Ry 9 TMJN 0 U

COMPLETE SCIENCE NOTES 🌌
Topics
Matter 5
Materials 6
Cells 7
Processes 9
Systems 10
Adaptations 14
Reproduction 22
Environmental Interactions 28
Life Cycles 31
Heat 32
Energy 35
Forces 39
Electricity 43
Light 45
Magnets 48
Water and Changes of State 50
Man and the Environment 52
Definitions 57

Disclaimer: the information in this document is intended solely for the personal non-profit use of the user who accepts full
responsibility for its use. Distribution and/or selling this document is not allowed. While we have taken every precaution to
ensure the information here is current and accurate, errors may occur.
2
TIPS
REMEMBER TO BE CAREFUL AND READ QUESTIONS PROPERLY! ANSWER
THE QUESTION FIRST BEFORE ANSWERING AND MAKE SURE YOU FULLY
UNDERSTAND THE QUESTION BEFORE YOU ANSWER IT!! ALWAYS CHECK
EVERY SINGLE QUESTION AND COVER THE ANSWERS, THEN DO IT AGAIN
IN YOUR HEAD. HIGHLIGHTING AND ANNOTATING HELPS TOO.
For questions which involve a table of results or an experiment, you can use a
structure which includes…
ANSWER
Answer the question first, with a yes or no, or an A or a B, etc. when the
question requires you to do so. This should also include some information
from the question or the experiment such as, “Towel B had the smallest mass
at the end of the experiment”
Then insert the reasoning behind your answer which has to be backed by a
scientific topic such as reproduction.
You then sum up the entire answer by linking it to the initial answer by saying
something along the lines of “Hence, this is why Material Z is the best
conductor of electricity”
Note:
Be sure to use the correct comparison words. For example, if there are only
two set-ups then use “better” but if there are more than two set-ups, use
“best”.
Sample Answer:
Towel B is the most absorbent material. Towel B had the greatest change in
mass at the end of the experiment from 20g to 50g showing that it had
absorbed the most amount of water from the beaker. Hence, Towel B is the
most absorbent material.
3
Types of Questions
Aim
↬ To find out if/how/which independent variable affects the measured variable
Control Set Up
↬ The set-up is a control set-up to compare and confirm that any difference in
the dependent is solely due to the (DV)
Controlled Variable
↬ This prevents the (inferred factor) from affecting the (inferred DV), ensuring
that any difference in the (DV) is solely due to the (IV).
External factor (e.g. Experiment carried out in a dark room, layer

of oil added etc.)
↬ This prevents (inferred external factor doing_____), ensuring that any

difference in the results is solely due to the (DV).
4
Matter
↬ matter is anything that has mass
↬ mass is the measure of the amount of matter in an object
↬ when matter gains heat, it:
expands
occupies more space, becoming bigger
increases in volume
remains the same in mass
↬ when matter loses heat, it
contracts
occupies less space, becoming smaller
decreases in volume
remains the same in mass
Types of matter
Solids
↬ has a definite shape and will not change in shape unless a force is
applied
↬ has a definite volume
↬ cannot be compressed
Liquids
↬ does not have a definite shape and takes the shape of its container
↬ has a definite volume and cannot be compressed
↬ the water level is always parallel to the floor
Gases
↬ does not have a definite shape

↬ has no definite volume and can be compressed
↬ has definite mass meaning if you pump more air into a container, the
mass will increase
↬ will occupy all the available space in the container
Displacement
↬ occurs when matter occupies space previously occupied by another

type of matter
5
Materials
Properties
Strength
To be strong is to be able to withstand great amounts of force
Hardness
To be hard is to have the ability to withstand being scratched and indented
Flexibility
To be flexible is to be able to bend without breaking
Waterproof
To be waterproof is to not absorb water
Elasticity
To be elastic is to have the ability to return to the object’s original size/shape

after forces are applied to it
Durability
To be durable is to be able to remain its condition in spite of potential damage
Example questions
Q: State 2 properties needed for a plate
A: Rigid and waterproof.
Note: When answering questions regarding something that should not be flexible do
not answer saying flexibility and _____. This answer could also refer to the object
being flexible which is incorrect, so choose to say rigid instead.
6
Cells
A cell is the basic unit of life for all organisms
Parts and Functions
↪ Nucleus
↬ Contains genetic information (DNA)
↬ Controls all activities in the cell, such as
Cell division
Cell repair
↬ Most cells have a nucleus
↪ Cytoplasm
↬ The place where chemical reactions or cell activities take place
↬ Transports substances within the cell
↬ Present in all cells
↪ Cell membrane
↬ Selectively permeable
↬ Controls flow of substances in and out of the cell
↬ Present in all cells
↪ Cell wall (plant cells)
↬ Supports the plant and gives it a regular shape
↬ Prevents cell from bursting when too much water enters
↬ Not present in animal cells
↬ Fully permeable, meaning most substances will pass through
↪ Chloroplast
↬ Present in green leaves and stem cells
↬ Contains chlorophyll to trap light to make food via photosynthesis
↪ Vacuole* (do not need to learn now)
↬ Stores water for cell
Common Questions
7
Is Organism X (Euglena above) more like an animal cell or plant cell?
EITHER It is more like an animal cell, as it does not have a cell wall. All plant cells
have a cell wall and animal cells do not. Hence, Organism X is more like an animal
cell.
OR It is more like a plant cell because it has a chloroplast. Only plant cells have a
chloroplast. Hence, Organism X is more like a plant cell.
Q: When exposed to starch, the iodine solution turns dark blue and its original colour
is yellowish-brown. The Visking tube is a material similar to the cell membrane and
has properties similar to it as well. What happens after 30 minutes?
A: The iodine solution in the container remains yellow-ish brown and the mixture
inside the Visking tubing turns dark blue. This is because the Visking tubing is
selectively permeable, similar to the cell membrane. The Visking tubing only allowed
the iodine solution to enter it but not the mixture in the tubing to exit the tubing.
8
Processes
Photosynthesis
↬ needs sunlight, carbon dioxide and water

↬ produces oxygen and glucose (not starch)
↬ chlorophyll in chloroplasts in the leaf trap light to make food for the
plant through photosynthesis
↬ Helps the plant make food
During photosynthesis, the plant takes in carbon dioxide and water and converts
them to glucose and oxygen. It can only photosynthesise in the presence of sunlight.
Excessive glucose (interchangeable with sugar and food), is stored in fruits, storage
roots, or storage stems as starch. Starch can be tested for with iodine solution. DO
NOT say that photosynthesis produces starch, instead, it’s sugar or glucose.
Respiration
↬ the production of energy, occurring usually concurrently with gaseous

exchange
↬ the process is when oxygen is absorbed into the bloodstream while carbon
dioxide is expelled from it
Note: Not only animals can respire. In fact, plants, fungi and bacteria can too.
Well, every living organism does too!
9
Systems
A system is made up of two or more parts that function together.
All plants and animals have systems.
Plants have transportation systems while humans have respiratory, circulatory,
skeletal, muscular, digestive, urinary, nervous etc. systems.
Respiratory, Circulatory and Digestive Systems are commonly tested, though it is
possible that they will test muscular or skeletal systems.
Human System Parts Functions
Mouth ↬ Teeth chew food into smaller pieces,

increasing the surface area of food that
digestive juices can act on, digesting the
food faster
↬ Saliva is mixed with food to make the
food wet and soft so that it can be
swallowed easily and to break down some
food into simpler substances as saliva
contains digestive enzymes
Gullet/Oesophagus Transport food from the mouth to the

stomach
Stomach Breaks down food into simpler substances

with digestive enzymes in the stomach
Small intestine ↬C
ompletes digestion
↬B lood vessels around it absorb digested
food and nutrients into the bloodstream to
be transported to the rest of the body
Large intestine The location where water and other

substances are absorbed from undigested
food into the bloodstream
Rectum A temporary storage site for faeces
10
Nose ↬ Oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide is
expelled
↬ Hairs in the nose help trap unwanted
substances and filters air
Windpipe ↬ is a wide, hollow tube that connects the

nose to lungs
Lungs ↬ contain air sacs that increase the

exposed surface area of the blood vessels
to the air in the lungs, increasing the rate of
gaseous exchange in which oxygen is
absorbed into the bloodstream and carbon
dioxide is expelled
Diaphragm ↬ a thin layer of muscle that sits at the base

of the chest and separates the abdomen
from the chest.
↬ It contracts and flattens when you inhale.
When you exhale, the diaphragm relaxes.
Veins and Arteries ↬ Veins carry blood to the heart

↬ Veins carry waste materials like carbon
dioxide away from different parts of the
body to the lungs to be removed.
↬ Arteries carry blood from the heart to the
rest of the body
↬ Arteries transport oxygen, digested food,
nutrients and water to different parts of the
body to be used for respiration in the cells
Heart ↬ pumps blood around the body
11
Ribcage ↬ supports the body and gives it its shape
↬ protects delicate organs like the heart
and lungs
Skull ↬ forms the head of the human skeleton

