Introduction Introduction Problems in Ad Hoc Channel Access: Issues and need UClassifications of Multicast Routing O Protocols Synchronous OAsynchronous MAC Protocols Receiver Sender initiated MAC Protocols U Various ADHOC MAC protocols e Chanda prakash, Lovely Professional University, PanjabIntroduction Ad hoc network does not rely on a pre-existing infrastructure, such as routers in wired networks or access points in managed (infrastructure) wireless networks. In Ad-Hoc network Wireless media can be shared and any nodes can transmit at any point in time. This could result in possible contention over the common channel. Each node participates in routing by forwarding data for other nodes, and so the determination of which nodes forward data is made dynamically based on the network connectivity. Ad-hoc mobile device can be highly mobile, powerful and heterogeneous. Routing protocol in ad hoc networks need to deal with the mobility of nodes and constraints in power and bandwidth. (Chandea prakash, Lovely Professional Univer( > Wireless LAN configuration A B c ~) <) G sy a fg we BS Bs “ 4 4% & radio obstruction —— Wrreless Palmtop ee vr re >») LAN » Base station/ YY access point ‘Server 4Chandea prakash, Lovely Professional University, PanjabWhen do we need MAC? © 2 types of links: © Point-to-point. shored wire (e9. « Shared. ables Ethernet) Ifmore than 1 node transmits at the same time © Collision at receiver! MAC protocol: © Arbitrate access to medium © Determine who can transmit when (Chanda prakash, Lovely Professional University, PunjabExpanded Data Link Layer © Sublayers of data link layer: © Logical Link Control (LLC): flow and error control. © Multiple Access Control (MAC): multiple access resolution. Data link layer Data link controlMedia Access Protocols MAC protocol is a set of rules or procedures to allow the efficient use of a shared medium, such as wireless. © Node: any host that is trying to access the medium. ¢ Sender: is a node that is attempting to transmit over the medium. © Receiver: is a node that is the recipient of the current transmission. The MAC protocol is concerned with per-link communications, not end-to-end. While Routing Protocol deal with end-to-end communication. (Chandea prakash, Lovely Professional UniverTypes of MAC Channel Access Policy ¢ Random access (or contention-based) * No scheduled time for transmissions. © No order for transmissions ¢ Controlled access © Stations coordinate access to channel. © Station only transmits when it has right to send. e Channelization * Bandwidth of channel is statically partitioned. "!NUA eo Chanda prakash, Lovely Professional University, Panjab( Problems in Ad Hoc Channel Access- Issues and needé ° Distributed operation ° fully distributed involving minimum control overhéa ° Synchronization © Mandatory for TDMA-based systems ¢ Hidden terminals © Can significantly reduce the throughput of a MAC protocol ° Exposed terminals © To improve the eliciency of the MAC protocol, the exposed nodes should be allowed to transmit in a controlled fashion without causing collision to the on-going data transfer e Access delay Chandsa prakash, Lovely Professional Univesity, PanjabHidden Terminal Problem A B c © Aand C cannot hear each other. © Asends to B, C cannot receive A. © C wants to send to B, C senses a “free” medium. ® Collision occurs at B. © A cannot receive the collision. © Ais ‘hidden’ for C. Co) Chanda prakash, Lovely Professional University, Panjab{ Exposed Terminal Problem ° A starts sending to B ¢ C senses carrier, finds medium in use and has to wait for A->B to end. © Dis outside the range of A, therefore waiting is not necessary. © A and Care" exposed’ terminals (Chanda prakash, Lovely Professional University, PunjabMAC protocol categories © Based on operation : © Synchronous protocols: All nodes need to be synchronized. Global time synchronization is difficult to achieve. © Asynchronous protocols: These protocols use relative time information for effecting reservations. ° Based on who initiates a communication request. © Receiver-initiated protocols ° Sender-initiated protocols (Chanda prakash, Lovely Professional University, PunjabTypes of protocol 1. Synchronous MAC Protocols ¢ In synchronous MAC protocols, all nodes in the network are synchronized to the same time. © Achieved by a timer master broadcasting a regular beacon. All nodes listen for this beacon and synchronize their clocks to the master's time © Central coordination is, needed to synchronize time events. 