Grade

11
Self-Learning Module
PHYSICAL SCIENCE
in
Lesson: ELEM-ERGENCE: THE BEGINNING OF THE UNIVERSE
Quarter: I Week: 1 Day and Time:

Learning competencies:
a. Give evidence for and describe the formation of heavier elements during star formation and evolution
b. Explain how the concept of atomic number led to the synthesis of new elements in the laboratory
Learning Tasks:
Study Notebook WORKSHEET
 Pre-Test (1-2)  PAGE 13
 Post-Test (10-11)

I. INTRODUCTION
This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you master the field of Physical
Sciences. The scope of this module permits it to be used in many different learning situations. The language used
recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the
course. But the order in which you read them can be changed to correspond with the textbook you are now using.
The module has two lessons, namely:
 Lesson 1 – Formation of Heavier Elements
 Lesson 2 - Synthesis of New Element in the Laboratory

PRE-TEST
Choose the letter that corresponds to the best answer.
1. Which theory suggests that the universe began from a singularity and its inflation?
A. Big Bang Theory C. Eternal Inflation
B. Oscillating Universe D. Steady-State Universe
For items 2-3, refer to the element Sodium below.
2. 11 (atomic number) corresponds to the number of which subatomic
particles?
A. Electron C. Nucleus
B. Neutron D. Proton
3. How many neutrons does Sodium (Na) have?
A. 11 B. 12 C. 22 D. 34

4. Which theory explains that the universe started as a very dense and hot
“singularity” which eventually cooled and began to form different
particles?
A. Big Bang Theory C. Oscillating Theory
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 B. Cosmic Inflation Theory D. Steady State Theory

5. The formation of elements is known as _______________ .

A. Nucleosynthesis C. Nuclear Reaction
B. Nuclear Fusion D. Nuclear Synthesis
6. The first elements were formed in the process known as ___________.
A. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis C. Stellar Nucleosynthesis
B. Genonucleosynthesis D. Supernova Nucleosynthesis
7. What is the term for stars that are nine times bigger than our Sun?
A. Massive Stars C. Nebulae
B. Stars D. Supernova
8. __________ nucleosynthesis happens in the center of stars and is where elements helium through iron
(Fe) are formed.
A. Big Bang C. Stellar
B. Supernova D. Superdupervova
9. What kinds of elements have atomic numbers greater than Uranium?
A. Alkaline Earth Metals C. Metals
B. Noble Gases D. Transuranium Elements
10. These are elements from Hydrogen to Iron which form in less massive stars.
A. Light Elements C. Heavy Elements
B. Transuranic elements D. None of these

_________________
III. A. DISCUSSION OF CONCEPTS
Lesson 1 : Formation of Heavier Elements
Big Bang Theory explains how the elements have initially formed the formation of different
elements involved many nuclear reactions, including fusion, fission, and radioactive decay. Part of its proof
is the amounts of Hydrogen and Helium in the universe today.
Vocabulary
 Big Bang Theory: states that the universe began to expand with the explosion of concentrated
matter and energy and has been expanding ever since. This is the currently accepted theory of the
origin of the universe which proposes to do so—until the world, we know today started existing
approximately 14 billion years ago.
 Stellar Nucleosynthesis: this is the birth of elements through nuclear fusion that takes place within
stars.
 Supernova. This is the explosion in the event of the death of a star.
 Neutron-Star Merges: this is when stars merge to form a more massive star, generating more
energy than a normal star.
 Light Elements: these are elements from hydrogen to iron which form in less massive stars.
Heavy Elements: these are elements heavier the iron which forms from massive stars, supernova, or
neutron-star merges.

According to the theory, all of the matter and energy in the universe was then concentrated into a
single place. This place, of course, was hot and dense. Then some 15 to 20 billion years ago, an explosion—
the big bang—shot the concentrated matter and energy in all directions. The fastest-moving matter
traveled farthest away. Energy, too, began moving away from the area of the big bang.
Before the planet we live in right now came to existence as all the other planets and solar system
and galaxies, the earliest elements were formed first.