↬ supports the structures of the face
↬ protects the brain from injury
Backbone ↬ the long stretch of bone which connects

the skull, ribcage and hip all together, as
well as other bones.
↬ protects the spinal cord, which is a nerve
and keeps the regular shape of your back.
time for your daily spine check! Take a moment to

remember to sit straight before moving on, or you
might get a hunchback :0
Inhalation Exhalation
Movement of ribs Upwards and outwards Inwards and downwards
Movement of diaphragm Contracts and moves down Relaxes and curves up
Size of chest cavity/ Increases Decreases

ribcage
Movement of air In Out
Note that the skeletal, muscular and respiratory all are involved in the process of
breathing in and out.
Q: Why does X’s heart beat faster when she plays tag?
A: So that her heart can pump oxygenated blood with digested food faster to the
different parts of the body to release energy faster to run during respiration. The
heart also pumps faster to transport deoxygenated blood to the lungs to remove
12
carbon dioxide and take in oxygen through gaseous exchange between the air in the
lungs and the bloodstream faster.
13
Adaptations
Adaptations allow animals to survive better in their natural habitat by allowing them
to:
↬ Obtain air, water, food and nutrients for survival
↬ Stay safe from predators
↬ Undergo reproduction
↬ Changes in surroundings
↬ Cope with physical conditions (e.g temperature, light intensity and availability
of water)
Adaptations can be split into two different groups, structural adaptations and
behavioural adaptations.
Structural adaptations are the specific physical characteristics which enable an

organism to increase its chances of survival. This can be things like one’s blood,
type of outer covering and size, and is represented in the tables with “[S]”
While behavioural adaptations are specific methods a living creature behaves in
order to increase its chances of survival. For example, by hibernating in winter. It is
represented in the tables as “[B]”

Staying warm in the cold
Adaptations Purpose Example(s)
Warmed-blooded [S] Enables animals to generate enough heat Mammals and

to keep themselves warm. They can also Birds
maintain a consistent body temperature
no matter the temperature of the
surroundings. Hence, warm-blooded
animals are able to stay warm and still be
active during the cold winters.
Thick fur or feathers There are many spaces in between the Arctic Fox,
[S] fur/feathers. They trap air, which is a poor Penguin
conductor of heat, close to the animal’s
skin, causing the rate of heat loss from its
body to surrounding air to decrease,
allowing it to keep more of its body heat
and stay warm.
Black skin [S] To absorb (not conduct!) more heat from Polar bear
the Sun to stay warm
Blubber [S] Blubber is essentially a thick layer of fat, Whale, Seal,

which is a poor conductor of heat. This Walrus, Sea Lion
then causes the rate of heat loss from the
14
animal’s body to the surrounding air to
decrease.
Small ears [S] Small ears naturally have a smaller Arctic Fox
exposed surface area of the animal’s ears
to the cold surroundings. With smaller
exposed surface area comes a lower rate
of heat loss from the animal’s body to the
surroundings.
FUN FACT: The ears are extremely

susceptible and vulnerable to the cold.
Having small ears could reduce the
chances of frostbite, which could
potentially cause the ears to fall off.
A layer of oil [S] Oil is immiscible with water. Hence, it Penguin

helps to repel and prevent cold water from
collecting on the skin of the animal.
Hence, the animal will not lose heat to the
water, keeping it warm
Antifreeze substance To prevent plant cells from freezing even Winter Rye
in plants [S] in winter
Antifreeze substance These substances are mostly made in

in animals [S] animals that have no other way to protect
themselves from freezing. Antifreeze does
exactly what its name implies, preventing
their cells from freezing.
Migrating [B] Animals migrate from cold places to Goose, Duck,

warmer places during winter to escape the Humpback whale,
cold and find food and water more easily Crane
Fluffing of feathers [B] Similar to having thick fur or feathers, this European robin,
action traps more air, which is a poor Blue jay
conductor, in the spaces between the
feathers. This helps to reduce the rate of
heat loss from its body to the cold
surroundings
Shivering [B] When shivering, your muscles actually Bees, Dragonflies

begin to contract and expand, creating
warmth for your body by expending
energy
Huddling together [B] By keeping close together, the animal has Emperor
a smaller surface area exposed to the Penguins,
15
surroundings. This, in turn, causes the Puppies
rate of heat loss from the animal’s body to
the surroundings to decrease as well. This
also allows them to share their body
warmth among one another.
Hibernating [B] When hibernating, animals become less Grizzly Bear,

active, life processes slow down and are Squirrel,
basically a state of inactivity. The animal is Hedgehogs, Bats
then able to save energy which is
produced from food, especially when there
is a lack of it in winter.
Staying cool in the summer
Adaptations Purpose Example(s)
Large ears [S] Large ears help to increase the exposed Fennec Fox,
surface area of the ears, increasing the Hares, Elephants
rate of heat loss from its body to the
surrounding air. Thus, this helps in
keeping the animal cool.
Hairs on feet [S] Similar to thick feathers and furs, the hairs Fennec Fox
trap air, which is a poor conductor of heat,
thus reducing heat gain by the feet from
the hot ground.
Long legs [S] The longer the legs, the further the main Camel
body is from the ground which has been
scorched by the sun. Hence, the animal is
able to stay cooler by reducing the amount
of heat gain via the legs.
Reflective coat [S] Since a reflective coat is unable to absorb Camel

heat, the animal stays cooler and is
protected from the warmth of the sun.
Bushy Tails [S] With that bushy tail, animals can use it as Kalahari ground
a sort of umbrella to shield it from the sun squirrels
and stay cool.
Behavioural Purpose Example(s)

Adaptation
Nocturnal (active at Since at night, the sun is no longer there Kit Fox, Coyote,
night) [B] to terrorise the animals with neverending Badger, Gopher
heat, only coming out at night is a smart
16
method to escape the warmest part of the
day.
Burrowing into the Many desert animals live in burrows or Kangaroo Rat,
sand/dirt [B] shelters underground where the soil is Golden Mole,
cool which help them to stay out of view of Gerbil
the sun and stay cool. This also gives
them a good hiding spot from predators.
Aestivation [B] Basically a process like hibernation except Jerboa,

done in warm areas to keep cool. This water-holding
allows the animals to conserve energy frogs, California
which can easily be lost when it is hot. red-legged frogs
Panting [B] Since some animals, unfortunately, do not Dogs, Cats and
have sweat glands, they relieve heat by even some desert
panting which helps to reduce their body birds!
temperature.
Spreading liquids on By spreading liquids such as urine, saliva Vulture, Red

the body [B] or the scarce water they find on their body, Kangaroo, Owl,
a process called evaporative cooling takes Elephants
place where the animal’s body loses heat
to the water, allowing the water to
evaporate and the animal to cool down at
the same time.

Adaptations of plants
Adaptation Purpose Examples
Tendrils/vines/thorns These plants tend to have weak stems Cucumber, Pumpkin,

that climb upwards [S] that are unable to support the rest of the Kiwifruit, Tomatoes,
plant by themselves and as such rely on Common Ivy
other objects/parts of the plant. By
spreading themselves out or reaching
Clasping roots that upwards, the leaves are able to be
climb upwards [S] exposed to more sunlight which helps
the plant absorb more light to undergo a
greater rate of photosynthesis. Hence,
Vines that creep along they are able to produce more food and
a flat surface [S] grow better. [Summary: to obtain more
light]
17
Large leaves [S] Large leaves increase the exposed Canna, Elephant’s Ear,
surface area of the chlorophyll in the Persian Ivy, Ginger Lily
leaves to the surroundings, allowing
them to trap more light, undergo a
greater rate of photosynthesis and
make more food to grow better.
Closing the stomata Since during the day there is more Plants in general,
during the day but sunlight, by closing their stomata, this especially in the desert
opening it at night [B] prevents water in the plant from
evaporating allowing the plant to have
more water to photosynthesise. While at
night, there is no light and is cool so
water in the plant will not evaporate. At
the same time, the plant can take this
chance to take in more carbon dioxide
for photosynthesis.
Hairs on leaves that The air in these plants are less dense Water Lettuce
trap air [S] than water and as such enable the plant
to float on water. Allowing them to trap
sunlight more easily to make more food
Swollen leaf stems and grow better. Water Hyacinth
that are filled with air
[S]
Large leaves that float This allows the plant to trap more light Water Lily, Lotus
on water [S] compared to fully submerged leaves to
photosynthesise more to make more
food.
Long roots or spread This increases the exposed surface Most plants
out roots [S] area of roots allowing the plant to
absorb more water via the roots.
Small leaves [S] Less exposed surface area of leaves Mimosa

reduce water loss through transpiration
Hairy leaf surfaces [S] The hair on the leaves reduces the Magnolia, Sycamore trees
exposed surface area of the leaves to
the surrounding, reducing the amount of
water loss from the stomata through
transpiration
18
Swollen stem [S] The stem is used to store water in Cactus
cases where there is scarce water
supply

