d-qp F E A T U R
Key Words: Electrical insulation, electrical and thermal stress, synergy, interaction
by
GJERDE
ANNECATHRINE
Norwegian Electric Power Research Institute (EFI)
T h e m a i n models for combined
t h er ma 1-e 1e c t rica 1 age ing ha ue a
c o m m o n origin in thermodynamics,
and several of t h e m o d e l s a y e
essentially t h e same.
INTRODUCTION
lectrical insulation may be subjected to several types of
E stress in practical applications [ 1,2]. Obviously, electrz-
cal stress comes into consideration. Cavities occurring
in bulk material or at electrode interfaces are one of the main
sources of problems for solid electrical insulation. Due to the
voltage of the system, the cavities will experience an electri-
cal field. If the electrical field inside any cavity exceeds a
critical field determined by the criteria for gaseous break-
down, partial discharges (PD) will be ignited. The discharges
cause material degradation and may eventually lead to the
complete breakdown of the insulation [3].Partial discharges
are not only a bulk phenomenon; they can also appear across
insulation surfaces [4]. Typically, interfaces between solid
insulation and surrounding gadatmosphere may give rise to
surface discharge activity. The difference in permittivity
causes field enhancement in the gas, and as explained for PD
in bulk material, this may lead to partial gaseous breakdown.
The result may be erosion, in addition to the creation of
conductive paths along the surface of the insulation. The
latter phenomenon is known as “tracking.” Another electri-
cal ageing mechanism is electrolysis [2]. Mobile ions stem-
ming either from moisture or from impurities must be
present in considerable number to achieve such an effect.
6 0883-7554l97/$10.000 1997
E A R T I C L E
The type of deterioration of the insulation will depend on
the chemistry of the particular case. Electrical ageing in
dielectrics may also be due to space charges [SI.The exist-
ence of field-enhancing defects in polymer insulation is a
necessary condition for dielectric ageing when no gaseous
cavities are present. Above a critical voltage charge, injection
by such defects becomes an appreciable effect [6].
Thermal stress is another important stress factor. Normal
load current in cables and transformers causes ohmic losses
in conductors. The heat generated must dissipate through
the surrounding insulation. Dielectrics are poor heat conduc-
tors, and temperature gradients may build up in the insula-
tion. Dielectric losses may also contribute to thermal
stressing of the insulation. As a result of thermal stress the
insulation material degrades [7]. The specific form of degra-
dation depends on the material. Important chemical degra-
dation reactions are oxidation and hydrolysis. Transient or
periodic temperature gradients may also induce mechanical
stresses.
Environmental stress may also be of importance [8].
Examples of environmental stress are radiation from the sun,
radiation in nuclear power plants, humidity, and the type and
pressure of the surrounding gas.
Mechanical stress must also be considered. The result of
different mechanical stresses, e.g., the bending of cables, the
vibration of machine insulation, or different thermal expan-
sion in heterogeneous systems, may be fissures in the bulk of
the insulation material or at interfaces between materials of
the insulation system [9].Consequently, partial discharges
may arise.
The action of the above-mentioned stress factors cause
ageing of insulation systems. Insulation systems that are
exposed to several stress factors may in addition to the ageing
produced by each factor experience ageing due to synergy
effects. Ageing h i t s the time-to-failure of the insulation
system. It is, therefore, essential to obtain models that can
describe the ageing process at different ageing conditions
[lo-131. The rate of ageing depends on the specific type or
combination of ageing factors. In this paper, the focus will
IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine
be on ageing caused by elevated temperature and electrical
Thermal Electrical
stress. The main models describing combined thermal-elec- 0 Oxidation 0 Partial Discharges
trical ageing will be reviewed. The models are compared to 0 Hydrolysis 0 Overvoltage
0 Tracking
emphasize differences and common features.

