I. SCIENTIFIC WRITING: MEANING, NEED,
Your
IMPORTANCE AND FORMAT
A scientific paper is a written and published report
describing original research results. The purpose of
scientific writing is to communicate scientific research
findings to other people. Scientific writing should be
clear, simple, and well-ordered communication to
transmit. Scientific writing must use proper language and
grammar which gives the sense in a fewest short words.
Need: Knowledge is lost without written records.
Knowledge cannot be widely circulated with no effective
duplication.
Definition of Scientific Paper: An acceptable original
scientific publication containing scientific information. A
scientific paper must be written in a certain way and it
must be published in a certain way, as defined by three
centuries of developing tradition, editorial practice,
scientific ethics, and the interplay of printing and
publishing procedures.
A scientific article presents research results and is written
by researchers and aimed at an academic readership. The
article must have been reviewed by experts within the
same subject area before publication.
An acceptable primary scientific publication must be the
first disclosure containing sufficient information to
enable peers:
 To assess observations,
 To repeat experiments, and
 To evaluate intellectual processes;
Moreover, it must be susceptible to sensory perception,
essentially permanent, available to the scientific
community without restriction, and available for regular
screening by one or more of the major recognized
secondary services (e.g., currently, Biological Abstracts,
Chemical Abstracts, Bibliography of Agriculture, etc.)
Essential Part of Scientific Paper: Title, Abstract,
Introduction, Material, Method/Methodology, Result,
Discussion, Summary/Conclusion, Acknowledgement,
and References.
ORGANIZATION OF A SCIENTIFIC PAPER
A scientific paper is a paper organized to meet the needs
of valid publication. A scientific paper is, or should be,
highly stylized, with distinctive and clearly evident
component parts.
An effective way to proceed for scientific writing is to
answer these four questions, in order:
(i) What was the problem? Your answer is the
introduction.
(ii) How did you study the problem?
answer is the Materials and Methods.
(iii) What did you find? Your answer is the
Results.
(iv) What do these findings mean? Your answer is
the Discussion.
The well-written paper should report its original data in
an organized fashion and in appropriate language.
RULES FOR SCIENTIFIC WRITING
 Interest, inform, and persuade the reader
 Write for your reader and write clearly
 Eliminate unnecessary redundancy
 Avoid digressions
 Don’t over explain and avoid overstatement
 Avoid unnecessary qualifiers
 Use consistent tenses
 Use the precise word
 Simpler words are preferred over complex words
and use concrete words and examples
 Simpler sentences are preferred over more
complicated sentences
 Use the active voice (except generally in
methods)
 Make sure the subject and verb agree
 Use affirmative rather than negative
constructions
 Avoid use of the indefinite “this”
 Use transitions
 Cite sources as well as findings
 Proofread your paper carefully; spell check does
not catch everything: “there” is spelled correctly
but not if you meant “their”
In general, the best writing is simple and direct.
Writing that is simple and direct is most easily
understood. It also tends to be the most forceful and
memorable.
Important Reasons for Publishing Your Work:
 It is unethical to conduct a study and not report
the findings.
 You have some results that are worth reporting.
 You want to progress scientific thought or
improve health outcomes.
 You want to give credibility to your research
team.
 You want your work to reach a broad audience.
 Your track record will improve.
 You will add credibility to your reputation.
 You will improve your chance of promotion.
 You are more likely to obtain research grants.
 Reference:
https://www.slideshare.net/shalinipandey77985/scie
ntific-writing-meaning-and-need
II. PARAPHRASING
Paraphrasing is using or putting in one’s own words to
restate the author’s ideas, and acknowledging the source
to give credit to the original author (de Belen, 2015)
Paraphrasing
 is used when we want to express someone else’s
idea in our own words.
 uses different words to express the same idea.
 is rewriting the text in order to simplify focusing
not only on what is said but also on how it is said.
 makes the understanding of the source text less
difficulty by breaking down the information into
manageable units.
Paraphrasing Techniques
Replace a word with a synonym.
 Paraphrasing can be longer or shorter than the
original. Concentrate on the meaning not on the
words.
 Verbs and adjectives have counterparts that are
interchangeable with the author’s original words.
 Not all synonyms have exact meanings (look at a
thesaurus and double check with a dictionary).
 Avoid using abstract words – they come as weak
words.
 Use of synonyms is a problem in scientific writing
because often there is only one word to describe
a certain action or object. It is better to keep the
important words and change the sentence
structure.
Six Steps to Effective Paraphrasing
1. Reread the original passage until you understand its
full meaning. You can’t paraphrase what you don’t
understand.
2. Set the original aside, and write your paraphrase on a
note card.
3. Jot down a few words below your paraphrase to
remind you later how you envision using this material. At
the top of the note card, write a key word or phrase to
indicate the subject of your paraphrase.
4. Check your version with the original to make sure that
your version accurately expresses all the essential
information in a new form.
5. Use quotation marks to identify any unique term or
phraseology you have borrowed exactly from the source.
6. Record the source (including the page) on your note
card so that you can credit it easily if you decide to
incorporate the material into your paper.
III. QUOTING
Taking the exact words from an original source is called
quoting. You should quote material when you believe the
way the original author expresses an idea is the most
effective means of communicating the point you want to
make. If you want to borrow an idea from an author, but
do not need his or her exact words, you should try
paraphrasing instead of quoting.
Quotations must…
 Be identical to the original
 Use a narrow segment of the source
 Match the source document word for word
 Be attributed to the original author
IV. SUMMARIZING
Summarizing is a way to include a large body of
information from a source in your essay without using
too many quotations. Your professor might want you to
summarize:
 An entire book, or a chapter/section of a book
 An essay
 Information from a textbook
 A movie or TV show
You might have an assignment that is entirely a
summary; you might just need to include a brief
summary as part of a larger analysis. Whether it is the
whole essay or just one small paragraph, knowing how to
summarize correctly is an important skill to have. 
Summarizing is more than retelling. You also need to
analyze information, sort essential elements from
nonessential elements, and turn large amounts
of information into a few short cohesive sentences. Here
are some steps you can take to help:
1. Review the information.
2. Identify the main idea - ask yourself why you
want to use the source for your argument
to figure out the main idea.
 Determine the crucial details necessary
for supporting the ideas.
 Leave out descriptive or extra
information.
 Identify main points from the text.
3. Write only enough to convey the gist. Imagine
you're writing a Twitter post or help wanted ad.
4. In the summary, you need the main idea in the
first sentence followed by the most important
information.
 Do not include your own ideas or any
wording from the original text.
Finally, you must still name the source of your WRITING BIBLIOGRAPHY/REFERENCES
information - either in the summary itself or as an in-text
citation in the correct style guide for your assignment.
SECTION