Adaptations of animals
Adaptation Purpose Examples
Big eyes and night Since most of these animals hunt primarily Owl, Cat, Possum,
vision [S] at night, large eyes allow more light to Raccoon
enter the animals’ eyes making it easier for
them to make their way around in the dark
and catch their prey.
Good sense of hearing Instead of relying on their eyes, these Wolves, Owl, Bat
or smell [S] animals rely on their nose to sense their
prey.
Echolocation [S] Echolocation allows these animals to find Bat, Dolphin

their prey, their fellow species and also
obstructions in their way.
Nocturnal [S] Since there are fewer animals at night, Snakes, Scorpion, Bat
there is less competition between animals
for food. Furthermore, it is harder for their
prey to spot them at night.
Streamlined This allows the animals to cut through air Fishes and birds
bodies/shape [S] and water faster and easier to reach their
desired location sooner.
Fins and Tails [S] This helps the animal propel themselves Most fish
easier in water so they can travel faster.
Webbed feet [S] Ducks and frogs
Oar-like legs [S] Water boatman
19
Gills [S] Gills help fish to breathe in water as water Fish
enters the gills and the dissolved-oxygen
enters the gills and into the blood
circulating around the gills.
Air sacs [S] Air sacs help increase the exposed surface Mammals
area of our lungs to take in more air.
Moist skin [S] Moist skin allows some animals to breathe Some amphibians
through their skin when in water
Breathing tubes [S] These help bugs to take in oxygen whether Mosquito Larvae
directly from the surface or by storing air
Air bubbles [S] Water spiders
Blowholes [S] This allows mammals who are underwater Whales and dolphins
to take in oxygen
Produce own light [B] These fish produce their own light not only Pony fish and Flashlight
to allow themselves to see but also to fish
attract prey.
Wings [S] Flying Most birds, Bats
Hollow bones [S] This reduces the overall mass of the Birds such as Ostriches
animal so it requires less energy for the and Emus
animal to move or take flight.
Claws and sharp teeth This allows animals to catch and consume Carnivores like lions
[S] their prey easier by having a good grip on and wolves
the animal and also tearing up its flesh.
Camouflage/mimicry Camouflage refers to blending in with one’s Owl butterfly,

[B] surroundings while mimicry refers to chameleon
pretending to be something else other than
your actual identity. This allows both prey
and predators to hide from their predator
and prey respectively.
Types of camouflage/mimicry:
20
1. Eyespots which make the animal appear
larger than how it actually it
2. Having a similar colour to its
surroundings
Hunting in groups [B] This makes the animal appear more Lions, Killer whales
intimidating and also makes it easier to
catch their prey.
Staying in groups [B] This often helps to intimidate predators so Zebras, Deer
they are less likely to be eaten. This also
confuses the predator when having to
chase the prey as there are many to chase
after.
Long tubular beak [S] This beak can be used to stick into flowers Hummingbird
to drink nectar
Hooked beaks [S] This is used to crack open nuts and seeds Parrots, Eagles, Owls
for food but can also be used to tear flesh.

21
Reproduction
Animals
Parts of the female animal reproductive system and functions (from lowest to
highest):
↪ Vagina
↬ Where the baby comes out from during natural birth
↪ Uterus
↬ where the embryo usually develops
↪ Fallopian tubes/Oviduct
↬ where egg cell meets sperm
↬ where the egg cell is fertilised
↪ Ovaries
↬ where egg cells are stored

Fertilisation
↬ For fertilisation to occur, ovaries and fallopian tubes must be intact.
↬ Fertilisation requires the egg cell and the sperm cell’s respective nuclei to fuse
together. If either is not present, fertilisation will not occur.
↬ There are two types of fertilisation
Internal fertilisation is when the sperm and egg cell are contained in the
female organism’s body
External fertilisation is when sperm and egg cells are released into the
surroundings (usually water) to move freely and can be separated by
the water current. Only Amphibians and fish do this.
Developing
The organs involved are:
↬ Umbilical cord
Contain blood vessels that transport oxygen and digested food to the
foetus and remove carbon dioxide from the foetus’ body. It is
connected to the placenta
↬ Placenta
Is a flattened circular organ at the surface of the womb, that contains
nutritious substances for the foetus to grow healthily that are from the
mother’s body. It MUST be removed from the mother’s body during
birth or it will decompose in the womb, spreading bacteria, which would
cause death.
22
Water bags that contain the foetus, hence the phrase “my water broke”.
↬ FUN FACT: Mammals’ eggs are smaller than birds’ eggs because the egg of
a mammal continues to develop within the mother’s womb and obtains both
digested food and oxygen directly from the mother, whereas a bird’s egg is
larger to store the food needed to develop the chicks outside the mother’s
body.

23
Reproduction (Plants) 🌷
Plants reproduce to ensure the continuity of their species.
Plants produce flowers that:
↬ have either male or female parts (unisexual)

↬ have both female or male parts (bisexual)
↬ don’t need female/male parts. Examples include ginger. (asexual)
Part of flower Characteristics and functions
Anther ↬ found at the tip of the filament

↬ produces and store pollen grains
↬ each pollen grain contains male reproductive cell
Male Part ↬ releases many pollen grains to increase the
(Stamen) chances of a successful pollination
Filament ↬ the long stalk that holds the anther in a suitable

position to hold the pollen grains
Stigma ↬ found at the top of the style

↬ receives pollen grains
Style ↬ the long stalk that holds the stigma in a suitable

Female position to receive pollen grains
Part
(Pistil)
Ovary ↬ contains the ovule(s)
↬ develops into fruit after pollination and fertilisation
Ovule ↬ contains the female reproductive cell

↬ the site where fertilisation occurs
↬ develops into a seed after pollination and
fertilisation
Stages of reproduction in plants:

Pollination → Fertilisation → Seed Dispersal → Germination
24

Pollination
↬ Is the transfer of pollen grains of the same species from the ripe anther to the
stigma
↪ Self-pollination
↬ takes place within the same flower or flowers of the same plant
↪ Cross-pollination
↬ occurs between different flowers of different plants of the same species
Insect-pollinated Flowers Wind-pollinated flowers
Flowers are large, brightly-coloured and Flowers are smaller and scentless with
scented dull coloured petals
Nectar present Nectar absent
Stamens and stigma within petals, Stamens and stigma hang out of the
filaments not hanging loosely flower. Filaments are long and big and
hang loosely
Stigma is sticky so that pollen grains Stigma is larger with feathery branches
land and do not fall off for catching pollen grains. Not sticky at
all
Pollen grains are large and heavy with a Pollen grains are smaller, smoother and
rough and sticky surface for sticking to light, easily carried by the wind.
animals’ bodies.
25
Fertilisation
↬ the process in which the nucleus of the male reproductive cell fuses
with the nucleus of the female reproductive cell
↬ f the plant
takes place in the ovary o
↬ requires the stigma and the ovary (which contains ovule(s) and pollen
grain)
Part of flower Development after fertilisation
Petals
Anther
Wither and fall off
Filament
Stigma
Style
Ovule Develops into seed
Ovary Swells and becomes the fruit

Dispersal
Dispersal reduces the competition between the parent plant and the child
plant for water, light and mineral salts in the soil.
NOTE: For seed dispersal questions, only mention competition for air when
the plant is an aquatic plant and in that case, also remove the competition for
water.
Wind dispersal
↬ These plants’ seeds are light, have feathery hair-like structures and
wing-like structures to help them be carried over long distances
Splitting
↬ The seeds are stored inside ‘pods’ that become dry once the seeds are
ripe. Once the pods dry, the seeds automatically “explode” from the
inside and the seeds disperse around the parent plant.
Water dispersal
↬ The seeds of fruits that are dispersed by water are waterproof and
usually have fibrous husks to ensure that water cannot enter the fruit
26
and that it floats. Examples include coconut. They are found along the
coasts and banks of water bodies, downstream from the adult plant.
Animal dispersal
↬ The fruit has many hair-like / hook-like structures so that it can cling to
mammal’s fur. After the animal has moved a distance away, the fruit
drops off, hence they can travel further distances. Examples include
mimosa.
↬ The animal eats the fruit, and after a while, the seed passes out with its
undigested food a distance away. The seed is tiny so that the animal
would be able to swallow it and indigestible so that the animal cannot
digest it and will be passed out with the animal’s faeces, which also
serves as nutrients for the plant. These can also travel longer distances
from the adult plant
↬ Sometimes the fruit is relatively large and cannot be swallowed by the
animal and after the animal eats the fruit, it leaves the seed at the foot
of the tree or near it.
Germination 🌱
↬ The process in which a seed emerges from dormancy and starts to
develop into a young plant or seedling
↬ Moisture, oxygen and warmth are needed
↬ Light is not needed
↬ Roots emerge first before the seedling
NOTE: Boiled seeds are dead and cannot germinate. They will end up decomposing.
27
Environmental Interactions
Food Chains/Food Webs 🕸
Important: When drawing food chains, always use a ruler and pencil,
arrowheads pointing to the predator. Likewise with light drawings.
↬ food chains show the transfer of energy through an ecosystem

↬ food webs are formed by linking multiple food webs together
↬ all food chains and food webs begin with a food producer or basically
a self-sustaining plant
↬ primary consumers may be herbivores (plant-eaters) or omnivores
(plant and animal eaters)
↬ secondary consumers can be carnivores (meat-eaters) or omnivores
(plant and meat-eaters)
NOTE: Predators can only be animals that eat other animals and NOT
SOLELY PLANTS, meaning that herbivores cannot possibly be
predators. Plants can also not be prey.