WHATIS AGEING?
Ageing is an irreversible deleterious change to the service-
ability of an insulation system [ 141. The nature of this change
may vary. The properties of an insulation system that are
influenced by ageing depend on the type of applied stress
and the kind of insulation material that is used. Stresses that
produce ageing are called ageing factors. The ageing factors
can be divided into four types: Electrical, thermal, mechani-
cal, and environmental (see Fig. 1).
Ageing caused by only one ageing factor is denoted single
factor ageing. Ageing resulting from several ageing factors,
either simultaneously or sequentially applied, is called mul-
tifactor ageing. In the lapse of time, ageing escalates so that
eventually the serviceability becomes so poor that failure
occurs. Most commonly, failure means breakdown of the
insulation. In this case, insulation life is determined by
measuring the time to breakdown. Doing this in “real-time”
would have been rather exhausting, given that most insula-
tion systems are expected to endure ageing for several dec-
ades before failure occurs. Instead, the ageing process is
accelerated in laboratory tests so that insulation life is se-
verely reduced. This is done usually by increasing the in-
tended design stress. When sufficient ageing data are
available, statistical aspects must be considered [15, 161.
From the results of accelerated ageing tests, insulation life at
service conditions can be estimated from appropriate ageing
models [17-211. Any extrapolation must, however, be per-
formed with prudence. Acceleration of the ageing process
may not be the only effect of increasing the stress level. It is
possible that other ageing processes become dominant at the
accelerated stress level or that the ageing process changes
non-linearly with increasing stress. Furthermore, it is not
likely that the ageing rate remains constant during the life of
a practical insulation system. The dominant ageing process
in the beginning of ageing may not be the same throughout
the insulation life. From this it may be reasoned that extrapo-
lation from accelerated stress levels to service stress is rather
hazardous. The best way to increase the reliability of time-
to-breakdown estimations is better knowledge of the chem-
istry and physics of fundamental ageing processes [22].
SINGLEFACTOR
AGEINGMODELS
ThermalAgeing Model
The rating of most electrical equipment depends upon the
thermal capability of its electrical insulation [23].This infor-
mation can only be supplied by ageing tests. The rate at which
chemical reactions proceed is given by the well-known Ar-
rhenius equation. Dakin adopted this relationship to describe
the thermal ageing of materials. According to Dakin, the
ageing rate is equal to the rate of the dominating ageing
Mechanical Environmental
0 Cracking 0 Gas, Acids
0 Tension 0 Pressure
0 Vibrations 0 Radiation
I
Fig. 1 Ageing factors
process. Time to breakdown L for an insulation system aged
at an absolute temperature T can then be obtained from the
inverse ageing rate:
L = Aeq( );
where A and B are constants to be determined experimentally
ELECTRICAL
AGEINGMODELS
Little is known about the nature of electrical ageing. Most
commonly the following ageing models are used for single
electrical ageing:
L = kE-” (2)
whch is the inverse power model, and
L = a exp(-bE) (3)
which is the exponential model. E is the electrical field strength, k,
n, a, and b are constants to be determined experimentally The
electrical ageing models describe ageing in any insulation system
that experiences an electrical field. It is not necessary to know the
exact type of ageing process that takes place, e.g., whether partial
discharges are present or not. The models do not depend on the
system structure, like the particular electrode configuration. Equa-
tions (2)and (3)are solely empirically deduced models. However,
the models have proved to fit reasonably well with experimental
data. At low stress values the linear shape of the inverse power
model (log-logplot) and the exponentd model (semi-logplot) may
no longer be valid [24]. Below a certain electrical field stress, ageing
may no longer take place. The existence of a lower threshold field
can be accounted for by dividingEquations (2)and (3)byE - Ethhu.
The Concepts of Synergy
If an insulation material is subjected to both elevated
temperature and an electrical field, then the result may be
that failure occurs much sooner than if the two stresses were
applied separately. The resulting ageing is not necessarily the
algebraic sum of the thermal ageing and the electrical ageing.
In most cases new failure mechanisms may be created when
several stresses are present. The synergy effects are due to
interactions between different ageing factors. There are two