Summarizing: Three common reference/standard styles in citing related

 Involves putting the main idea(s) into your own literature:
words, including only the main points 1. APA
 Summaries must also be attributed to the source American Psychological Association style is used the social and
 Summaries are significantly shorter than the behavioral sciences.
original and give a broad overview of the source APA looks intimidating because the format contains publication
instructions such as a running head. However, there are
material
numerous templates available on the web, including on this
site, so the simple solution is to download one and write over
V. RESEARCH ETHICS it. If you want to learn how to format APA's particular margins,
see https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
Intellectual property (IP) refers to creations of the mind:
You should have a reference for every text citation. Sometimes,
inventions, literary and artistic works, and symbols, instructors ask for a bibliography of sources you thought of
names, images, and designs used in commerce. using while preparing your paper. However, the Reference List
Intellectual Property is divided into two categories:  at the end of your paper should contain only the sources you
1. Industrial property, which includes inventions actually used in your paper. They should be listed in
(patents), trademarks, industrial designs, and alphabetical order with hanging indent. Use the following
examples below to format your sources by type.
geographic indications of source
2. Copyright, which includes literary and artistic
works such as novels, poems and plays, films,
Boo
musical works, artistic works such as drawings, k: Author, A. A. (Year of
paintings, photographs and sculptures, and Prin publication). Title of work: Capital
architectural designs.  Rights related to copyright t letter      also for subtitle.
Ver Location: Publisher.
include those of performing artists in their sion
performances, producers of phonograms in their
recordings, and those of broadcasters in their De Huff, E. W. (n.d.). Taytay’s tales:
E- Traditional Pueblo  Indian      tales.
radio and television programs boo Retrieved from
k http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/d
World Intellectual Property Organization ehuff/taytay/taytay.html
http://www.wipo.int/about-ip/en/ (accessed 14 Mar 2011)
Cha Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year of
 