2. Asynchronous MAC Protocols © Nodes do not necessarily follow the same time. © Amore distributed control mechanism is used to coordinate channel access © Access to the channel tends to be contention-based. (Chandea prakash, Lovely Professional Univer PanjabContention-Based Protocols ¢ A nodes does not make any resource reser vation a priori © Whenever it receive a packet to be transmitted, it contends with its neighbor nodes for access to the shared channel. © Nods are not guaranteed periodic access to the channel © Thus can’t provide QoS guarantees to sessions . eg: © pure ALOHA, slotted ALOHA, CSMA, IEEE 802.11, etc The "listen before talk" operating procedure in IEEE 802.11 is the most well known contention-based protocol. (Chanda prakash, Lovely Professional University, Punjab( > Problems in Ad Hoc Channel Access ¢ Hidden Terminal Problem ¢ Shortcomings of the RTS-CTS Solution ¢ Exposed Node Problem @ Chanda prakash, Lovely Professional University, Panjabia Aarts toserio® buteant hear hat Bis tusy Hidden Terminal Problem + Found in contention-based protocols. ¢ A contention-based protocol (CBP) is a communications protocol for operating wireless telecommunication equipment that allows many users to use the same radio channel without pre- coordination. * Two nodes are said to be hidden from one another (out of signal range) when both attempt to send information to the same receiving node, resulting in a collision of data at the receiver node (Chanda prakash, Lovely Professional University, Punjab{ Hidden Terminal Problem = zy \ / B c = A 1. A transmits to B.(C does not hear this.) 2. transmits to B ... Collision! 8 Chanda prakash, Lovely Professional University, PanjabPossible Solution (Chandra prakash, Lovely ProfessicRTS-CTS handshake Protocol © To avoid collision, all of the receiver's neighbouring nodes need to be informed about the status of the channel © This can be achieved by using a handshake protocol © reserving the channel using control messages e Resolves hidden node problems * AnRTS (RequestTo Send) message can be used by anode to indicate its wish to transmit data © The receiving node can allow this transmission by sending a grant using the CTS (ClearTo Send) message. Because of the broadcast nature of these messages, all neighbors of the sender and receiver will be informed that the medium will be busy, thus preventing them from transmitting and avoiding collision. (Chanda prakash, Lovely Professional University, PunjabCSMA/CA: RTS-CTS Solution © With collision avoidance, stations exchange small control ® packets to determine which sender can transmit to a receiver. Time Time Time (Chandra prakash, Lovely Professional{ RTS-CTS handshake =) fa 1A transmits request (RTS) to BShortcomings of RTS-CTS Solution The RTS-CTS method is not a perfect solution to the hidden terminal problem. Problematic scenario occurs when. 1. RTS and CTS control messages are sent by different nodes. 2. Multiple CTS messages are granted to different neighboring nodes, causing collisions. @ (Chand prakash, Lovely ity, Puja{ a) Shortcomings of RTS-CTS Solution w_e_¢_h& A o Tire Calliaion (Chandea prakash, Lovely Profestional University, Punjab @ wea) Shortcomings of RTS-CTS Solution ¢ Cases when collisions occur and the RTS and CTS control messages are sent by different nodes. 1, Node Bis granting a CTS to the RTS sent by node A. This collides with the RTS sent by node D at node C. Node D is the hidden terminal from node B. 3. As node D does not receive the expected CTS from node C, it retransmits the RTS. 4. When node A receives the CTS, it is not aware of any collision at node C and hence it proceeds with a data transmission to node B. 5. Unfortunately, It collides with the CTS sent by node C in response to node D's RTS. (Chandea prakash, Lovely Profestional University, Punjab{ b) Shortcomings of RTS-CTS Solution Multiple CTS messages are granted to different neighbouring nodes, causing collisions. G@—t— 6—_& wae transmitting its own RTS to D, Collision (Chandea prakash, Lovely Professional Usniwersty Punjabb) Shortcomings of RTS-CTS Solution Multiple CTS messages are granted to different neighboring nodes, causing collisions. 