January/February 1997 - Vol. 13, No. 1 7


I Direct Interaction
Factor 1
Fig. 2 The simultaneous presence of factor 1 and factor 2 gives rise to direct interaction
main types of interaction [25]:direct interaction and indirect
interaction.
Direct interaction is “interaction between simultaneous
applied factors of influence, which differs from that occur-
ring with sequentially applied factors of influence.”
Fig. 2 shows direct interaction schematically in case of an
insulation system exposed to two stress factors. Stress factors
that produce direct interaction are not necessarily ageing
factors. An example of direct interaction is oxidation. Both
oxygen and elevated temperature are needed at the same
time to give synergy effect.
Indirect interaction is “interaction between simultaneous
applied factors of influence, which remains essentially un-
changed when the factors are applied sequentially.”
Indirect interaction can only be brought about by ageing
factors. Fig. 3 gives a schematic view of indirect interaction.
Although the simultaneous action of ageing factors is not
prerequisite, the order of succeeding ageing factors is, of
course, decisive. Mechanical and electrical stress may cause
interaction. Voids created by the mechanical stress may give
rise to partial discharges. If the voids are formed only when
mechanical stress is present, the ageing would be caused by
direct interaction between mechanical and electrical stress.
Indirect interaction, however, occurs if the voids formed due
to the mechanical stress are permanent. The insulation sys-
tem may first be exposed to the void producing mechanical
stress, and subsequently to an electrical stress, or the two
ageing factors can be applied simultaneously. In both cases
the result will be additional ageing due to synergy effects,
namely, partial discharges.
The fact that stress factors may interact must be taken into
accouiit in the life models. There are several models to chose
from in order to describe combined thermal-electrical age-
ing. Most frequently the following models are referred to in
literature: Simoni’s models [28], Ramu’s model [27],Fallou’s
model [28], and Crine’s model [29]. It is interesting to
examine the approach of these models. How do they de-
scribe the interaction between an electrical field and elevated
temperature? The models given by Ramu, Fallou, and Simoni
are more or less empirical, while Crine’s model is intended
to be a physical model.
8 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine
Indirect Interaction
I
Fa r2
Factor 2
Succeeded
Fact BY tor 2
I I
Fig. 3 Indirect interaction: Ageing produced by factor 1 influences the ageing caused by
factor 2
ULTIFACTOR AGEINGMODELS
Simoni’s Model
Generally, ageing depends on a property p selected to
evaluate the ageing. Simoni denotes this dependency as the
ageing function F , see Equation (4).
Ageing = F ( p ) (4)
Ageing is a dimensionless quantity. The property p must
in some way be related to failure. That means that failure
occurs when p reaches a limiting value. The rate at which
the ageing function changes is the ageing rate R. Then the
ageing function, that is, the amount of ageing, can be derived
from the product of ageing rate and time:
If the ageing rate is constant in the stress range of interest,
then F ( p ) = Rt. The expression for R depends on the type of
ageing factors. When interactions are present the ageing rate
becomes complex.
As ageing proceeds the property p decays. Eventually the
value of p becomes so low that the insulation system is unable
to maintain its serviceability. At this point p has reached the
limiting value p L and failure occurs. At that moment, the
ageing time becomes the lifetime:
Simoni assumes that the amount of ageing at failure F ( ~ L )
is a characteristic parameter for an insulation system. In this
way insulation life and ageing rate become inversely propor-
tional quantities.
The ageing rate R must describe the thermal-electrical
ageng process. Simoni’s expression for the combined ageing
rate originates from thermodynamics [301:
R = A esp(
((xe-): a +$)[(E))
(7)
where f(E)is an unspecified function of the electrical field. Simoni’s
model is fashoned after this rate equation. The rate equation
expressesthe influence of an electrical field on a thermally activated
 h
I