Transfer of Energy
↬ the Sun is the main source of energy for all life on Earth
Ecological Balance
↬ The ecological balance of the ecosystem relies on consistent and

reasonable numbers of each consumer in the food chain.
↬ the population size of an organism can be affected by various factors
such as natural disasters or a growth in the number of predators
↬ An increase in the number of any organism in the food chain will
immediately cause a discrepancy in the ecological balance.
↪ Changes in population size of prey and predators
↬ when the population size of predator decreases, there will be fewer
predators to consume/feed on its prey, causing the population size of
its prey to increase
28
↬ when the population size of prey decreases, there will be less food for
its predators, causing the population size of the predator to decrease.
↬ when the population size of the prey decreases and the predator has
more than one food source, the predator will feed on the other food
source(s) to make up for the lack of this particular prey, causing the
population sizes of the other prey to decrease
↬ when the population size of the prey decreases and the predator only
has one food source, the predator will not have enough prey to feed on
and compete against each other for food, eventually dying of
starvation, so the population size of the predator will decrease
↬ when a new organism is added into the food chain/web, it will compete
with other organisms for food and cause the population size of the prey
to decrease as there are twice as many organisms feeding on it
↬ naturally, the population of the predator lags behind the prey because
digestion of prey and obtaining sufficient energy for reproduction takes
time.
Note that population size is the number of organisms (young + adults)

excluding e ggs.

Different types of relationships
Type of relationship Description Example
Producer-consumer* One organism eats and the other Grass ↬ Deer ↬ Lion
Predator-prey* gets eaten
Mutualism Both organisms benefit from the Plant pollinators obtain food
relationship from nectar while at the same
time the plant also gets
pollinated
Parasitism The parasite benefits from the Mosquitoes feed on the blood
relationship while the host is of humans and at the same
harmed. time transmit diseases to us
Competition Both organisms are harmed as they Woodpeckers and squirrels

compete for limited resources often compete for nesting
spaces
* try not to use these phrases during PSLE as it tends to be vague as to which
organism is the predator/prey, so you may be marked wrong. Instead, use ___ is the
predator of ____.
29

Decomposition
↬ The breaking down of dead matter into simple substances such as

mineral salts and nutrients
↬ Decomposition requires moisture, oxygen and warmth
↬ decomposition produces heat and carbon dioxide, besides the simple
substances
↬ Only fungi and bacteria are decomposers
↪ Importance of Decomposition
↬ Through decomposition, simpler substances like mineral salts and
nutrients are produced to be absorbed by plants for better growth and
also helps to enrich the soil
↬ Helps to prevent animal waste and dead matter from piling up
↪ Detritivores/Animals that feed on dead matter

↬ Examples include vultures and earthworms etc.
↬ Helps to increase the rate of decomposition by breaking up the dead
matter into smaller pieces, so there is more exposed surface area of
the dead matter exposed to the decomposers, increasing rate of
decomposition
↬ are NOT decomposers
↬ NOTE: make sure you write “breaking up” instead of breaking down
and “smaller pieces” instead of “simpler substances”
Example Question
Q: How does toasting bread help prevent the growth of mould on the bread?
A: Toasting the bread removes moisture from the bread, so there is no more water in
the bread which then removes one of the factors essential for the survival of the
mould: water. Hence, mould will no longer be able to survive on the bread.
Q: Vultures were observed to be feeding on a carcass of a zebra, explain how this

benefits decomposition.
A: Vultures help to break up the zebra carcass into smaller pieces, which increases
the exposed surface area of the carcass to decomposers, increasing the rate of
decomposition of the carcass. Hence, the carcass will decompose faster.
30
Life Cycles
A life cycle is a pattern that repeats the series of changes in an organism’s life from
birth to adulthood. All stages are related to one another.
↳ 3-stage life cycle

↬ Young of animal looks similar to adult (exceptions include frogs)
↬ Common stages are egg, nymph and adult
↬ Common examples are dragonfly and grasshoppers
↳ 4-stage life-cycle
↬ Metamorphosis occurs
↬ Young of animal looks different from adult
↬ Stages are egg, larva, pupa and adult
→ Egg stage
↣ After the period of incubation, it hatches to becomes a larva
→ Larval stage
↣ The animal is usually the most active during this stage

↣ It feeds and ingests a lot of food, allowing it to grow rapidly
→ Pupal stage
↣ Protects itself in a cocoon or a hard casing

↣ Complete transformation occurs of the animal’s appearance
occur
↣ No food is consumed at all and very little movement occurs
→ Adult stage
↣ The stage where reproduction occurs
↣ Last stage of the life cycle
↬ Common examples include: butterfly, beetle, mosquito
31
Heat 🔥
Difference between heat & temperature:
↬ heat is a form of energy

↬ temperature is a measurement of how hot an object or substance is
In our simple, P6 energy-conversion words, heat is a form of energy and travels from
a region of higher temperature to one of lower temperature until both are the same
temperature. It is NOT temperature.
(please note that in thermodynamics, heat and heat energy are two different things)
Properties of Heat:
the amount of heat energy an object has is dependent on its mass and temperature

Factors affecting heat transfer
↬ Good & poor conductors of heat

metals, in general, are good conductors of heat
most nonmetals are poor conductors of heat
when asked to state poor conductors of heat, styrofoam is the safest
option
↬ Surface area
the greater the exposed surface area, the greater the rate of heat
loss/gain
Effects of heat
↬ Changes in state
Solid to liquid (heat gain)
Liquid to gas (heat gain)
Gas to liquid (heat loss)
liquid to solid (heat loss)
↬ Expansion and contraction
expansion (gain heat)
contraction (heat loss)
32
Absorption of heat
↬ the colour of an object affects the amount of heat absorbed by the object
↬ darker the colour, the more heat is absorbed
***Absorption is different from conducting heat. Conducting is transferring the

heat away from the object but absorbing is for the object to be able to gain
more heat for itself.
Common Questions
Q: Chris poured steaming hot coffee into two cups, one metal cup and
another ceramic mug. Which coffee will reach room temperature first?
A: The coffee in the metal cup. Metal is a better conductor of heat than
ceramic and so it will conduct heat from the coffee to the surroundings faster
than the ceramic mug. Hence, the coffee in the metal cup will lose heat faster
and reach room temperature first. (Concept: Materials, Heat)
Q: Look at the fox named Sven in the picture below, his ears are small. How
does this help him survive in his cold environment?
A: Having small ears reduces the surface area of ears exposed to the
surroundings, so Sven loses less heat to the surroundings and stays warm in
its cold environment. (Concept: Adaptations, Heat)
Q: Kelly packed a tank with a cap not airtight full to the brim with Gatorade
However, Kelly left the tank under the hot sun. After 4 hours, she found that
some of the Gatorade in the tank had seeped out. Why was this so?
33
A: Gatorade in the tank gained heat from the sun and expanded to occupy
more space but since the tank was filled to the brim, there was no more space
in the tank to occupy. Hence, the Gatorade seeped out of the tank. (Concept:
Matter, Heat)
Q: Why does a thick glass cup crack when boiling water is poured into it?
A: There is an uneven expansion of the glass in the glass cup [when hot
water is poured into it]*. Glass is a poor conductor of heat and the inner layer
of glass in contact with the boiling water will conduct heat from the hot water
to the outer layer slowly, causing the inner layer to gain heat and expand
more quickly than the outer layer of glass.
NOTE: frequently remind yourself to write these “prepositional phrases” (i say

time prepositions because it resembles actual prepositional phrases but at the
same time is not a prepositional phrase). These indicate when something
happens. for example, adding “when he fell down” to “he scraped his knee”
tells you when he scraped his knee and how he scraped his knee. a “science
prepositional phrase” would be “when the ball rolled down the slope”.
Q: Why are telephone lines hung loosely from the poles?
A: Telephone lines are hung loosely to allow them to lose heat to the
surroundings in cold weather and contract to become shorter without
snapping.
Q: Why did a laundry line snap in winter?