1. Two nodes are sending RTS messages to different nodes at different points in time Node A sends an RTS to node B. When node B is returning a CTS message back to node A, node C sends an RTS message to node B. 3. Because node C cannot hear the CTS sent by node B while it is transmitting an RTS to node D, node C is unaware of the communication between nodes A and B. 4. Node D proceeds to grant the CI'S message to node C. 5. Since both nodes A and C are granted transmission, a collision will occur when both start sending data (Chandea prakash, Lovely Professional Univer PanjabExposed Node Problem © Overhearing a data transmission from neighbouring nodes can inhibit one node from transmitting to other nodes. This is known as the exposed node problem. e An exposed node is a node in range of the transmitter, but out of range of the receiver. = © = = B c > A * Cis transmitting to D- +B overhears this, and is blocked. +B wants {o transmit [6 A, but is being blocked by C. “Waster, pandwigtht,, {fessional University, PanjabSolution to the exposed node problem ¢ Use of separate control and data channels © Power-Aware Multi-Access Protocol with Signaling PAMAS ¢ Dual Busy Tone Multiple Access (DBTMA) . ¢ Use of Antennas ¢ Directional antennas @ Chanda prakash, Lovely Professional University, PanjabUse of antennas. ° Mobile node using an Omni-directional antenna can result in several surrounding nodes being "exposed* Thus prohibiting them from communicating with other nodes. © Lowers network availability and system throughput. Omidedindarema nd Aretha wormed Omni-directional antenna radiates radio ware power uniformly in all directions in one lane, with the radiated power decreasing with elevation angle above or below the plane, dropping to asely Profesional University, Panjab on the abtUse of antennas (cont...) © If directional antennas are employed, the problem of network availability and system throughput can be mitigated. ¢ Node C can continue communicating with the receiving palm pilot device without impacting the communication between nodes A and B. © The directivity provides spatial and counectivity isolation not found in omni-directional antenna systems. Drecinalartsna toes is pono Bird tr serdngto A (Chanda prakash, Lovely Professional University, PunjabMAC protocol categories © Based on operation : © Synchronous protocols © Asynchronous protocols ° Based on who initiates a communication request. © Receiver-initiated protocols ¢ Sender-initiated protocols Single-channel sender-initiated protocols: A node that wins the contention to the channel can make use of the entire bandwidth. Multichannel sender-initiated protocols: The available bandwidth is divided into multiple channels. (Chanda prakash, Lovely Professional University, PunjabMedia Access Protocols © Receiver-Initiated MAC Protocols The receiver (node B) first has to contact the sender (node A), informing the sender that it is ready to receive (RTR) data. This is a form of polling, as the receiver has no way of knowing for sure if the sender indeed has data to send.Receiver-Initiated MAC Protocols © Passive form of initiation since the sender does not have to initiate a request. ° There is only one control message used, compared to the RTS-CTS approach. Example: MACA-BI (By Invitation) (Chandea prakash, LovelyMedia Access Protocols ¢ Sender-Initiated MAC Protocols © This require the sender to initiate communications by informing the receiver that it has data to send.Sender-initiated MAC protocols ° Node A sends an explicit RTS(ready to send) message to node B (the receiver) to express its desire to communicate. Node B can then reply if it is willing to receive data from node A. If positive, it returns a CTS (Clear to send ) message to node A. Node A then subsequently proceeds to send data. ° Examples: MACA (Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance), MACAW (MACA with Acknowledgment), and FAMA (Floor Acquisition Multiple Access) (Chandea prakash, Lovely Profestional