106

I DT

Fig. 4 Simoni’s model: life surface for combinedthermal electrical ageing

1o3

process (thermal ageing). The exact form of this influence is,

however, not described. Simoni suggests that f ( E )= In

being a reference gradent below which no electrical ageing takes

I:[ - , Eo

place. Based on h s choice of f(E)Simoni has deduced a life model

for thermal-electrical ageing, here called Model 1,which is com-
patible with the inverse power model for electrical ageing, see 1
Equation (2). 18 50 100 200 500 “C
Model 1
Fig. 5 Simoni’s model: life lines at constant electrical stress

where LOis time-to-breakdown at room temperature and E = EO,

N = n - bA(l/T), n is a constant, and A ( l m = 1/T- TO. As an
alternative,Simoni has proposed that f(E) = E -EO. The life model
based on h s alternative,here denoted Model 2, is compatible with
the exponential model for electrical ageing, see Equation (3).
Simoni’s models are only valid for stress ranges where insulation
life can be described by linear relationships.
Model 2

(9) 1 103 lo6 h

Simoni’s Model 1 resembles a pure multiplication of the
expressions for single electrical and single thermal ageing,
Except for the expression for electrical ageing, the inverse
power model entering the life model has been modified. A
new term has been introduced in the exponent of the elec-
trical field. Synergy is expressed by the multiplication of the
single factor models and the “correction” term (E/E$A(l’q.
Equation (9) represents a surface in a three-dimensional
space with temperature, electrical field strength, and life as
coordinate axes (see Fig. 4).
The intersections with the planes of constant electrical
stress are straight lines (see Fig. 5 ) . An important feature of
Simoni’s model is its compatibility with the single factor
ageing models. When E equals the threshold field Eo the life
model becomes identical with the model for thermal ageing.
Hence, the straight line at Eo is denoted the thermal life line.
For electrical field strengths below the threshold field only
thermal ageing prevails.
Fig. 6 Simoni’s model: life lines at constant temperature
The intersections with the planes of constant temperature
are straight lines (see Fig. 6). The line at room temperature
is the electrical life line, equal to the inverse power model.
Simoni’s model as described above is a linear model.
Experimental results, however, do sometimes disagree with
linear models in the low-stress range. If the life line of an
insulation system tends to become horizontal at test stresses
close to service conditions, then the ageing of this particular
system is better described by the threshold model proposed
by Simoni and Montanari [21].
Ramu’s Model
Ramu’s model is obtained from a multiplication of classi-
cal single stress rates. The model accounts for synergy effects

January/February 1997 -Vol. 13, No. 1 9

by treating the constants of the inverse power law as tem-
perature dependent. Ramu’s model is given by Equation (10)
10000
r
0
I
c
.-
a,
L
_I

1000
same as that defined for Simoni‘s

models. Ramu’s model can be simplified:

200 -

100
-, 2 5 10
Electric Stress kV/pm 1000
where c and E are constants. In this case, only four constants have T k-’
to be evaluated. On logarithc form, Ramu’s model reads Fig. 7 Ramu’s model: data far epoxy-bonded mica tape [24]
InL(E,T)= c, -EA(l/T)-(q -n,A(l/T))lnE. Then, experi-
mentsperformed at constant temperatureshould yield straight lines
for time to breakdown versus electricalstress plotted on bi-logpaper
(see Fig. 7).The slope of the life lines is I nl - n A ( l / T )I decreasing
as temperature increases, while the intersection with the time-to-
breakdown axis is (c, - gd(l/T ) ) . 20
Similarly, with constant electrical stress, straight lines for
time to breakdown versus temperature should be obtained
(see Fig. 7). The lines have slope IB - n2 1nE I and intersect
the time-to-breakdown axis at (c1 - nl I&). 10
If a reference stress Eo is included in Equation (lo), and
the constant c is eliminated by putting L = LOfor E = Eo and
h