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The Origin of Elements
The origin of all naturally occurring elements fall two phases:
a. Big Bang of Primordial Nucleosynthesis – the origin of the “light” elements; and
b. Stellar Nucleosynthesis – the origin and production of the “heavy” elements

a. The Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

Nucleosynthesis is the process that creates a new atomic nucleus from pre-existing nucleons,
primarily protons, and neutrons. Big bang nucleosynthesis in physical cosmology refers to the production
of nuclei other than H-1, the normal, light hydrogen, during the early phases of the universe, shortly after
the big bang. How do free proton (p+) and neutron (n) would combine and separate from each other due
to the high energies at that time?
The composition of nuclei is given below in Figure 1.1. D and T are isotopes of hydrogen namely
deuterium and tritium respectively, other elements are helium, beryllium, and lithium. An isotope is a form
of an element that has the same atomic number of the original element but with a different atomic mass
or mass number. For instance, Hydrogen has three isotopes namely protium (P), deuterium (D), and
tritium (T).

Due to rapid cooling due to expansion, nucleosynthesis halted for about three minutes after the big
bang occurred which left most of the hydrogen (H) isotopes (P, D, T), helium (He) isotopes, and a very tiny
bit of other elements like lithium (Li) and beryllium(Be). The relative abundance of He and H did not
change much today.

The Nuclear Fusion

The energy of universe are extremely high to cause the neutrons and protons to combine
and form certain specifies of atomic nuclei in a process called nuclear fusion. Nuclear fusion is a
type of nuclear reaction in which the light nuclei fuse together to form a heavier nucleus. When
this happens, a tremendous amount of energy is released.

An example of nuclear fusion (Figure 1.2): deuterium (with one neutron and one proton)
fuses with tritium (with one proton and two neutrons) producing helium nuclei and a neutron,
and releasing energy.

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In equation, D + T = He + n
(p + n) (p + 2n) (2p +2n)

Check: 2p + 3n = 2p + 3n

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 Source: https://chem.linretexts.org/bookshelves/…/Fission _and _Fusion

Light elements which include Hydrogen (H), Helium (He), and small amounts of Beryllium (Be) and
Lithium( Li) were formed through nuclear fusion in the big bang nucleosynthesis. The isotopes produced
were H-1, H-2, H-3, He-4, and Li-7. After fusion, the total mass of the light nuclei formed in the fusion
process is less than the total mass of the nuclei that fused. Nuclear fusion reactions are accompanied by a
tremendous release of energy.

Source: https://www.slideshare.net/AbbieMahinay/lesson-1-in-the-beginning-big-bang-theory-and-the-formation-of-light-elements-
82754388

 As shown in Figure above, three pieces of evidence proved that the big bang existed as this is the
most leading theory. Three minutes after the big bang, particles, electrons, protons and neutrons,
and other particles combine to form different nuclei through nuclear fusion and nucleosynthesis.
Then this light nuclei combine again forming light elements such as H, He, Be, and Li.

Star Formation
Origin of Heavier Element
Heavy elements were formed only billions of years after the formation of stars. The density
inside a star is great enough to sustain fusion for extended periods to synthesize heavy
elements.

Source:https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/image_maps/50-universal-element-formation