pter publication). Title of  chapter. In A.
PLAGIARISM in a A. Editor & B. B. Editor (Eds.), Title
Plagiarism includes both the theft or misappropriation of Boo of book (pages  of chapter). Location:
intellectual property and the substantial unattributed k Publisher.
textual copying of another's work. It does not include Jour
authorship or credit disputes. The theft or nal Author, A. A..  (Year of Publication). 
misappropriation of intellectual property includes the Artic Title of the article. Title of the
le Journal, Volume(Issue), Page number-Page
unauthorized use of ideas or unique methods obtained (prin Number.
by a privileged communication, such as a grant or t)
manuscript review.
Jour
https://royalsociety.org/journals/ethics-policies/plagiarism- nal
copyright-ip/ Artic Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author,
le C. C. (Year). Title of  article. Title of
Example: (onli Periodical, volume number(issue number),
ne pages.  http://dx.doi.org/xx.xxx/yyyyy
data
bas
e)

Jour
nal
Artic Barcelona to ban burqa in municipal
le buildings. (2010, June 14).    Retrieved
(no from http://gulfnews.com
auth
or)
Vide Smith, J. D. (Producer), & Smithee, A. F. Second Citation
o (Director). (2001). Really  big disaster
(mo movie [Motion picture]. United States: Their research points to one feasible solution to
vie) Paramount Pictures this epidemic: prevention (WHO, 2017). 

Vide References Page

o J Dean. (2008, May 7). When the self
(fro emerges: Is that me in the mirror?    [Web
m log comment]. Retrieved from
web http://www.spring.org.uk/the1sttransport
site)
Always spell out the corporation name for the full
citation. If no separate publisher can be found, the
document may be self-published by the organization;
put Author in place of the publisher name.

Songwriter, W. W. (Date of copyright).

 corporate author found online in APA
Mus Title of song [Recorded by  artist if
ical different from song writer]. On Title of  In-Text Citations: Authors (APA)
Sco album [Medium of  recording]. Location:  Organization as Author (APA)
re Label. (Recording date if different from  Reference List: Authors (APA)
copyright date).

Writer, W. W. (Writer), & Director, D. D. ALPHA ORDER

Sing (Director). (Date of  publication). Title
le of episode [Television series episode].
TV In P.  Producer (Producer), Series title.  Alphabetizing Rules
Epis City, state of origin: Studio or
ode  How to Alphabetize in Word
distributor.  Alphabetization in APA Style
Onli  Alphabetical Order With Different Articles by
 AuthorLastname F. Year. Title of post Same Author
ne
[Description of form]. Available    from
Post
http://www.xxxx.com/full/url/
ing: HANGING INDENT
Gen
eral