A: The laundry line lost heat to the cooler surroundings in winter, causing it to
contract and become shorter. However, since the laundry line was not hung
loosely, it became too short and snapped.
34
Energy 🌞
↬ Cannot be created or destroyed
↬ Can be converted from one form to another or transferred to other objects
↬ NOT THE SAME AS FORCES
↬ Non-matter
Sources of Energy
↬ Renewable
The Sun
Wind
Water stored behind a dam
Biomass
Earth (Geothermal)
↬ Non-renewable
Fossil fuel
Nuclear fuel
Advantage Disadvantage
Sun ↬ Renewable source ↬ Solar panels are expensive (however

↬ Doesn’t cause pollution thankfully prices of solar panels are
decreasing as technology improves!)
↬ Energy can only be harnessed when the Sun
is present
↬ Requires a lot of space/surface area as solar
panels cannot be stacked on top of one
another
Water ↬ Renewable source ↬ Blocks light from reaching plants in water

↬ Doesn’t cause pollution bodies (and other consequences and
problems that arise from that such as less
oxygen being produced which may lead to
fish in those bodies of water dying)
↬ Requires a lot of space and is expensive
Wind ↬ Renewable source ↬ Energy can only be harnessed when wind is

↬ Doesn’t cause pollution present
↬ Requires space to harness sufficient energy
as they can’t block each other
↬ Large structures so they cannot be built in
countries where there is a lack of space like
Singapore
Fossil fuel ↬ Cheap ↬ Will eventually run out (non-renewable)

↬ Easy to use, transport and ↬ Releases carbon dioxide when burnt
distribute ↬ Contributes to global warming and air
pollution
35
Geothermal ↬ Renewable source ↬ Might cause surface issues such as
energy ↬ Doesn’t cause pollution earthquakes
↬ Expensive
↬ Location-specific (can only be used in certain
locations)
Biomass ↬ Renewable source ↬ Still causes some carbon emissions due to

energy ↬ Carbon neutral having to still burn trash
↬ Less expensive than fossil fuels
↬ Less garbage in landfills
Types of Energy (those tested, at least)
↬ Potential Energy
Gravitational potential energy
Chemical potential energy
Elastic potential energy
↬ Kinetic energy
↬ Heat energy
↬ Sound energy
↬ Light energy
↬ Electrical energy
Gravitational Potential Energy

↬ is the stored energy an object has due to its position above the ground
and only possessed by objects above ground/a surface
↬ the greater the mass of the object, the more gravitational potential
energy it has
↬ meaning if you had 2 prisms of equal height off the ground but one was
50g while the other was 20g, the 50g prism would have more
gravitational potential energy
↬ the greater the height of the object above the ground, the more
gravitational potential energy it possesses
↬ meaning that if you had 2 blocks both weighing 100g, block A that is
10cm from the ground would have a lower gravitational potential
energy than block B which is 5cm from the ground
Elastic Potential Energy

↬ the stored energy that an elastic object has when stretched or
compressed
↬ the greater the extent to which an elastic object is stretched or
compressed, the more elastic potential energy it possesses
↬ the thicker the elastic object, the more elastic potential energy it
possesses
36
↬ when more elastic objects are used, they have more overall elastic
potential energy when they are stretched or compressed.
↬ meaning, if you had 3 hair ties, if you stretched one of the hair ties with
a certain amount of force, it would be able to be stretched further than
if you were to stretch 2 hair ties at once with the same amount of force
↬ NOTE: elastic potential energy is the energy in a
stretched/compressed spring, whereas elastic spring force is the
force trying to return the spring to its original length (these are easily
confusable so please be careful)
Kinetic energy
↬ the energy that moving objects possess and only when an object is
moving, it can have kinetic energy
↬ the greater the speed of the object, the more kinetic energy it has
↬ meaning, if you were to compare an object that is travelling at 10km/h
versus an object that is travelling at 15km/h, the latter would have
greater kinetic energy
↬ the greater the mass of the object, the more kinetic energy it has
↬ meaning, if you had 2 cars of different models both travelling at 80km/h
and one of the cars was 100kg while the other was 150kg, the 150kg
car would have more kinetic energy
Common question: The classic dam question

Q: Would more, less or the same amount of electricity be produced when the dam is
situated higher?
A: More electricity would be generated. When the dam is situated higher up, the
water in the dam would possess a greater amount of gravitational potential energy,
which would be converted to more kinetic energy of the falling water when the dam is
released. Hence, more kinetic energy would be converted to more electrical energy.
NOTE: remember to put “of [what]” when writing about the kinetic energy of an
object and also make sure the [what] mentions a movement like a “moving car”! Also
take note of consistently using comparative terms in the answer.
Q: Julie turned the key of a musical box and observed the ballerina in the musical
box start to turn and dance. He then measured the time taken for the ballerina to
stop dancing. Why would the ballerina eventually stop dancing?
A: All kinetic energy of the dancing ballerina is converted to sound energy and heat
energy due to friction between the air and the dancing ballerina(air resistance),
leaving no kinetic energy of the ballerina left for movement, thus it stops dancing
after some time.
37
Q: Oscar places two blocks of equal size 20cm above a table. Block A weighs 100g
while Block B weighs 50g.
1) Which of the blocks has a greater amount of gravitational potential
energy?
2) Which of the blocks would reach the table faster?
A1: Block A has a greater amount of gravitational potential energy. It has a greater
mass than Block B and as such possesses more gravitational potential energy than
Block B.
A2: Block A would reach the table faster. This is because Block A has a greater
amount of gravitational potential energy which is converted to more kinetic energy of
the falling block. Hence, it would reach the ground faster.
38
Forces 🚗
Forces can
↬ move a stationary object

↬ stop a moving object in its tracks
↬ change the speed of a moving object
↬ change the direction of a moving object
↬ change the shape and size of a moving object
The standard unit of measurement for force is the newton (N).

A stationary object will remain stationary if
↬ there are no forces acting on the object (only applicable in space)

↬ the forces acting on the object balance each other out
Types of forces
↪ Non-contact forces
↬ A non-contact (or acting-at-a-distance) force exists when the objects
are not in contact/touching. For example, gravitational force and
magnetic force are non-contact forces.
↬ Magnetic force
↬ Gravitational Force
↪ Contact forces
↬ A contact force exists only when the objects are in physical contact
with each other/touching. Examples include frictional force and elastic
spring force.
↬ Frictional force
Air resistance
Water resistance
↬ Elastic spring force
Magnetic force
↬ is the force of attraction and repulsion exerted by a magnet

↬ can act on magnetic materials
↬ can act from a distance
↬ always the strongest at the poles of the magnet. (North and South)
↬ cannot p ass through magnetic materials but can pass through
non-magnetic materials (to a certain thickness).
↬ both magnetic forces of attraction and repulsion are useful
39

Gravitational force
↬ is the force of attraction that exists between two objects that have mass
↬ amount of gravitational force depends on the mass of objects and
distance between them
↬ weight is a measure of the amount of gravitational force acting on an
object and is not equivalent to the mass (weight basically is a force)
↬ Gravitational force is constant wherever you go on Earth (‘s surface)
and will change when you go to other planets/the moon
Weight (W) Mass (m)
Definition The measurement of the The amount of matter in

pull of gravity acting on an an object
object
Unit of measurement Newton (N) Kilogram (kg)/ Gram (g)
Measurement Measured using a spring Measured using a beam

balance balance
Dependence on the pull The greater the pull of Independent of the pull of
of gravity gravity acting on an gravity acting on an object
object, the greater the (does not affect)
object’s weight
**WHEN DRAWING GRAVITATIONAL FORCE LINES, START FROM THE