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b. Stellar Nucleosynthesis

Elements formed in big bang nucleosynthesis are only the light elements which are H, He, Li, and Be
and very light isotopes. Elements formed then with five to eight nucleons are very unstable (prone to
change, give way) the main reason why Li and Be occur only in trace amounts.
Heavy elements were formed only billions of years later, after the formation of stars 200 billion
years after the big bang. The density inside a star is great enough to sustain fusion for the extended
periods required to synthesize heavy elements. Stars are hot and dense enough to burn hydrogen-1(¹H) to
helium-4 (4He). The formation of heavy elements by the fusion of lighter nuclei in the interior of stars is
called stellar nucleosynthesis.
Hydrogen and helium atoms in stars began combining in nuclear fusion reactions once hydrogen-
helium stars had formed from the action of gravity. This releases a tremendous amount of light, heat, and
radioactive energy. Fusion resulted in the formation of nuclei of new elements. The first fusion process
occurs in the hydrogen core of stars such as the sun with a temperature of less than 15 million K. These
kinds of stars are called main-sequence stars.
Click the link to see what’s going on inside the red giant star
 https://public.nrao.edu/gallery/animation-of-stellar-nucleosynthesis-inside-a-red-giant/

Synthetic pathways or nuclear fusion to produce heavy elements:

1. CNO cycle
The ‘CNO cycle’ refers to the Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen cycle, a process of stellar nucleosynthesis in
which stars on the Main Sequence fuse hydrogen into helium via a six-stage sequence of reactions. Refer
to Figure 1.5. This sequence proceeds as follows:
a.) A carbon-12 nucleus captures a proton and emits a gamma-ray, producing nitrogen-13.
b.) Nitrogen-13 is unstable and emits a beta particle, decaying to carbon-13.
c.) Carbon-13 captures a proton and becomes nitrogen-14 via the emission of a gamma-ray.
d.) Nitrogen-14 captures another proton and becomes oxygen-15 by emitting a gamma-ray.
e.) Oxygen-15 becomes nitrogen-15 via beta decay.
f.) Nitrogen-15 captures a proton and produces a helium nucleus (alpha particle) and carbon-12, which is
where the cycle started.

CNO Cycle
Source: https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cms/cpg15x/albums/userpics/m01a02-s20i01.jpg

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2. Proton-proton chain is a reaction by which stars convert hydrogen to helium. The conversion of
hydrogen to helium is slow, the complete conversion of the hydrogen in the core of the sun is calculated to
take more than ten billion years.
The first reaction is the combination of a proton (p) and neutron (n) produces deuterium (D) nuclei
and gamma (γ) rays

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H + 1H → 2 H + v + e+, proton fusion, with one proton turning into a neutron via beta-plus
decay, giving off a neutrino and a positron.
³He forms from deuterium and proton fusion, also known as deuterium burning. This immediately
consumes all deuterium produced.
3. Triple alpha process
A thermonuclear fusion reaction in which
three alpha particles (helium nuclei) fuse
to form a carbon nucleus, thereby releasing
energy. The triple-alpha process fuels the
luminosity of stars after they leave the
main sequence.

A nuclear fusion reaction in which three helium nuclei (alpha particles) fuse to form a carbon
nucleus, thereby releasing energy. Two helium nuclei fuse to form an unstable isotope of beryllium, which
under conditions of sufficient temperature and pressure fuses with a third helium nucleus to form carbon
before it decays. Triple alpha processes take place in stars in which large quantities of helium have
accumulated as the product of proton-proton chain and carbon cycle reactions.

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Summary
The formation of heavy elements can be summarized in a concept map below. Disregard first the
supernova nucleosynthesis as this will be discussed in the next modules. Stellar nucleosynthesis is the
formation of heavy elements in the interior of the star, particularly the main sequence star. The sun is a
main-sequence star.
A star formed from a nebula is composed primarily of 75%H and 23%He. When a star reaches a
certain size it generates vast energy and nuclear fusion ignites. The first fusion process forces Hydrogen
together forming Helium, 4He. This main branch is called the proton-proton chain reaction. As the core
of the star is becoming helium-filled as hydrogen depletes, its temperature increases to 100m K, its
thermal pressure pushes out the H gases the star becomes bigger to be a red giant star.
Several nuclear fusion occurred in the red giant star. The main branch is the triple-alpha process
which involves 3 He atoms to combine to produce carbon. Once carbon is produced there’s a continuation
of fusing to He atoms producing heavier element we call it the alpha ladder process.
Other main-sequence stars with a temperature of more than 15M K could facilitate the production
of helium once carbon is present in the alpha process.12C serves only as a catalyst. This fusion is known as
the CNO cycle.