T = To, then Ramu’s model becomes identical with Simoni’s c

Y

5
Model 1. -J

Fallou’s Model
Fallou has proposed a semi-empirical ageing model based
on the exponential model for electrical ageing:
2
L = exp/A(E) + $1,
I )
Ez0
(12)
+
where A(E)= AI + A$, andB(E) = BI B2E must be determined
experimentally from time-to-breakdown curves at constant tem- 3.2 3.0 2.8 2.6
peratures. The model does not take into account the existence of 1000/T(K-’)
a threshold field for electrical ageing. After substitution of the
Fig. 8 Fallou’s model. Variations of characteristic time to breakdown with temperature
constants, Fallou’s model can be written
at different electrical stress for polypropylene-oil system [25]

with physical significance. Crine suggests that the ageing

where = exp A,.Plotting InL versus 1/T straight lines should
appear for each value of the applied electrical field (see Fig. 8).
Fallou’s model can be compared to Simoni’s Model 2,
Equation (9). Fallou’s model is basically equal to Simoni’s
Model 2.
Crine’s Model
The models so far discussed have mainly been of empirical
nature. Crine’s model, on the other hand, aspires to be a
thermodynamic model, thus featuring model parameters
process can be characterized by an energy barrier (see Fig.
9). The energy barrier separates the initial “good” insulation
from the final breakdown or failure state.
To surpass the energy barrier the system needs sufficient
energy. The probability of achieving enough energy is given
by Boltzman statistics. An external electrical field facilitates
the surpassing of the energy barrier. The electrical field
deforms the energy barrier, as depicted in Fig. 9. The barrier
height is reduced at one side of the barrier and increased by
the same amount on the other side.

