LEFT: SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT

SOURCES
http://sdeuoc.ac.in/sites/default/files/sde_videos/SLM-PG-Foreign%20Policy.pdf
https://www.cbpbu.ac.in/userfiles/file/2020/STUDY_MAT/POL_SC/PRINCIPLES
%20%20AND%20OBJECTIVES%20OF%20INDIAN%20FOREIGN%20POLICY-
converted.pdf
https://advocatetanmoy.com/2020/06/24/indias-foreign-policy-an-overview-of-core-
objectives/

IFP UNIT 1
NOV-DEC EXAMINATIONS

FRAMEWORK

I. Introduction

II. Fundamental objectives, principles and determinants of IFP- Sumit Ganguly, Amrita
Narlikar,

III. Six schools of thought in IFP- KANTI BAJPAI

IV. Phases- SUMIT GANGULY

FOR NEHRU ERA- WALTER ANDERSON
Indian foreign policy and contemporary security challenges
Author(s): ROHAN MUKHERJEE and DAVID M. MALONE

V. Conclusion

NAM
India's Foreign Policy Grows Up
Author(s): Sumit Ganguly
Introduction

Foreign policy is defined as the general objectives that guide the activities and
relationships of one state in its interactions with other states. The development of
foreign policy is influenced by domestic considerations, the policies or behaviour of
other states, or plans to advance specific geopolitical designs. Leopold von Ranke
emphasized the primacy of geography and external threats in shaping foreign policy,
but later writers emphasized domestic factors.

According to Joseph Frankle ‘foreign policy consists of decisions and actions and
while involve some appreciable extent relations between one state and others’
(Shivakumar, 2011).

Padelford and Lincolin defines “Foreign policy is the key element in the process by
which a state translates its broadly conceived goals and interests into concrete course
of action to attain these objectives and preserve interests” .From ancient periods
onwards India was engaging with the world. It is evident from the writings of the
scholars and travellers. During the national movement Nehru have clear vision of
engaging with the world. As a newly independent nation, India gave much emphasis in
engaging with the world.

(OPTIONAL) Article 51 of the Constitution of India clearly stipulate that ‘(a) promote
international peace and security; (b) maintain just and honourable relations between
nations; (c) foster respect for international law and treaty obligations in the dealings of
organised peoples with one another; and encourage settlement of international disputes
by arbitration ‘ are its foreign policy objectives.

The following answer encapsulates the objectives, determinants and phases of India’s
foreign policy. (Please write something guys. My brain stopped here.)
Objectives of India’s Foreign Policy

Major objectives of every country's foreign policy are aimed at to fulfil the national
interests of that state. India is no exception to this phenomenon. A depth analysis
reveals that generally a consensus is found on the national interests in the country. But
it may not always be necessary all the time.

National Security
For any country, national security and territorial integrity used to be the prime concern
and main objective for it. Making a comparative assessment of the three primary
objectives it has rightly been observed that security is the first guarantee of a state's
international personality; national development is its categorical imperative; and an
ordered pattern of international relations is a minimum precondition for its independent
existence and free development. In the case of India, to a great extent, security includes
both traditional and non-traditional threat concerns. It also includes independent
decision making on international issues, opposition to military alliances, friendly
relations with neighbours and opposition to policies of colonialism and imperialism.
Besides, India has been a staunch critic of outside intervention and cold war. It is in
favour of judging foreign policy issues on the merit of the case. Consequently, its policy
of non-alignment represents its freedom, security and sovereignty.

Economic Development
For a developing country like India, rapid economic development naturally becomes a
significant determinant of its foreign policy. In this context, first of all it has to develop its
power potentials which is dependent on three important variables- (I) population; (ii)
natural resources: and (iii) technology. Later on, the pattern of growth in India has to be
determined in terms of its constitutional limitations, role of state, and ideology of
economic development. These domestic factors need to be coordinated with the outside
world through foreign policy.