Another process is the s-process which occurs in the red giant star where there is a slow
neutron capture in red giant stars. In this process, a nucleus captures neutron to form isotopes
with higher atomic mass. If the new isotope is stable, an increase in mass can occur. If unstable,
then beta decay can occur producing elements with a higher atomic number.

LESSON 2: Synthesis of New Element in the Laboratory

Vocabulary

 Synthetic Elements: refers to the chemical elements formed in a laboratory through certain, man-
controlled processes.
 Transuranium Elements: these are elements heavier than Uranium.
 Isotopes: these are the same atoms with a different number of neutrons.
 Atomic Number: this is the number of protons in an atom, of its identity.
 Atomic Weight: this is the number of protons and neutrons together of an atom.

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  Periodic Trends: the chemical properties exhibited by the elements, reflected in the periodic table
through groups or families.

Atomic Number and the Number of Protons
In 1911 a Dutch physicist A. van den Broek proposed a hypothesis that the position number of each
element in the periodic table corresponds to the charge of its nucleus. He links the atomic number and the
positive charge proton suggesting that the atomic number is the same as the number of protons in an
atom.

Tabular arrangement of elements

Source: https://cdn.britannica.com/45/7445-050-CA28EA33/version-periodic-table-elements.jpg

The periodic table of elements is organized so scientists can quickly discern the properties
of individual elements such as their mass, electron number, electron configuration, and their
unique chemical properties.

Synthesis of Elements
An element is identified by its number of protons because no two elements can have the same
number of protons. So in order to make a new, heavier element, protons must be added to an existing
atomic nuclei of an element.

Henry Moseley’s and X-ray Spectroscopy

Henry Moseley an English Physicist in 1912 experimented on different elements by shooting
electrons at an element causing the element to release x-ray at a unique frequency. He fired beams of
electrons to different elements and examined the spectrum of x-rays produced. He found that the
frequency of the x-rays produced by each element depended on its position in the periodic table starting
with hydrogen at 1 and uranium at 92. Every time the position increases by 1 (e.g. H-1 to He-2, Li-3 to Be
to 4) The frequency emitted is increased by a constant value. When the elements were arranged according
to their atomic numbers, there were four gaps in the table. These gaps corresponded to the atomic
numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87. These elements were later synthesized in the laboratory through nuclear
transmutations.
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Moseley’s conclusion
With knowledge of Broek’s hypothesis together with the result of his experiment, he concluded
that it was the atomic number of the element, not the atomic weight that decided what the element was.
Only whole atomic numbers fitted the pattern and the atomic number must be the number of the positive
charges on the nucleus.

The missing elements

When the elements were arranged according to their atomic numbers, there were four gaps in the
table. These gaps corresponded to the atomic numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87. These elements were later
synthesized in the laboratory through nuclear transmutations.

Discovery of Nuclear Transmutation

In 1919, Ernest Rutherford successfully carried out a nuclear transmutation reaction—a reaction
involving the transformation of one element or isotope into another element. He bombarded alpha
particles from radium directed to the nitrogen nuclei. He showed that the nitrogen nuclei reacted to the
alpha particles to form oxygen nuclei.
However, both alpha particles and atomic nuclei are positively charged, so they tend to repel each
other. Therefore, instead of using fast-moving alpha particles in synthesizing new elements, atomic nuclei
are often bombarded with neutrons (neutral particles) in particle accelerators.