Gen  How do I create a hanging indent in Word

eral  Create a hanging indent
Onli  Title of post. (Year). Title of  How to make a hanging indent
ne website. Retrieved from                     About Hanging Indent
Post
http://www.xxxxxx.com/full/url/
No
Aut 2. MLA
hor The Modern Language Association (MLA) style is
typically used in the humanities.
Onli
ne Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of ***IMPORTANT NOTE: The MLA released its 8th
Mag publication). Title of      article. Title edition in 2016 but some professors still use the 7th
azin of Online Periodical, volume number(issue edition for their classes. The two editions are similar
e number if  available). Retrieved from 
but it's always a good idea to ask your professor which
Artic  http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/
guide they want you to use. The following instructions
le
are for the MLA 8th edition.
Cor
How MLA documents are setup:
pora
te Commission on Rehabilitation Counselor
auth Certification (2010). Code of professional                 Times New Roman
or ethics for rehabilitation counselors. Retrieved from   12 point font
foun http://www.crccertification.com/filebin/pdf/CRCCod  1-inch margins 
d eOfEthics.pdf  Double spaced
onli  Page number and last name in the top
ne right corner
 Heading: Your name, the professor's
name, the course, and the date
CORPORATE AUTHORS
In-text Citations ABOUT WORKS CITED
In APA style, you must spell out the full organization References in MLA style are at the end of the paper on a
title the first time you cite that source, but in following "Works Cited" page.
citations you can abbreviate the name. The core elements of works cited at the end of the
For example: paper are:
1. Author. Last Name, First Name. 
First Citation
2. Title. Books in italics, article titles in "quotation
Recently, its consumption has even been linked marks."
to cancer (World Health Organization [WHO], 3. Title of Container. This is the larger whole that
2017). contains the source (ex. website or journal
 containing an article, a book containing a chapter or style, the footnote or endnote begins with a superscript
section, an anthology name, etc.)  number.
4. Other contributors. Editors, translators, illustrators, The first note for each source should include all relevant
narrators, etc. information about the source: author’s full name, source
5. Version. Different editions, abridged versions, etc.   title, and facts of publication. If you cite the same source
6. Number. Journal issues are typically numbered (in again, the note need only include the surname of the
the citation, include both the volume and number author, a shortened form of the title, and page numbers.
of the journal if present). Check with your professor about using "Ibid." to refer to
7. Publisher. Book publishers are located on the title
the same source two or more times in a row.
page (Oxford UP, Penguin Press, etc.).
Examples:
8. Publication date.  27 Nov. 2017 (omit any
For books
information not given, such as month or day). 
9. Location. Page numbers, URLs, etc.   1. Firstname Lastname, Title of Book (Place of
Many times, a source will not have all of these elements. In publication: Publisher, Year of publication), page number.
this case, omit them from your citation.  For articles
    1. Susan Peck MacDonald, “The Erasure of
Language,” College Composition and Communication 58,
COMMON EXAMPLES no. 4 (2007): 619.
For online articles
Below are a few examples of some commonly used MLA 1. Barron YoungSmith, Green Room, Slate, February 4,
style citations. You should have a Works Cited entry for 2009, http://www.slate.com/id/2202431/.
every in-text citation in your paper. For web pages
Citing a book: 1. Firstname Lastname, “Title of Web Page,” Publishing
Eugenides, Jeffrey. The Marriage Plot. Fourth Estate, Organization or Name of Website in Italics, publication
2012.  date and/or access date if available, URL.
Citing an article from a website:
Nadis, Steve. "Breakthrough to the Stars." Discover, 12 AUTHOR-DATE
Dec. 2016, discovermagazine.com/2017/janfeb/100-
breakthrough-to-the-stars.  While many think of Chicago style with footnotes, the
Citing an academic journal:  particular version required here is Author and Date in
Hooker, Jessica. "The Hen Who end notes.
Sang: Swordbearing Women in Eastern European Any fact, figure, or idea that was not part of the writer’s
Fairytales." Folklore, vol. 101, no. 2, 1990, pp.178- original knowledge should have a citation (Johnson
184. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1260321. 2014). 
Citing a website or article with no author: In MLA,  The citation includes the author’s name and the
authors are not just individual persons. You may find a year of publication.
source with a corporate author. This could be an  The citation usually goes inside the ending
association, institution, government agency, or any kind punctuation. The writer should put the
of organization. In these cases, cite the group as the information into the writer’s own words, and
author.  information that is paraphrased should be cited
Smithsonian. "Fun Facts for Kids." The National Museum (Miller & Greer 2011).
of American History, americanhistory.si.edu/kids/fun-  If all of the material comes from the same
facts-kids. source, then the citation need only appear once
in the paragraph at the end of the last bit of
3. CHICAGO outside information.
 The period goes after the parenthesis: (Johnson,
NOTES-BIBLIOGRAPHY SYSTEM 2014).  
Sources that have an author and a date, whether an
In the Chicago's Notes-Bibliography System, the writer individual or an identifiable organization, are more
provides source information via numbered footnotes or credible than information that cannot be attributed to
endnotes. The writer may also add comments this way. anyone, even if the information is correct or compelling.
Include an endnote or footnote every time you refer to  If there is no author, then use a shortened title in
a source, not just in a quote. Footnotes are added at the quotes in the citation.
end of the page on which the source is referenced.  If there is no date of publication, then use:
Endnotes are listed at the end of each chapter or at the (author, n.d.). 
end of the entire document.  For web sources without a date, use the date you
Either way, a superscript number corresponding to a accessed it. Note how the citation now includes a
note with the bibliographic information for that source comma so that the abbreviation is not mistaken
should be placed in the text following the end of the as part of the author’s name.
sentence or clause in which the source is referenced. In If there is a quote, then the citation will be “outside of
the NB system, the footnote or endnote begins with the the quotation marks, inside the ending punctuation, and
number followed by a period and space. In Turabian
include a comma and the page number(s)” (Smith 2016, Web page with author and date
21-23).   
 Quotes are used sparingly to show an author’s Mister Jalopy. “Effulgence of the North: Storefront
particular viewpoint. Arctic Panorama in Los Angeles.” Dinosaurs and
Robots. Last modified January 30, 2009.
 If there are 2-3 authors for the citation, then the
http://www.dinosaursandrobots.com/2009/01/effulgenc
citation will include all names (Miller & Greer, e-of-north-storefront-arctic.html.
2011).  
 For four or more authors, include the last name Web page without author but with date
of the first author and et al.  
All sources that will be cited should be listed in the "Illinois Governor Wants to 'Fumigate' State's
References section of the paper as well.  All references Government.” CNN.com. Last modified  January 30,
should be listed in alphabetical order and have hanging 2009.
indents. http://edition.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/01/30/illinois.gov
ernor.quinn/.
https://libguides.sfasu.edu/aarc/formref/chicago/ad#/?
 