University, PunjabContention-based protocols Other MAC protocols Classifications of MAC protocols Contention-based protocols with reservation mechanisms Contention-based protocols with scheduling mechanisms MAC Protocols for Ad Hoc Wireless Networks ¢ Ad hoc network MAC protocols can be classified into three types: Contention-based protocols with reservation mechanisms Contention-Based| Protocols ‘Sender-Initiate Protocols Synchronous Protocols Protocols pIpTMa L DPRMA Single-Channel] [Multichannel] [> MACA-BE Protocols Protocols MARCH MACAW BIMA FAMA DBIMA FDEP ‘Asynchronous Protocols Contention-based protocols with scheduling mechanisms MACAPR BIMAC Other MAC Protocols Directional “Antennas MAC MCSMA POM BEAR handea peak yelsplpvely Professional University, PunjabExisting Ad Hoc MAC Protocols ¢ Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (MACA) ¢ MACA-BI (By Invitation) © Power-Aware Multi-Access Protocol with Signalling (PAMAS) © Dual Busy Tone Multiple Access (DBTMA) (Chandea prakash, Lovelymy 1. Multiple Access with Collision Avoldance (MACA) © Aims to create usable, ad hoc, single-frequency networks. ¢ Sender initiated MAC Protocol © Proposed to resolve the hidden terminal and exposed node problems. © Ability to perform per-packet transmitter power control, thus increase the carrying capacity of a packet radio. © Uses a three-way handshake, RTS-CTS-Data. © Sender first sends an RTS to the receiver to reserve the channel. This blocks the sender's neighboring nodes from transmitting, ° The receiver then sends a CTS to the sender to grant transmission, This results in blocking the receiver's neighboring nodes from transmitting, thus avoiding collision. aprakash, Lovely Professional tlnir Shan apitysPupisb Sendef can now proce thdata transmission }{ Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (MACA)Wireless LAN Protocols * MACA protocol solved hidden, exposed terminal: — Send Ready-to-Send (R7'S) and Clear-to-Send (C7) first — RTS, CTS helps determine who else is in range or busy (Collision avoidance) other node in receiver's range other node in sender's range sender receiver Ts data ACI (Chandea prakash, Lovely Professional Univer( Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (MACA) *) © When a node wants to transmit a data packet, it first transmit a RTS (RequestTo Send) frame. © The receiver node, on receiving the RTS packet, if it is ready to receive the data packet, transmits a CTS (Clear to Send) packet. © Once the sender receives the CTS packet without any error, it starts transmitting the data packet. ¢ Ifa packet transmitted by a node is lost, the node uses the binary exponential back-off (BEB) algorithm to back off random interval of time before retrying. In this each time a collision occurs the node doubles its maximum back-off windows. ¢ The binary exponential back-off mechanism used in MACA might star ves flows sometimes. ¢ The problem is solved by MACAW. 4Chandea prakash, Lovely Professional University, PanjabMACA Protocol 27 Range of A's transmitior Range of B's transmitter c alers-[e D ¢c al+{cts|[8 E E (a) (b) The MACA protocol. (a) A sending an RTS to B. (b) B responding with a CTS to A. 4€handea prakash, Lovely Professional University, PanjabMACA ¢ Has Power control features © Key characteristic of MACA is that it inhibits a transmitter when a CTS packet is overheard so as to temporarily limit power output . This allows geographic reuse of channels For example, © Ifnodc A has been sending data packets to node B, after some time, A would know how much power it needs to reach B. © Ifnode A overhears node B's response to an RT'S (i.e., a CTS) from a downstream node C, A need not remain completely silent during this time © By lowering its transmission power from the level used to reach node B, node A can communicate with other neighboring nodes (without chunc.Aptenferingewith nods. B),during that time with a lower power.MACA examples ¢ MACA avoids the problem of hidden terminals © Aand C want to send to B © Asends RTS first RTS © C waits after receiving f CTS f CTS E A B c CTS from B ¢ MACA avoids the problem of exposed terminals © B wants to send to A, C to another terminal © now C does not have [a RTS RTS fe to wait