Moreover, it has to strengthen economic cooperation with the outside world through the
activities of foreign aid, capital investments, joint ventures, trade etc. Therefore, India
since its inception has been a supporter of getting the IMF and World Bank loans and
aids from the developed world. India's insistence for the establishment of the New
International Economic Order (NIEO) in the 1970s also established this objective. It is
also a supporter of present organization like the World Trade Organization (WTO).

World Order
Foreign policy of a country works in a particular international milieu. Major task of any
country's foreign policy is to fulfil its national interests by making a favourable world
order. That is why Jawaharlal Nehru visualized the working of foreign policy in a larger
global order. India has been a supporter of the policy of disarmament in the contest of
threats from the nuclear explosions. Similarly, it opposed cold war politics in the larger
interest of the requirement of peace for the developing countries. India was very much
vocal on the issues, like freedom of colonies; opposition to colonialism, imperialism and
racialism; opposition to power blocks; strengthening the United Nations; complete
disarmament; world peace etc.

Opposition to Colonialism, Imperialism and Racialism

Struggle against colonialism, imperialism and racialism has been the leading
"ideological currents" in Indian foreign policy. Based on India's own experiences with
servitude, in the post independence era India supported the cause of anti-imperialism in
the context of other such nations. India opposed all such policies of other such countries
within the United Nations and outside this forum. India has been ardent critic of the
policy of apartheid in South Africa. It has always felt concerned about the economic
development of the nations in the African continent. Rajiv Gandhi's efforts toward the
setting up of an `Africa fund` is a clear example of India's such foreign policy orientation.

Supporter of Disarmament
India has been striving hard for disarmament through the United Nations and other such
forums. It had introduced numerous resolutions or amendments to resolutions
introduced by other states in the United Nations to achieve the aim of general and
complete disarmament. It has taken active part in the 18 nations committee on
Disarmament (CD), which was created by the General Assembly in 1961, and opened
in Geneva on 14 May 1962, and has been functioning ever since. India facilitated the
process of the indoctrination of non-proliferation treaty (NPT). However, due to its non-
universal and discriminatory nature, India did not sign its final shape and started the
demand for the conclusion of a `comprehensive` test ban treaty. Consequently, in
December 1993, India and the United States of America jointly sponsored the CTBT.

Important Role in Asia

One central point of India's foreign policy has been to play an important role in Asia.
Due to its history, cultural legacy, area, geographical conditions etc. its ruling elite
perceived an important role for India in this region. Even during the freedom movement,
it raised the grievances of other Asian states along with its own concerns.

Besides, it participated in the important conferences convened to discuss the problems

of Asia. For instance, it took part in the 1920 Asian conference in Kazakhstan, along
with 19 other nations. Not only this, even before its independence, it convened a
conference of Asian states in New Delhi from 23 March to 2 April 1947. Thus, India
always made efforts to play a significant role in Asia.
Afro-Asian Regional Cooperation
Since its inception India has made serious efforts to bring out cooperation among the
states of Asia and Africa. During the cold war era, this effort has mainly been limited to
political dimension. In the post cold war era, economic dimensions acquired prominence
in the development of Afro-Asian cooperation. First, through the SAARC, an effort is
being made to develop free-trade area. Second, by developing cooperation between
SAARC and ASEAN, it wants to extend the area of cooperation in Asia. India is
interested in creating cooperation among the countries of Asia, Africa and Indian Ocean
littorals.

Faith in United Nations

One of the essential aims of India's foreign policy has been its quest for peace through
the United Nations. India's deep commitment towards this body can be seen from its
joining of the United Nations as primary member even prior to its freedom. India
considers it as the only hope for peaceful cooperation among nations. That is why; it
never wavered in its support to this body, even when it felt disappointed with the
treatment meted out to it by the UN in respect of Kashmir and other such issues. India
took keen interest in all kinds of activities of the United Nations. By giving prime
importance to peace in its foreign policy, it has indirectly contributed to strengthen the
foundation of the United Nations. Despite its poverty it has always paid its contribution
to the United Nations in time. It has also contributed its forces for the UN peacekeeping
activities.
BASIC PRINCIPLES

