. Since we know that an event is
guaranteed to either happen or not happen, . This leads us to the following formula,
known as the complement rule.

In words, if we know the probability of an event's complement occurring, we simply subtract it

from 1 to find the probability of the event occurring.

Ex The probability that the Green Bay Packers win this year's Super Bowl is 0.70. Find the
probability that they do not win this year's Super Bowl.

Let A be the event that the Packers do not win the Super Bowl, then A' is the event that the
Packers do win the Super Bowl (complement of A).

Ex A fair 6-sided die is rolled. Find the probability that the roll is not a 4.

Let A be the event that the roll is not a 4, then A' is the event that the roll is a 4.
Ex If a card is drawn from a well shuffled standard 52 card deck of cards, find the probability
that the card is neither a spade nor a face card.

Let A be the event that the card is neither a spade nor a face card. Then A' is the event that the
card is a spade or a face card. (See the Addition Rule page.)

Addition Rule and Complement Rule Practice Problems

1) A woman is looking for a gown to wear to a wedding. The probability that she buys the gown
at Gottschalks is 0.40, and the probability that she buys the gown at J C Penney is 0.25. Find the
probability that she buys the gown at Gottschalks or J C Penney. (Answer: 0.65)

2) Referring to problem 1, find the probability that she buys the gown at a store other than
Gottschalks or J C Penney. (Answer: 0.35)

3) A student has a Math exam and an English exam tomorrow. The probability that she studies
for the Math exam is 0.60, the probability that she studies for the English exam is 0.30, and the
probability that she studies for both is 0.15. Find the probability that she studies for the Math
exam or the English exam. (Answer: 0.75)

4) Referring to problem 3, find the probability that she does not study for the English exam.
(Answer: 0.70)

5) A card is drawn from a well-shuffled standard 52-card deck of cards. Find the probability that
the card is

a) red. (Answer: 26/52 or 1/2)

b) a face card (Jack, Queen or King). (Answer: 12/52 or 3/13)
c) red or a face card. (Answer: 32/52 or 8/13)
d) not a face card. (Answer: 40/52 or 10/13)
6) A pair of fair 6-sided dice is rolled. Find the probability that the roll

a) has a sum of at least 5. (Answer: 30/36 or 5/6)

b) is doubles. (Answer: 6/36 or 1/6)
c) has a sum of at least 5 or is doubles. (Answer: 32/36 or 8/9)

Conditional Probability

Any probability problem in which the original sample space is changed by some condition falls
under the heading of conditional probability. If we are interested in the probability of event A
occurring given that event B has already occurred or is known to be true, we write . This
is read "the probability of A given B." The known condition or event is written after the vertical
line, and the event that we are interested in is written before the line.

Ex A bucket contains 9 blocks, 6 that are red and 3 that are blue. If a child randomly draws a
blue block from the bucket, what is the probability that the next randomly selected block will
also be blue?

If the child draws a blue block from the bucket, then the sample space is changed to 6 red blocks
and 2 blue blocks. Based on this, there are2 blue blocks out of 8 blocks in the bucket. If we let B
be the event that a blue block is drawn, then

There is a formula for conditional probability that may be used.

We divide the probability of both events occurring (intersection) by the probability of the given
event.

Ex The probability that I leave for school on time is 0.64. The probability that I leave for school
on time and arrive at school on time is 0.56. If I leave for school on time, what is the probability
that I also arrive at school on time?
Let L be the event that I leave for school on time and let A be the event that I arrive at school on
time. Then and . The given condition is that I leave for school on
time, and we need to find .

Conditional Probability Tables

The concept of conditional probability may seem easier when presented using tables. Suppose
200 people are randomly surveyed and asked which fast food burger restaurant they preferred.
Here are the results.

 
McDonald's Burger King In-N-Out Other

Men 45 20 50 10

Women 30 35 5 5

If one of the 200 respondents is selected at random, what is the probability that the person is
male and prefers In-N-Out? Since 45 of the 200 people surveyed are in this group, the

probability is .

What is the probability that a male prefers In-N-Out? In this problem we are restricting our
sample space to the 125 men. How many of the 125 prefer In-N-Out? 50, so the probability is

Conditional Probability - Practice Problems

1) A drum contains 4 red blocks, 3 blue blocks, and 2 green blocks. If a blue block is drawn from
the drum, find the probability that the next block drawn from the block is red.

2) Four men and 4 women apply for 3 jobs.

a) Find the probability that a woman is hired for the first job.
b) If a woman is hired for the first job, find the probability that a woman is hired for the second
job.
c) If two women are hired for the first two jobs, find the probability that a woman is hired for the
third job.

3) The probability that a college student is taking at least 15 units is 0.80. The probability that a
college student is taking at least 15 units and taking at least 20 hours per week is o.60. If a
college student is taking at least 15 units, find the probability that the student is also working at
least 20 hours per week.

4) Two hundred college students were surveyed about their food preference - Chinese food,
Italian food, or Mexican food. Here are the results.

 
Chinese Italian Mexican

Men 25 35 60

Women 5 25 50

Find the probability that

a) a student is male.
b) a student prefers Chinese food.
c) a student is male or prefers Chinese food.
d) a student is male and prefers Chinese food.
e) if a student prefers Chinese food, the student is male.
f) a male student prefers Chinese food.
g) a student who prefers Italian food is female.
h) a female student prefers Italian or Mexican food.
i) if a student prefers Italian or Mexican food, the student is female.

Answers to Conditional Probability Practice Problems

1) 2 / 8 or 1 / 4

2) a) 4 / 8 or 1 / 2

b) 3 / 7
c) 2 / 6

3) 0.6 / 0.8 or 0.75

4) a) 120 / 200

b) 30 / 200

c) 125 / 200

d) 25 / 200

e) 25 / 30

f) 25 / 120

g) 25 / 60

h) 75 / 80

i) 75 / 170

Independent Events

Two events are said to be independent if the occurrence or nonoccurrence of one event does not
affect the probability of the other event, and vice versa. Symbolically, two events A and B are
independent if

and

An easier way to check A and B for independence is to multiply the probability of A by the
probability of B. If this product is equal to the probability of the intersection of A and B, then A
and B are independent.

Multiplication Practice Problems

1) 2 cards are drawn from a well-shuffled standard 52-card deck without replacement. Find the
probability of drawing
a) two face cards.
b) a King and a Queen.
c) a face card (Jack, Queen or King) and an Ace.
d) two spades.

2) Repeat problem 1, but the cards are drawn with replacement.

3) Eight men and 4 women apply for 3 scholarships. Find the probability that

a) all 3 scholarships go to men.

b) at least 1 scholarship goes to a woman.

4) A coin is flipped 5 times. What is the probability that at least 1 flip will be heads?

Answers to Multiplication Practice Problems

1)

a)

b)

c)