MIDDLE OF THE OBJECT OR THE BOTTOM AND GO DOWNWARDS AS IT IS A
PULL
Frictional force
↬ resists motion between two surfaces that are in contact with each
other
↬ acts in the direction opposite to motion and opposes motion
↬ is present only when motion is present*
↬ increases along with mass
↬ increases along with the angle of inclination
meaning, if you had an object that is on a slope of a hill that has
a steepness of n while another object is on a slope of a hill that
has a steepness of 2n. The object on the hill that has a
steepness of 2n would have a greater amount of friction
between it and the ground.
↬ the rougher the surface texture, the more friction
40
↬ contact surface area does not affect the amount of frictional force
meaning, if you take 2 objects of the same mass but with
different amounts of exposed surface area to the ground. The
two objects would have the same amount of frictional force
when moving at the same speed.
however, air and water resistance are affected by
surface area
Advantages of friction Disadvantages of friction
↬ allows us to grip onto items ↬ causes wear and tear, which is why
after some time, the soles of your shoes
↬ allows us to walk without slipping become thinner and thinner
↬ produces heat, which allows us to stay ↬ opposes motion and causes objects to
warm or produce fires slow down or come to a stop
↬ allows us to stop objects unnecessarily
↬ if we had no friction, we would not be ↬ can cause fires or cause things to

able to stop moving and not be able to overheat and break down
walk either!
*however, if an object is on a slope and it does not move downwards, friction is
present but it is equal/more than the gravitational force acting on the object
↪ Air resistance
↬ is the frictional force between the object and the air as the object falls
through the air
↬ an object experiencing air resistance will move slower through the air
↬ the greater the surface area of the object exposed to the air, the
greater the air resistance it encounters and the longer it takes to reach
the ground from a height
↬ can be reduced by having a streamlined shape, as streamlined shapes
reduce the drag, or resistance to motion through the air, by causing the
air around to move in definite patterns called streamlines
↪ Water resistance
↬ is the frictional force between the object and the water as the object
moves through the water
↬ slows the movement of the object in water
↬ the greater the surface area of the object exposed to the water, the
greater water resistance it encounters and the longer it takes to move
through the water
↬ can be reduced by having a streamlined shape, as streamlined shapes
reduce the surface area for water to act on
↪ Lubricants
↬ can help to reduce friction
41
↬ examples include oil and water, although water is quite a weak
lubricant and can sometimes achieve the opposite effect
↬ do not write lubricator
REMEMBER TO ALWAYS WRITE “FRICTIONAL FORCE BETWEEN ‘A’ AND ‘B’”

UNLESS IT IS WATER/AIR RESISTANCE
WHEN DRAWING ARROWS TO REPRESENT FRICTION, ENSURE THAT YOUR
LINE DOES NOT EXCEED THE LENGTH OF THE AREA IN CONTACT. IT
SHOULD ALSO BE GOING IN THE OPPOSITE WAY OF MOTION.
Example question:
Q: Why didn’t Julia’s viola make any sound when she did not apply rosin to her bow?
A: Rosin increases the amount of friction between the bow and the viola strings, thus
enabling the viola to produce sound. Hence, without rosin, there would be not
enough friction between the bow and strings to produce any sound.
Q: Why are there ridges on the soles of your shoe?

A: The ridges reduce the chances of you slipping and falling as the ridges increase
the roughness of the sole of your shoe, which in turn increases the frictional force
between your shoe and the ground. Hence, having ridges on the soles of your shoe
reduces the chances of slipping and protects you.
Q: How does often mopping up water in the bathroom help your safety?
A: It reduces the chances of us slipping. Water is a lubricant which can reduce the
amount of frictional force between the floor and our feet, so by mopping up the
water, the amount of frictional force between our feet and the floor increases,
reducing the chances of us slipping. Hence, keeping us safer and protecting us.
Elastic spring force
↬ is what causes a spring to return to its original length/shape when

stretched or compressed
↬ elastic spring force is only present in springs and objects that can be
stretched/compressed, not in others, for example, a rubber band vs.
metal plate. This is also true for elastic potential energy.
↬ extension/compression is proportional to force applied
↬ springs have an elastic limit; when overstretched they may not be able
to return to its original length and might break
do not substitute elastic spring force for elastic potential energy

or vice versa
42
Electricity ⚡
Sources of electricity
There are many sources of electricity from renewable to non-renewable sources (as
seen in the topic of energy). There are also objects like batteries that also produce
electrical energy when you are on the move.
NOTE: Batteries store chemical potential energy NOT electrical energy and is only
later converted to electrical energy
Conductors and Insulators
Conductors of electricity are materials that allow electricity to pass through them,
while insulators of electricity are materials that do not allow electricity to pass
through them.
Examples of conductors of electricity are copper and aluminium while examples of
conductors are most non-metals such as rubber or wood. However, do take note that
there are some exceptions such as potatoes and citrus (fruits like lemon or lime).
Conserving electricity helps to save money and save electricity which is overall more
beneficial to the environment!
Light bulbs in series Light bulbs in parallel
Advantage ↬ Brightness of each bulb remains

the same when more bulbs are
added to the circuit
↬ Other bulbs will stay lit even if one
Batteries will last a longer time bulb fuses (not including light bulbs
that are in the same series as
them)
↬ Switches can control each series of
light bulbs individually
Disadvantage ↬ The brightness of each bulb

decreases as more bulbs are
added to the circuit
↬ Bulbs are dimmer than ones in
parallel
Batteries will last a shorter time
↬ Break in circuit when one bulb
fuses and no other bulbs will
light up
↬ Bulbs in series cannot be
controlled individually
43
Batteries in series Batteries in parallel
Advantage ↬ Brightness of bulb increases as

each battery is added
↬ The bulb will remain lit for a longer
↬ Each individual bulb is brighter
period of time
than those in circuits with
batteries in parallel arrangements
Disadvantage ↬ Battery lasts shorter ↬ Brightness of bulb remains the

↬ Too much electricity will flow same as each battery is added
through the filament of each bulb ↬ Each individual bulb is dimmer
when too many batteries are than those in circuits with batteries
added, causing the bulb to fuse in series arrangements
44
Light 🌞
Properties of light
↬ light travels in a straight line

↬ light can be reflected
↬ light can be blocked by opaque or translucent objects/objects that allow
either no light or some light to pass through them
↬ when there is light, there are shadows
Shadows
↬ when there is light, there are shadows

↬ are formed when the path of light from the light source, travelling in a
straight line, is blocked by a translucent or opaque object which allows
some light or no light to pass through
↬ Shadows are fainter, not lighter. (lighter, in scientific terms, is
regarding the mass of an object)
↬ the material of the object blocking the light affects the clarity of the
shadow
Opaque materials: dark and distinct shadow
Translucent materials: fainter shadow
Transparent materials: technically no shadou
↬ SHADOWS CAN NEVER REACH 0CM WHEN A LIGHT SOURCE IS
AROUND (TAKE NOTE WHEN DRAWING LINE GRAPHS)
Moving the light source Moving the object Moving the screen
The greater the distance

The greater the distance between the object and the The greater the distance
between the object and the screen/The smaller the distance between the screen and the
light source, the smaller and between the object and the light light source/object, the bigger
clearer the shadow. source, the greater and fainter and fainter the shadow.
the shadow.
NOTE: when drawing light rays, use straight ruler and pencil, arrowheads must
be in the middle. I f drawing reflections to the eye, make sure it goes to the
pupil and specific parts of objects.
45
ALSO, be specific when writing about moving a light source or screen
somewhere else. Don’t write “move closer”. Instead, write “move to the right of
______” or “move closer to ______” or “move horizontally closer to ____”.
Example questions:
Kevin wanted to find out which type of paint (J, K, L and M) would be most suitable
to paint a signboard. He painted 4 identical wooden boards with different paints. He
measured the amount of light detected by a light sensor at different distances away
from the painted wood. He then repeated the experiment for each type of paint used.
The table below shows the data that he collected.
Type of paint Amount of light detected at different distances from the painted wood (lux)
1.2m 1.8m 2.4m
J 20 14 7
K 100 89 72
L 45 30 21
M 97 88 81
Q: Based on the data, which paint should Kevin choose for painting a signboard to
warn drivers of sharp turns along the road in the night? Explain your choice.
A: Paint M. Paint M is the most reflective as the sensor detected the most light from
the furthest distance and the average amount of light detected was the highest.
Hence M would reflect the most light reflected from the signboard from the furthest
distance into the driver’s eyes. The driver would then have the longest time to react
as he would be able to see the light reflected from the signboard most clearly from
the furthest distance.
Q1: A torch was held above a beaker of water from 3 different lakes with a light
sensor attached to the bottom of the beaker. The results are as shown below. What
is the purpose of having a light sensor reading for a set-up with no water?
Water source Light sensor reading (lux)
No water 225
Lake A 171
Lake B 84
Lake C 135
46
A: It acts as a control set-up to compare and confirm that any difference in the light
sensor reading is solely due to the presence of the different types of water.
Q2: In which lake will the least amount of animals be found?
A: Lake B. The light sensor reading for the water in Lake B was the lowest. This
indicates that the least light was able to pass through the water in Lake B and that
least light from the Sun will be able to pass through the water in Lake B to reach the
leaves of the submerged plants. Least light will be trapped by the chlorophyll in the
leaves and the rate of photosynthesis in submerged plants in Lake B will be the
lowest. The least amount of oxygen for the respiration of aquatic organisms will be
produced and hence the least amount of animals will be found in Lake B.
47
Magnets 🧲
Magnetic materials (ferromagnetic)
↬ Iron
↬ Nickel
↬ Cobalt
↬ Other ferromagnetic materials include lodestone, gadolinium and dysprosium,
but avoid using these during psle
Note that unlike for electricity, there are only a few magnetic materials.
Properties of magnets
↬ magnets exert magnetic force on other magnets and magnetic