The Discovery of the Missing Elements

In 1937, American physicist Ernest Lawrence synthesized an element with atomic
number 43 using a linear particle accelerator. He bombarded molybdenum (Z=42) with fast-
moving neutrons. The newly synthesized element was named Technetium (Tc) after the Greek
word "technêtos" meaning “artificial.” Tc was the first man-made element. Element 85 was also
synthesized the same manner as element 43, while elements 61 and 87 were discovered as a
radioactive decay product of Uranium.
The Synthesis of New Elements
In the early 1940s, Edwin McMillan proved that an element having an atomic number 93
could be created. He used a particle accelerator to bombard uranium with neutrons and created
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an element with an atomic number 93 which he named neptunium. At the end of 1940, element-
94 was synthesized by Seaborg, McMillan, Kennedy, and Wahl. They bombarded uranium with
deuterons (particles composed of a proton and a neutron) in a cyclotron. Element-94 was named
plutonium. Elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (atomic number of uranium) are
called transuranium elements.

Transuranium Elements
There are 26 transuranic elements in total, as follows:
Atomic
Number:
93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101
Element
Symbol:
Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md
Element
Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium
Name:

Atomic
Number:
102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110
Element
Symbol:
No Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds
Element
Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium
Name:

Atomic
Number: 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Element
Symbol:
Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
Element
Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
Name:

Post-Test
Directions: Read the statements carefully to get the correct answer.
1. Which is the currently accepted theory on the origin of the universe?
A. Big Bang Theory C. Eternal Inflation
B. Oscillating Universe D. Steady-State Universe
2. Aside from the proton, the core of an atom is made up of which other subatomic particles?
A. Electron B. Neutron C. Nucleus D. Proton
3. Which of the following statements is true about the atomic number?
A. Atomic number is the number of neutrons inside the nucleus
B. Atomic number is the sum of protons and neutrons in an atom.
C. Atomic number is the same as the number of protons in an atom.
D. Atomic number is the sum of all the masses of all the three
subatomic particles in an atom.

4. What theory on the origin of the universe is currently accepted today?

A. Big Bang theory C. Eternal Inflation
B. Oscillating Universe D. Steady-State Universe
5. What is the term referred to as the process that creates new atomic nucleus from preexisting nucleons,
primarily protons, and neutrons?
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 A. Nucleosynthesis C. Nuclear Reaction
B. Nuclear Fusion D. Nuclear Synthesis
6. It refers to the production of nuclei other than H-1, the normal, light hydrogen, during the early phases of
the universe.
A. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis C. Stellar Nucleosynthesis
B. Genonucleosynthesis D. Supernova Nucleosynthesis
7. What is the explosion during the death of a star commonly called?
A. Fusion C. Neutron-star merger
B. Synthesis D. Supernova
8. The formation of heavy elements by fusion of lighter nuclei in the interior of stars is called
_______________.
A. Big Bang C. Stellar
B. Supernova D. Superdupervova
9. What is the term for elements heavier than Uranium?
A. Light Elements C. Transuranic Element
B. Heavy Elements D. None of these
10. What is the term for elements which were born first during star formation?
A. Light Elements C. Heavy Elements
B. Transuranic elements D. None of these

ANSWER KEY

PRE-TEST POST-TEST

1. A A

2. D B

3. B C

4. A A

5. A A

6. A A

7. D D

8. C A

9. D C

10. A A

References

A. Books and Downloaded Files

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Licuanan, P.B. (2016). Teaching Guide for Senior High School Physical Science, Baesa, Quezon City, QC: CHED K to 12 Transition
Program Management Unit

Physical Science Curriculum Guide

Physical Science Curriculum Guide—MELCs

B. Online Article

 https://freedomtoteach.collins.co.uk/chemistry-in-1913-part-1-henry-moseley-and-atomic-number/

C. Internet and other Sources/ Photo Credits

 https://www.slideshare.net/JeromeJerome1/formation-of-light-and-heavy-elements

 http://www.galex.caltech.edu/education/files/galex_puzzles.pdf

 https://www.facebook.com/notes/grade-11-physical-science-vnhs/lesson-12-the-formation-of-heavier-elements-during-
star-formation-and-evolution/1880966238586259/

 https://earthref.org/SCC/lessons/2012/nucleosynthesis/

 https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/C/CNO+cycle#:~:text=The%20'CNO%20cycle'%20refers%20to,ray%2C
%20producing%20nitrogen%2D13.