While keeping in view the fundamental objectives of India’s foreign policy India has
adopted and pursued certain principles to realize these objectives.
Principles on the one hand, provide rational analysis of foreign policy, and on the other hand,
they represent continuity in foreign affairs. The principles governing India's foreign policy are as
under: -

Panchsheel
Indian Policy makers understood the linkage between peace and development and
survival of mankind. In view of the destruction caused by two world wars, they realized
that for the progress of a nation a durable world peace was needed. Without global
peace, social and economic development is likely to be pushed to the background.
Thus, the founder of India’s foreign policy, Nehru gave utmost importance to world
peace in his policy planning. While signing a peace agreement with China; he
advocated adherence to five guiding principles known as Panchsheel. Panchsheel was
signed on 29 April, 1954 and since then it has become a guiding principle of India’
bilateral relations with countries also.

Panchsheel includes the following five principles of foreign policy:

1. Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty.
2. Non-aggression against each other.
3. Non-interference in each other’s internal affairs.
4. Equality and mutual benefit.
5. Peaceful co-existence.

These principles of Panchsheel were later incorporated in the Bandung Declaration,

signed in the Afro-Asian Conference held in 1955 in Indonesia. They are the core
principles of Non-alignment and still guide the conduct of India’s foreign policy.

Policy of Non-alignment
Non-alignment is the most important feature of India’s foreign policy. India's policy of non-
alignment has been derived from two fold sources: material and non-material. The two key
material mainsprings are geopolitical and economic in character. Among the non-material
sources prominent are – historical legacies; and, philosophy/tradition of the country. Its core
element is to maintain independence in foreign affairs by not joining any military alliance
formed by the USA and Soviet Union, which emerged as an important aspect of cold
war politics after the Second World War. It postulates taking an independent stand on
international issues according to the merits of each case but at the same time not
committing to coming under the influence of any military bloc. Thus, keeping away from
the military alliances and super power bocks was a necessary condition for the
independence of foreign policy. India’s policy of nonalignment got many supporters in
the developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America as it provided them
opportunity for protecting their foreign policy independence amidst the cold war
pressures and tensions.

The Bandung conference laid down ten fundamental principles of international relations,
which included five principles of Panchsheel. The leaders pledged to work together for
colonial liberation, peace, and cultural, economic and political cooperation among
developing countries. The Bandung Conference was a precursor to the NAM, which
held its first Summit in 1961 at Belgrade.

Continued Relevance of Non-alignment: As NAM was a product of cold war politics

and the bipolar world, many scholars have questioned the relevance of NAM after the
end of the cold war and disintegration of the Soviet Union. Again, globalization led to the
change in the priorities of even its chief voters like India, which tried to adopt neo-liberal
market economy principles in order to integrate with the emerging global order. This
new situation generated the impression as if NAM is sidelined and its relevance is
declining. However, if we go deep in the basic features of NAM, it appears to be equally
significant also in the changing context due to the following factors:

1. The NAM can act as a check against undue dominance and hegemony of any
country or block.

2. The NAM may provide a forum for third world countries to engage the developed
nations in a productive dialogue.

3. The NAM can prove to be a powerful mechanism to forge South-South cooperation,

which is essential for their collective self reliance in the present market driven global
order.

4. NAM can provide an important forum for developing countries to discuss and
deliberate upon various global problems, issues and reforms including the reform of the
UN and other international financial institutions.

Policy of Resisting Colonialism, Imperialism, Racism

India has been a victim of colonialism and racism and was as such opposed to these
evils in any form. India considers colonialism and imperialism as the threat to
international peace and security India was the first to bring the issue of Apartheid in the
UN in 1946. India raised its voice for the independence of Indonesia and organized
Asian Relations Conference for this purpose. Due to India’s consistent efforts through
NAM and other international forums, 14 African countries were liberated from the yoke
of colonialism in 1964. India made sincere efforts to end the scourge of apartheid in
South Africa. At India’s initiative, NAM set up the Africa Fund (Action for Resisting
Imperialism, Colonialism and Apartheid) in 1986 to help the frontline states, which were
victims of aggression of South Africa for supporting the cause of fight against
Apartheid. India made a generous contribution to this fund. The end of racialism in
South Africa in 1990 was a great success for Indian policy.