materials
↬ magnetic force can be a push (repulsion) or pull (attraction)
↬ magnetic materials are always attracted to magnets, never repelled, so
if two things repel they have to be magnets
↬ non-magnetic materials are not and never will be attracted to magnets
↬ magnetic force cannot act on a magnet/magnetic material through a
sheet magnetic material, but it’s perfectly fine through a sheet of
non-magnetic material, provided it’s thin enough
↬ magnets have two poles, north and south
↬ note that ring magnets’ poles are top and bottom
↬ like poles repel and unlike poles attract
↬ magnetic north and geographic north/true north are completely different
things, so don’t write true north in your answer
↬ also, magnetic north SHIFTS
↬ can be demagnetised by dropping, hammering, heating over a flame,
etc.
↬ magnets form more magnets when broken
↪ Temporary Magnets
↬ are made of magnetic materials like iron, steel etc.
↬ can be made by stroking a magnet over a bar or whatever made of the
magnetic material in one direction
↬ the polarity of the temporary magnet depends of the pole of the magnet
in contact with the rod first
in single-touch stroking, in which only one magnet is used to
stroke and it’s done in one direction only, the first end that the
magnet touches will take the alignment of the pole that touches
it
for example, if i’m stroking with the south pole of the magnet and
i touch one end of the rod, that end will become the south pole
of the new, temporary magnet.
in double-touch stroking, the same property applies. if i touch
the middle of the rod with the south pole of one magnet and the
48
middle of the rod with the north pole of one magnet, the ends
are going to be north on the side closer to the first magnet and
south on the side closer to the second magnet
don’t do the double-touch stroking with two s outh poles or two
north poles…
↬ can be electromagnets, which are made by putting a rod made of a
magnetic material in a circuit and coiling wire around it
↬ when electricity passes through the wire (NOT THE ROD), the rod is
magnetised and becomes an electromagnet
49
Water and changes of state
Melting, Evaporation, Boiling 🔥
ice → water → water vapour (gain heat)
↬ Evaporation happens only at the surface of the water

↬ Evaporation happens all the time, at any temperature unlike boiling
vs.
↬ Boiling only occurs at 100 degrees celsius

↬ Boiling happens throughout the water
↬ The melting point for pure water is 0 degrees celsius, although
impurities will alter it
↬ When ice is melting, temperature stays at 0°
↬ (or whatever the melting point is)
↬ Boiling point is 100 degrees celsius for water, although impurities will
alter it
↬ When a liquid is boiling, temperature stays constant at boiling point
NOTE: the “mist” you see is NOT steam; it is CONDENSED WATER VAPOUR
Condensation, Freezing 🍹
↬ water vapour → water droplets → ice (lose heat)
↬ For condensation questions, remember that the warmer water vapour in the
surroundings come into contact and lose enough h eat to the cooler ______
and condense to form water droplets.
↬ salt lowers the freezing point of water and the melting point of ice
↬ Note that for condensation, state whether the water droplets are formed on
the outer or inner layers
↬ When water freezes, the volume increases

Example questions
Q: Why did Jane’s hotdog bread get soggy when she left it in her lunchbox?
A: The air in the lunchbox gained heat from the warmer hotdog bread. Since there
were no holes in her lunchbox for the heated water vapour to escape, they lost heat
to the cooler inner surface of her lunchbox cover and condensed to form tiny water
droplets. These water droplets dripped onto the bread, thus making the bread soggy.
Q: Ms Chong poured 420ml of ice-cold water into an 60g beaker and placed it on a
weighing machine. She recorded the mass every hour. She found that the mass
increased slightly in the first hour but decreased after the first hour, to the 13th hour,
where it remained constant after.
50
1. What caused the increase in mass during the first hour as shown in the graph
above?
2. If the set-up was placed in a sealed box with dry air, how would this affect the
results?
A1: The warmer water vapour in the surrounding air lost enough heat to the outer
surface of the cold cup and condensed to form water droplets. With more water,
which has mass, the mass increased.
A2: Initially the mass remains constant but after a while, the decrease in mass of the
water is faster.
Q: Sophie heated a flask containing 160ml of water over a flame. She placed a metal
plate over the mouth of the flask and the water droplets that condensed on the metal
plate were collected in a measuring cylinder. The heating was discontinued when the
flask became dry/there was no more water in the flask. Sophie measured the amount
of water collected in the measuring cylinder and found out that it is less than 100 ml.
Explain this observation.
A: Some of the hot water vapour, which was formed after the water in the flask
gained heat and evaporated, escaped into the surroundings before being able to
condense while some of the hot water vapour condensed on the cooler surrounding
air. Hence, less water vapour was able to lose enough heat to the metal plate to
condense to form water droplets.
DON’T BE VAGUE AND DON’T WRITE “IT”. BE CLEAR ABOUT WHAT YOU’RE
REFERRING TO.
FOR EXAMPLE, DON’T WRITE “THE WATER GAINED HEAT AND
EVAPORATED. IT THEN LOST HEAT.” INSTEAD, WRITE “THE WATER GAINED
HEAT FROM (WHERE) AND EVAPORATED TO FORM WARM WATER VAPOUR.
THE WARM WATER VAPOUR THEN LOST HEAT TO (WHERE) AND
CONDENSED TO FORM WATER DROPLETS [WHICH (DID SOMETHING)].”
51
Man and the Environment 🐷
Negative Impacts
↬ Depletion of natural resources

Increasing world population has led to an increase in demand
for natural resources, like non-renewable resources
Renewable resources can be replaced, but man is using them at
a faster rate than they can be replaced naturally
↬ Deforestation
↬ Pollution
Greenhouse Effect
↬ Greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane, etc.) in the atmosphere

trap heat from the Sun on Earth’s surface, keeping the earth warm
enough for living things to survive on. An increase in the greenhouse
effect causes more heat to be trapped on the surface of the Earth,
causing a rise in average temperatures across the world. This is known
as global warming.
Deforestation
↬ Effects
loss of habitat for certain animals and reduced biodiversity
less trees to take in CO2 and produce oxygen
soil erosion (water pollution somewhat because eutrophication
occurs, which is when a river is filled with a lot of nutrients,
causing dense plant growth and depletion of dissolved oxygen
and carbon dioxide in the water)
Causes Effects
Loss of topsoil ⋅ Leads to desertification when

⋅ Without the layer formed from the the most fertile topsoil is
remains of dead organisms, in washed off by rain or blown
topsoil to soak up and hold water in away by the wind, causing the
the soil, helping to bind the soil land to become barren
Soil erosion together, the chance of soil erosion ⋅ Increases the risk of landslides
increases ⋅ Soil may be washed into water
bodies (eutrophication). This
blocks light from reaching
submerged plants, resulting in
the plant receiving insufficient
light for photosynthesis and
52
Loss of trees making less food and less
⋅ Without the roots of trees to help oxygen for respiration. It can
bind the soil, the chances of soil also result in water pollution
erosion increases and cause the death of aquatic
⋅ There are no leaves to form a
canopy over the soil and shield it
from the full brunt of heavy rains ⋅
urchins 🐡🦐
organisms like fish and sea
Water body becomes shallower

and strong winds, so the chances as soil particles fill the bottom
of soil erosion increases of the water body.
More greenhouse gases in the ⋅ The rise in global temperatures

atmosphere causes polar ice caps to melt
⋅ There are fewer trees to take in and ocean waters to gain more
carbon dioxide during heat and expand more. This
photosynthesis. Hence, the amount raises sea levels and results in
of carbon dioxide in the air floods in low-lying coastal areas
increases ⋅ Note that expansion is the main
⋅ The burning of fossil fuels in cause of sea levels rising, not
factories and power stations melting ice caps.
release greenhouse gases, ⋅ Another effect is the extinction
increasing the amount of of temperature sensitive
greenhouse gases in the wildlife, like corals
atmosphere ⋅ Results in extreme weather
⋅ An increase in the amount of changes and increased/harsher
Global
carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, natural disasters
warming
in the atmosphere traps more heat
from the Sun within Earth and on its
surface. Little heat actually is
allowed to escape and most are
herded back into Earth like sheep.
This causes an increase in the
greenhouse effect that leads to a
rise in average temperatures
across the world, resulting in global
warming.
⋅ ozone layer depletion isn’t a cause
of global warming!! ozone layers
result in ultraviolet (harmful to
humans) light reaching us.
Less water vapour in the atmosphere ⋅ Leads to drought

⋅ With fewer trees to release water ⋅ Leads to the extinction of plant
vapour during transpiration, less and animals species that are
water vapour will condense to form unable to cope with the smaller
Disrupted
less water droplets, causing less amount of water available for
rainfall
clouds to be formed survival
⋅ With less cloud, there will be less
rainfall returning back to Earth’s
surface, decreasing our supply of
53
potable water
Reduced Destruction or loss of the natural habitats Extinction of certain plant/animal

biodiversity of wildlife species (Baiji white dolphin, dodo bird
etc)