for it cannot hil cts bey receive CTS from A A B c 4@handea prakash, Lovely Professional University, PanjabMACA © There is no carrier sensing in MACA so Collision occurs during the RT'S-CTS phase © Each mobile host adds a random amount of time to the minimum interval required to wait after overhearing an RTS or CTS control message © In MACA the slot time is the duration of an RTS packet © If two or more stations transmit an RTS concurrently, resulting in a collision, these stations will wait for a randomly chosen interval and try again, doubling the average interval on every attempt © The station that wins the competition will receive a CTS from its responder, thereby blocking other stations to allow the data communication session to proceed © Compared to CSMA, MACA reduces the chances of data packet collisions. Since control messages (RT'S and CTS) are much smaller in size compared todata packets.-tltechances:of vallision are also smallerMACAW (MACA wireless ) ¢ The binary exponential back-off mechanism used in MACA might starves flows sometimes. © The problem is solved by MACAW. © The packet header has current back-off counter value of transmitting node. ¢ It implements per flow fairness as opposed to the per node fairness in MACA. (Chandea prakash, Lovely Profestional University, PunjabMACAW MACAW is proposed as a series of improvements to the basic MACA algorithm. 1. Suggest a less aggressive backoff algorithm: . a multiplicative increase and linear decrease(MILD) backoff mechanism is used © Increasing BO by 1.5 after a timeout, and decreasing it by 1 after a successful RTS-CTS pair proposes that receivers should send an ACK to the sender after successfully receiving a data message. Propose two related techniques for allowing transmitters to avoid contention more effectively: * Data sending (DS) . Request-for-request-to-send (RRTS) Concept Per ben vimecareta: batt eret ern mNPDU’s * DATA Sending (DS) Packets : * ADS packet should be sent after a successful RTS-CTS exchange, just before the data message itself. The idea is to explicitly announce that the RTS-CTS. succeeded, so that if a node can hear an RTS but not the CTS response, it does not attempt to transmit a message during the subsequent data transfer period In MACA, an exposed node can received only the RTS and not the CTS packet ¢ READY for RTS (RRTS): © if a receiver hears an RT'S while it is deferring any transmissions, at the end of the deferral period it replies with an RRTS (‘ready for RTS”) packet, prompting the sender to resend the RTS (Chandea prakash, Lovely Profestional University, PunjabTsniotrealying Congestion may be? 1 flow canreply We for old RTS wih RTS (12) eard CTS Toa tenis A trarsmission is deferred ti) 3 is to be received data length and ATS/CTS exchange is @ suocess, Henee € defer my ) Power-Aware Multi-Access Protocol with Signaling (PAMAS) Signaling Channel Interface Data Channel Busyiidle Number of transmitters Number of receivers —Length of longest reception and ansmission On/Off Power ‘Transmit Queve (Chandea prakash, Lovely Profestional University, PunjabPower-Aware Multi-Access Protocol with Signaling (PAMAS) © Each node makes an independent decision about whether to power off its transceiver. ° The conditions that force a node to power off include: © Ifa node has no packets to transmit, it should power off if one of its neighboring nodes is transmitting, © If anode has packets to transmit, but at least one of the neighboring nodes is transmitting and another is receiving, then it should power off its transceiver. ° Use of probing to detect when a node should appropriately power up. The duration of power-off is critical since it affects delay and throughput performance. © Anode can selectively power down only its data interface and leave the si; alling interface power on. (Chanda prakash, Lovely Professional University, Pan( 4. Dual Busy Tone Multiple Access ) (DBTMA) © The single shared channel is further split into 2 sub channels : ¢ Data Channel : Data packets are sent over the data channel ® Control channels: control packets (such as RTS and CTS) are sent + busy tone (BT, (Transmit busy tone) and BT, (Receive busy tone)) © One busy tone signifies transmit busy, while