 https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/images/244-proton-proton-chain-reaction

 https://www.academia.edu/31725896/
PHYSICAL_SCIENCE_1_Formation_of_the_Heavy_Elements_Dapul_TOPIC_LESSON_NAME_We_Are_All_Made_of_Star_Stuff_
Formation_of_the_Heavy_Elements

 https://www.academia.edu/33928561/The_Atomic_Number_and_the_Synthesis_of_New_Elements

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 ROSALES NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
SENIOR DEPARTMENT
Don Antonio Village, Rosales, Pangasinan

INSTRUCTION: Detach and submit this Worksheet together with the activity sheets.

WORKSHEET
Name:
Subject: PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Grade/Section:
Subj. Teacher: Week: 1

I. SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT
Directions: Identify what is being asked or described in each statement.
_______________1. What theory states that the universe began to expand with the explosion of
concentrated matter and energy and has been expanding ever since?
_______________2. This is the explosion in the event of the death star.
_______________3. What type of nuclear reaction in which the light nuclei fuse together to form heavier
elements?
_______________4. It is a reaction by which stars convert hydrogen to helium.
_______________5. What do you call the formation of heavy elements in the interior of the star, particularly
in the main sequence star.
_______________6. What do you call the process that creates a new atomic nucleus from pre-existing
nucleons, primarily protons and neutrons?
_______________7. It is a form of an element that has the same atomic number of the original element but
with a different atomic mass or mass number.
_______________8. A process of stellar nucleosynthesis in which stars on the main sequence fuse hydrogen
into helium via a six -stage sequence of reactions.
_______________9. It occurs in the red giant star where there is a slow neutron captured in a red giant star.
_______________10. It refers to the chemical elements formed in a laboratory through certain, man-
controlled processes.

II. The Elements of Life

Directions: Answer the given question. Use the rubric as your guide.
1. Elements are essential for human life. Some of these are oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulfur
—the building blocks of the compounds that constitute our organs and muscles.
What makes an element “essential”?
______________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

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 ____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

Rubric for Essay Questions

20- Expert 18-Very 16-Good 14-Fair 12-Beginner

Good
Content The essay is The essay is The essay is The essay is The essay shows
fully focused fully focused sufficiently minimally little focus. Ideas
and and contains focused and focused. Some and examples are
contains a ample ideas contains ideas and irrelevant.
wealth of and some ideas examples are
ideas and examples. and vague.
examples examples.
Organization The ideas The The The Little evidence of
are grouped organization organization organization is organization and
logically. is is generally less sequencing of
Effective appropriate, appropriate, appropriate, ideas. Transitions
and varied and the and the Lack of clear are not used.
transitions sequencing ideas are introduction
are used. of ideas is sequenced. and
logical. Transitions conclusion.
Varied are used. Transitions
transition is are rare.
used.
Style The essay The tone of The tone is The tone is The tone is
utilizes the essay appropriate. uneven. Word inappropriate.
carefully enhances Word choice choice is Word choice is
crafted the purpose. is adequate simple and incorrect and
phrases to Word choice but may be ordinary. confusing.
create a is simple and There is Sentences are too
sustained appropriate. ordinary. minimal brief.
tone. Word variation in
choice sentence
shows structure.
enhanced
vocabulary.
Conventions No errors Errors are Errors may Errors are Errors are
are evident. minor and interfere frequent and pervasive.
do not with interfere with
interfere meaning but meaning.
with not
meaning. distracting.

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III. REFLECTIVE ASSESSMENT
1. What concepts or skills did you learn well?

2. What concepts or skills was difficult to understand?

3. What activities did you enjoy the most?

4. What activity was hard to execute?

5. Did you ask help from your teacher? (Yes or No).

If Yes, did you immediately receive the needed assistance?
Was the given assistance helpful for you to understand better the lesson?

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