10 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine

 A
P
C
w
,\ With Field
Distance
Fig. 9 Crine’s thermodynamic model
Crine proposes that the time to cross the energy barrier
is the lifetime of the insulation. It is at this point that Crine’s
approach becomes questionable. Crine says that the time for
a single passage of the energy barrier is equal to the mean
time of passage that can be described by thermodynamic
relations [3 11:
h being the Planck constant, KB the Boltzmann constant, AG is the
free energy of activation, h is the distance between A and B, and e
is the charge of the particle talung part in the ageing process. It
should be noted that if the electrical field is zero, Crine’s model is
not defined. Crine’s model is not compatible with single thermal
ageing as was the case for Simoni’s model. The parameters AG and
h are functions of temperature and remain unspecified by Crine.
On this background it can be said that Crine’s model has yet to be
developed in order to become a proper multifactor ageing model.
There are also other aspects of Crine’s approach that add to the
reluctance to use it [lI].
At high fields ehE > > ksT, and Crine’s model becomes
L = - exp
(4,hT) (AGi;”)
It can be seen from Equation (15) how synergy effects are
included in Crine’s model. The presence of an electrical field
lowers the energy barrier AG and thereby reduces the value
of L. The time-to-breakdown curve according to Equation
(15) should exhibit an exponential regime in the high field
region and a “tail” at low fields. In a semilog presentation
there will be a linear relation between time-to-breakdown
and E at high stresses. Fig. 10 shows the time-to-breakdown
curve of a XLPE cable [29].
COMPARISON
OF THE AGEING
MODELS
A great deal has been written about multifactor ageing
models. It is however important to note that several of the
JanuaryIFebruary 1997 -Vol. 13, No. 1
I ,
10-2 100 102 1o4
-
Time (Hours)
Fig. 10 Crine’s model: life curve of XLPE cable [29]
I Thermodvnamics
c
(14)
Fallou Ramu
Fig. 11 Comparison of the multifactor ageing models
models described in literature appreciably resemble each
other (see Fig. 11).
Ramu’s model and Fallou’s model can be represented by
Simoni’s model as already shown. Simoni’s model is distinct
from the other two in the way that Simoni gives a thorough
description of how the model has been established. In addi-
tion, Simoni exploits the life equation to give a graphical
(15)
portrayal that provides visual insight into the model.
Both Simoni’s model and Crine’s model are based on
relationships collected from thermodynamics [111.Thermo-
dynamics describe how a thermally activated process is
influenced by an external electrical field. The thermally
activated process may be a chemical reaction or it can be the
transport of an electrical charged particle. Neither Simoni
nor Crine has described what kind of process they believe
dominates the ageing process. Crine, however, moves one
step further than Simoni by assuming that it is a particle with
negative charge that takes part in the ageing process.
A major difference between Crine’s model and Simoni’s
model is how they relate life to the ageing rate. In Simoni’s
model life is inversely proportional to the ageing rate. Crine,
on the other hand, suggests that life is equal to the reciprocal
11
ageing rate. Generally, thermodynamics is based on prob-
ability considerations. The reaction rates give the mean
frequency of an event. Crine’s application of thermodynam-
ics to describe a single event (one passage of the energy
barrier) must therefore be considered quite unconventional.
Although thermodynamics is a common basis for both
Simoni’s model and Crine’s model, when it comes to inter-
preting combined thermal-electrical ageing, the empirical
adjustments performed by Simoni lead him to a different
conclusion than Crine. In Crine’s model synergy is expressed
by the deformation of the energy barrier, which accelerates
the thermally activated process. Simoni describes the influ-
ence of an electrical field in a similar manner. Still, Simoni
also includes another effect, namely, electrical ageing as
described by the single factor ageing models. Hence, while
Crine views thermal-electrical ageing as an acceleration of a
thermally activated process, Simoni describes it as accelera-
tion and electrical ageing taking place at the same time.
The selection of ageing models has been reduced by letting
Simoni’s model represent both Fallou’s model and Ramu’s
model. It is hoped this will facilitate choosing the proper
ageing model for different types of insulation systems. To
assess the validity of any model, its ability to fit experimental
data is essential. Comparison of ageing models by applying
them to experimental data can be found in the literature [11,
17, 211. As an example, the models by Simoni, Fallou, and
Crine have been applied to experimental data for polyethyle-
neterephtalate (PET)-films. It was shown that the best ap-
proximation of the experimental data was provided by
Simoni’s model [17] (see Fig. 12).
C ONc LUSI o NS
0 Ramu’s model can be represented by Sirnoni’s Model 1,
which agrees with the inverse power model for electrical
ageing.
0 Fallou’s model can be represented by Simoni’s Model 2,
which is compatible with the exponentialmodel for electrical
ageing.
Int
39 I 1986.
“1
45
Fig. 12 Life time surface of PET film according to Simoni’s model [I 71
12
In Simoni’s model, insulation life is inverselypropomonal to
the ageing rate, whle Crine’s model states that life is equal
to the reciprocal ageing rate. If one were to follow the
fundamentals of thermodynamictheory, it is more reasonable
that insulation life is reached after the energy barrier hasbeen
crossed a critical number of times and not only once. The
critical number of passages should be related to the sewice-
ability of the insulating system.
0 Thermodynamics gives a general description of how an
electrical field affects a thermally activated process. Crine
applies the same concept in his model.
0 Simoni’s model is obtained by multiplication of the life
models for singlethermal andsingleelectricalageingtogether
with a correction term. The origin of &s expression can,
however, be traced back to thermodynamics.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author thanks Professor Jarle Sletbak from the Nor-
wegian University of Science and Technology for helpful
advice during the preparation of this paper.
ANNE CATHRINE
GJERDE
received her M.Sc. (phys-
ics) and Ph.D. (hgh voltage engineering) degrees
from the Norwegian University of Science and
Technology (“NU) in 1987 and 1994, respec-
tively She has since 1987 been with the Norwe-
gian Electric Power Research Institute (EFI),
Department of Materials Technology During ths
period she has been working with the diagnosis
and ageing of different insulation systems. Dr. Gjzrde may be
reached at EFI, 7034 Trondheim, Norway Telephone: 73 59 72
00; E-mad: Anne. Gjerde@efi.sintef.no
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Erratum
The following corrects errors that appeared in Table I11 of “Research and Devel-
opment of Electrical Insulation of Superconducting Cables by Extruded Polymers” by
M. Kosaki in the SeptembedOctober 1996 issue of Electrical Insulation Magazine (p.
23, Vol. 12, No. 5).

I Table 111: AC Tree-Starting Voltage of Polymers I

AC Tree-Startino Vokige (Wrms)
77 K
LDPE 38.6
XLPE 35
EPR 29
WC (hard) 21.1 19.9

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