Pollution
Cause Effects Reduction and/or

prevention methods
Air pollution Acid rain ⋅ Basically do the

⋅ Burning of fuels in ⋅ Acidic gases, such as sulfur dioxide opposite of the listed
factories, power and nitrogen, dissolve in rainwater causes of air
stations and motor to form acid clouds which eventually pollution
vehicles call to Earth as acid rain ⋅ reduce deforestation
⋅ Clearing of forests ⋅ Corrodes buildings and status & refrain from
through burning ⋅ Causes soil to become too acidic for burning trash or if
⋅ Burning trash plants to survive you have to burn
⋅ Smoking ⋅ Causes water to become too acidic trash, then burn it in
⋅ Release of CFCs for aquatic organisms to survive a building that
in the atmosphere purifies the air
Health problems ⋅ Get ACs that don’t
⋅ Excessive dust and smoke in the air have CFCs
damages lungs, irritates our eyes
and may cause breathing difficulties
⋅ Toxic fumes from the burning of
plastics can cause cancer
Ozone layer depletion

⋅ CFCs deplete the ozone layer and
increase Earth’s exposure to
harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays from
the sun which can cause sunburn,
eye problems and skin cancer
Water pollution Health problems - Prevent rubbish and

- Dumping of - An outbreak of diseases such as wastewater from
untreated sewage, cholera caused by bacteria in getting into water
waste or litter into untreated sewage (people in less bodies (especially in
bodies (which are fortunate countries drink water the case of
decomposed by directly from their nearest water factories)
bacteria) bodies) - Treat wastewater
- Oil spills - Poisoning of humans and organisms - Reduce the use of
- Soil erosion due to across food chains due to the fertilisers and
deforestation ingestion of toxic waste such as oil chemical nutrients in
causing and mercury locations near water
contamination of bodies
water by fertilisers Destruction of Aquatic Life - Throw away trash
54
and chemical - Bacteria in sewage compete with responsibly
nutrients aquatic organisms for dissolved
oxygen for respiration
- Oil on the feathers of birds reduces
their ability to fly, stay buoyant and
stay warm
- Marine wildlife may mistake plastic
for food
- Wildlife may become entangled in
trash
Eutrophication
- Excess fertiliser seeps into water
bodies nearby causing the rapid
growth of algae
- More oxygen used by algae for
respiration and submerged plants
cannot receive enough light for
photosynthesis
- Increased death and decomposition
of aquatic animals further reduce
levels of dissolved oxygen
Land pollution Health problems - Reduce the use of

- Indiscriminate - Rubbish contains harmful germs herbicides and
dumping of which can cause diseases pesticides
rubbish - Food waste attracts pests which are - Use natural
- Littering also disease-carrying predators of pests
- Excessive use of - Rubbish should be
herbicides & Environmental problems disposed of in the
pesticides - Non-biodegradable rubbish cannot proper places
(biomagnification) be broken down by decomposers - Recycle, reuse and
easily reduce the use of
- Non-biodegradable rubbish non-biodegradable
accumulates in landfills waste
Food chain
- Insects consume these herbicides &
pesticides but only in low quantities
so when a larger animal eats
multiple insects, these poisons
accumulate affecting the balance in
the ecosystem
Noise pollution Health problems - Turn down the

- Road traffic - Disturbs rest and causes stress volume of
- Use of - Prolonged exposure to noises may audio-visual
construction cause deafness and mental equipment
equipment disorders - People who work in
- Factories industries such as
55
- Loudspeakers Environmental problems construction should
- Causes stress and incites animals wear adequate
to leave habitats noise protection like
- Animals which communicate or earplugs or earmuffs
navigate through sonar (whales &
dolphins) can be adversely affected
Man’s positive effect
↬ Conservation
Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
↬ Remediation
Reforestation
Bioremediation
56
Definitions
Temperature
Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold something is.
(Note that it isn’t heat energy, because two objects can have the same
temperature but have different amounts of heat energy due to different masses and
no matter what, DO NOT WRITE COLDNESS! There is no such thing)
Pollination
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the ripe anther to the
stigma.
Fertilisation
Fertilisation is when the nucleus of the female cell (egg cell) fuses with
the nucleus of the male cell (pollen grain or sperm etc.) (to form a
zygote).
Germination
Germination is the development of a plant from a seed or spore under

warm and moist conditions with oxygen.
Gravity
Gravity, or gravitational force, is the force of attraction that exists

between any two objects that have mass.
Friction
Friction is the force that opposes motion between two surfaces in

contact with each other.
Photosynthesis
The process by which carbon dioxide and water are synthesized to

produce glucose and oxygen in the presence of sunlight and
chlorophyll.
57
Decomposition
The process of breaking down dead matter into simpler substances

such as mineral salts and water to be returned to the soil for healthier
growth of plants.
Heat
The flow of energy from a warmer object to a cooler object.
58

Ry 9 TMJN 0 U

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Ry 9 TMJN 0 U

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ry 9 TMJN 0 U

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

C​OMPLETE SCIENCE NOTES 🌌

↬ To find out if/how/which independent variable affects the measured variable

Control Set Up

External factor (e.g. Experiment carried out in a dark room, layer

↬ This prevents (inferred external factor doing_____), ensuring that any

↬ does not have a definite shape

↬ occurs when matter occupies space previously occupied by another

To be hard is to have the ability to withstand being scratched and indented

To be elastic is to have the ability to return to the object’s original size/shape

Parts and Functions

↬ needs sunlight, carbon dioxide and water

↬ the production of energy, occurring usually concurrently with gaseous

Human System Parts Functions

Mouth ↬​ Teeth chew food into smaller pieces,

Gullet/Oesophagus Transport food from the mouth to the

Stomach Breaks down food into simpler substances

Large intestine The location where water and other

Rectum A temporary storage site for faeces

Windpipe ↬ ​is a wide, hollow tube that connects the

Lungs ↬ c​ontain air sacs that increase the

Diaphragm ↬​ a thin layer of ​muscle​ that sits at the base

Veins and Arteries ↬ Veins carry blood to the heart

Heart ↬ pumps blood around the body

Skull ↬​ forms the head of the human skeleton

Backbone ↬ the​ long stretch of bone which connects

time for your daily spine check! Take a moment to

Movement of ribs Upwards and outwards Inwards and downwards

Movement of diaphragm Contracts and moves down Relaxes and curves up

Size of chest cavity/ Increases Decreases

Movement of air In Out

Structural adaptations ​are the ​specific physical characteristics​ which enable an

Adaptations Purpose Example(s)

Warmed-blooded [S] Enables animals to generate enough heat Mammals and

Blubber [S] Blubber is essentially a thick layer of fat, Whale, Seal,

FUN FACT: ​The ears are extremely

A layer of oil [S] Oil is immiscible with water. Hence, it Penguin

Antifreeze substance These substances are mostly made in

Migrating [B] Animals migrate from cold places to Goose, Duck,

Shivering [B] When shivering, your muscles actually Bees, Dragonflies

Hibernating [B] When hibernating, animals become less Grizzly Bear,

Staying cool in the summer

Adaptations Purpose Example(s)

Reflective coat [S] Since a reflective coat is unable to absorb Camel

Behavioural Purpose Example(s)

Aestivation [B] Basically a process like hibernation except Jerboa,

Spreading liquids on By spreading liquids such as urine, saliva Vulture, Red

Tendrils/vines/thorns These plants tend to have weak stems Cucumber, Pumpkin,

Small leaves [S] Less exposed surface area of leaves Mimosa

Echolocation [S] Echolocation allows these animals to find Bat, Dolphin

Webbed feet [S] Ducks and frogs

Oar-like legs [S] Water boatman

Air bubbles [S] Water spiders

Wings [S] Flying Most birds, Bats

Camouflage/mimicry Camouflage refers to blending in with one’s Owl butterfly,

Plants produce flowers that:

↬ have either male or female parts (unisexual)

Part of flower Characteristics and functions

COMPLETE SCIENCE NOTES 🌌

Mouth ↬ Teeth chew food into smaller pieces,

Windpipe ↬ is a wide, hollow tube that connects the

Lungs ↬ contain air sacs that increase the

Diaphragm ↬ a thin layer of muscle that sits at the base

Skull ↬ forms the head of the human skeleton

Backbone ↬ the long stretch of bone which connects

Structural adaptations are the specific physical characteristics which enable an

FUN FACT: The ears are extremely

↬ food chains show the transfer of energy through an ecosystem

Q: Vultures were observed to be feeding on a carcass of a zebra, explain how this

NOTE: frequently remind yourself to write these “prepositional phrases” (i say

Q: Why are telephone lines hung loosely from the poles?

Q: Why did a laundry line snap in winter?

Common question: The classic dam question

REMEMBER TO ALWAYS WRITE “FRICTIONAL FORCE BETWEEN ‘A’ AND ‘B’”

Q: Why are there ridges on the soles of your shoe?