another signifies receive busy. © These two busy tones are spatially separated in frequency to avoid interfer 4 Date Channel Control Channe| Transmiter 1 Transmitter 2 6 Chanda prskah, Lovely Professional University Pans wee Receiver _ J(" Dual Busy Tone Multiple Access ) (DBTMA) © Uses two busy tone on the control channel BT, (Transmit busy tone) and BT, (Receive busy tone) are used to notily neighboring nodes of any on-going transmission. © BT(t) used by the node that transmits data over the data channel * BT(r) used by the node receiving data Controt Data Sender eo Chanda prakash, Lovely Professional University, Panjab OY Receiver| Busy Tone Mul (DBTMA) ¢ BTMA was used to solve the hidden terminal problem ¢ BI'MA relies on a wireless last-hop network architecture, where centralized base station serves multiple mobile hosts. © When the base station receives packets from a specific mobile host, it sends out a busy tone signal to all other nodes within its radio cell Hence, hidden terminals sense the busy tone and refrain from transmitting © Zygmunt Haas from Cornell applied this concept further for use in ad hoc wireless networks (Chandea prakash, Lovely Profestional University, PunjabDBTMA (Cont...) An ad hoc node wishing to transmit first sends out an RTS message. When the receiver willing to accept the data, it sends out a receive busy tone message followed by a CTS message. All neighboring nodes that hear the receive busy tone are prohibited from transmitting, Upon receiving the CTS message, the source node sends out a transmit busy tone message to surrounding nodes prior to data transmission. Neighboring nodes that hear the transmit busy tone, are prohibited from transmitting and will ignore any transmission receiv (Chandra peakash, Lovely Pofestional University, Panjab{ Dual Busy Tone Multiple Access (DBTMA) Node A (Source) RTS ers] [ Data - . - Node B a (Receiver) Fas | [ cis Data - Transmit Busy Tone of Node A | N S Receive Busy Tone SSO OS OOS oft Seo @ Chanda prakash, Lovely Professional University, Panjab5. Media Access with Reduced Handshake: MARCH © MARCH exploits the overhearing characteristic associated with an ad hoc mobile network employing omni-directional antenna. MARCH is a sender and receiver initiated protocol MARCH supports fast data transfer over a multi-hop route ¢ MARCH provides data flow control by using a sequence number contained inside the CTS packet © Improves communication throughput in wireless multi- hop Ad-hoc networks by reducing the amount of control overhead. (Chandea prakash, Lovely Profestional University, Punjab OY( > MARCH: Media Access with Reduced Handshake e (Chand prakash, LovelyMARCH (cont...) Exploits the broadcast characteristic of ommi-directional antennas to reduce the number of required handshakes. In MARCH, a node has knowledge of data packet arrivals at its neighboring nodes from the overheard CTS packets. It can then initiate an invitation for data to be relayed Node C will receive the CTS, message sent by node B This characteristic implies that the overheard CTS, packet can also be used to convey the information of a data packet arrival at node B to node C. Subsequently, after the data packet has been received by node B, node C can invite node B to forward that data via the CTS, packet. Hence, the RT'S, packet can be suppressed here. RTS-CTS handshake is now reduced to a single CTS (CTS-only) handshake after the first hop. (Chandea prakash, Lovely Professional Univer¢ For an ad hoc route of n hops, the number of handshakes needed to send a data packet from the source to the destination is 2n is in MACA, n in MACA-BI, but only (n + 1) in MARCH. Ifn is large, MARCH will have a very similar number of handshakes as in MACA-BI. ° There are n — | intermediary nodes between the source and destination. ¢ MARCH can be viewed as a request-first, pull-later protocol since the subsequent nodes in the path just need to send invitations to pull the data toward the destination node. ¢ The RTS-CTS message in MARCH contains: © The MAC addresses of the sender and receiver ° The xonte.identification. number (RT,5)MARCH: Media Access with Reduced Handshake . — a) ity, Punjab “Route 1 oO (Chanda prakash, Lovely Professional Univers