Peaceful Settlement of International Disputes

One of the core elements of India’s foreign policy is its unflinching faith in the political
solution and peaceful settlement of international disputes. This principle has been
included in the Constitution of India, under the Directive Principles of State Policy as
well as in the Charter of the UN. India has played leading role in the resolution of
Korean conflict and supported negotiated settlement of Palestine issue, Kashmir
problem, border problems with neighboring countries and other such disputes and
problems. At present, India is in favour of resolution of peaceful settlement of Iranian
nuclear issue, problem of democratic upsurge in Middle East and so on. India is always
against foreign military intervention for resolving international problems. This principle
continues to be the cornerstone of India’s policy.

Support to UN, International Law and a Just and Equal World Order
India has deep respect for the international law and/or the principles of sovereign
equality of nations and non-interference in the internal affairs of other nations as
espoused by the UN. India has supported the cause of disarmament pursued by the
UN. In 1988, India proposed a very ambitious programme of nuclear disarmament
before the UN. Though this proposal was not accepted by the other members of the UN,
India stands committed to the cause of universal disarmament even today.

India has played a key role in preserving world peace by helping in the decolonization
process, and through active participation in UN peacekeeping activities. In order to
make the composition of the Security Council more realistic and democratic, India has
proposed and supported the reform of Security Council and other UN agencies. India is
one of the claimants of permanent membership of the Security Council.
Determinants of India’sforeign Policy

The determinants of foreign policy of any nation can be divided mainly into two classes:
-(1) Internal Factors and (2) External Factors. And India is no exception for this
classification. Major determinants of India’s Foreign Policy are listed below.

Geography
Napoleon once stated that any country’s foreign policy is determined by its geography.
Country’s size, location, topography etc. are basic determinants of any country’s foreign
policy. In 1948 Nehru spoke of India as the pivotal centre of South, South-East, and
Western Asia. It is a sort of Asian bridge. Further its northern borders are generally
protected by the mighty Himalayas. It has a vast sea coast on three sides. This factor
cannot be ignored in foreign policy making. India's coastline is vital for its foreign policy.
Indian Ocean was used as a route for penetration into India during the 17th - 19th
centuries by the French, British, Dutch and the Portuguese. Most of the foreign trade of
India goes through the Indian Ocean. India has been supporting the demand of Indian
Ocean as a zone of peace because that is essentially vital for India's security. India has
common land frontiers, at places, with Pakistan, Bangladesh, China, Myanmar (Burma)
Nepal and Bhutan. The former Soviet Union was also very near to the State of Jammu
Kashmir. Thus, India’s geographical position provides it an important place in
international and regional context but at the same time creates a sense of insecurity
also.

History and Political Tradition

The foreign policy of a nation is highly influenced by its political history and traditions.
As Nehru said, ‘a country’s foreign policy ultimately emerges from its own tradition,
usages, and objectives and more particularly from its recent past.’ Palmer and Perkins
point out that the roots of Indian foreign policy are to be found in her civilization, the
heritage of British policies, the independence movement and the influence of Gandhian
Philosophy. J.Bandopadhya analyses the influence of Indian political traditions in
context of five elements. These are: - ideal thought of politics and power; idealistic view
of international politics; opposition to apartheid and imperialism; capitalist western
system; and opposition to communism. Development of Indian culture and civilization
has always been based on the principle of ‘Vasudhaiva Kutumbhkam’ (the whole world
is a family).

Economic Development
Country’s economic dependency is another factor determining foreign policy.If a
nation’s economy is economically sound, that nation will be able to interact with other
nations without any obligations. Most of the nations are dependent in one way or
another with other nations. As a developing nation India’s development is not possible
without the financial and technical assistance from others. India implanted certain steel
plants like Rourkela(German Collaboration), Bokharo (with Soviet assistance) etc. with
the help of other countries. Since 1990, India has followed Liberalization, Privatization
and Globalization for the development. According to J Bandopadhaya, its impact can
be evaluated through the study of three main key points. These are: (1) National Power
Capability, (2) Development Techniques, and (3) Diplomacy of Development.