_k=nfojh9 Web page without author or date
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY “Band.” Casa de Calexico. Accessed January 30, 2009.
http://www.casadecalexico.com/band.
At the end of your paper, provide a list of all the sources
 
cited in it. Label the page “Bibliography” (for Notes and
Bibliography style) or “References” (for Author-Date https://libguides.sfasu.edu/aarc/formref/chicago/
style).
biblio#/?_k=v5zaqi
The bibliography provides an alphabetical list of all
sources used in a given work. This page, most often
titled Bibliography, is usually placed at the end of the
work preceding the index. It should include all sources
cited within the work and may, sometimes, include
other relevant sources that were not cited but provide
further reading.

Entries are in alphabetical order with a hanging indent.

If you have no author, then use the title. All entries in
the bibliography will include the author (or editor,
compiler, translator, etc.), title, and publication
information.

Common Formats:

Book with one author

Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher. A Midwife’s Tale: The Life of
Martha Ballard, Based on Her Diary, 1785-1812. New
York: Vintage Books, 1991.
Book by Multiple Authors
Lash, Scott, and John Urry. Economies of Signs &
Space. London: Sage Publications, 1994.
Book with Author and Editor
Tylor, Edward B. Researches into the Early
Development of Mankind and the Development of
Civilization, Edited by Paul Bohannan. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1964.
Journal article from a print edition
 
Perttula, Timothy K. “How Texas Historians Write about
the Pre-A.D. 1685 Caddo Peoples of Texas.”
Southwestern Historical Quarterly 115, no. 4 (April
2012): 364-76.
 
Journal article found online
 
Bent, Henry E. "Professionalization of the Ph.D.
Degree.” College Composition and Communication 58,
no. 4 (2007): 0-145. Accessed December 5, 2008.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1978286.