National interest
H. J. Morgenthau stated that foreign policy operates under the standard of the national
interest. Jawaharlal Nehru said. “whether a country is imperialistic or socialist or
communist, its foreign minister thinks primarily of the interests of that country”. National
interest plays a pivotal role in the development of foreign policy. However, it is dynamic
as the nation’s interest keeps on changing with domestic and international
developments.

Regional Environment
The incidents in nearby regions necessarily have a direct influence on the foreign policy
of India. Mutual relations of South Asian countries, reduction of tension in this region,
free from weapons and military alliances, free from outside interventions will have
positive impact while non-cooperation, competition, struggle and cold war will have
negative impact on foreign policy.
The South Asian region is undoubtedly one of the most volatile region in terms of
International politics where countries have faced major shifts in their relations and
subsequently foreign policies.

International Milieu
International Milieu means international environment. There are a lot of examples that
show how the international milieu has time and again influenced the foreign policy of
India.

-Nehru adopted the policy of non-alignment for overcoming the cold war scenario. As a
newly independent nation, India needed support from all quarters for the fulfilment of
economic development. Nehru understood that aligning with one block will limit the
possibility of getting assistance from the other; therefore it was wiser to stay non-
aligned.
-When the nuclear weapons states tried to make nuclear apartheid by formulating NPT,
Indira Gandhi decided not to sign the agreement. Later India conducted two nuclear
tests and acquired the status of Nuclear weapons’ state.
-Disintegration of Soviet Union and end of Cold War influenced India to frame the Look
East Policy.
Thus we may conclude that the International political environment is directly associated
with the international role of a nation. If this environment is according to the situations of
a country it can play a sounder role on international fronts/platforms. If the environment
is against, then such possibilities become nil.
PHASES OF IFP

India’s foreign Minister, S. Jaishankar, divides the Indian foreign policy development
into six broad phases, each a response to a different strategic environment.

The first phase from 1946-62 could be characterized as an era of optimistic non-
alignment. Its setting was very much of a bipolar world, with camps led by the United
States and the USSR. India’s objectives were to resist the constraining of its choices
and dilution of its sovereignty as it rebuilt its economy and consolidated its integrity. Its
parallel goal, as the first of the decolonized nations, was to lead Asia and Africa in a
quest for a more equitable world order. This was the heyday of Bandung and Belgrade
and the peak of Third World solidarity. It also saw energetic Indian diplomacy from
Korea and Vietnam to the Suez and Hungary. The 1962 conflict with China not only
brought this period to an end, but in a manner that significantly damaged India’s
standing.

The second phase from 1962-71 is a decade of realism and recovery. India made
pragmatic choices on security and political challenges despite a paucity of resources. It
looked beyond non-alignment in the interest of national security, concluding a now
largely forgotten defence agreement with the U.S. in 1964. External pressures on
Kashmir mounted in this period of vulnerability. The global context remained bipolar, but
it now saw the emergence of limited cooperation between the US and USSR. South
Asia happened to be a particular area of convergence and Indian diplomacy had to face
the superpowers together, as it did in Tashkent in 1965. It was also a period when
domestic challenges were particularly acute, ranging from political turbulence to
economic distress.

The third phase, from 1971 to 1991, was one of greater Indian regional assertion. It
started with the decisive dismantlement of an India-Pakistan equivalence through
creation of Bangladesh, but ended with the IPKF misadventure in Sri Lanka. The larger
environment by now was dramatically different, with the Sino-US rapprochement of
1971 upending the strategic landscape. The Indo-Soviet Treaty and the adoption of
more pro-Soviet positions on international issues were India’s response to this
challenge. It was a particularly complex phase as the US-China-Pakistan axis which
came into being at this time seriously threatened India’s prospects. While they had
many long-term consequences, the shift in India’s posture came more from other
factors. The collapse of USSR, its close ally, and the economic crisis in 1991 compelled
a change in foreign policy.

The dissolution of the USSR and the emergence of a "unipolar” world characterized the
fourth phase. It encouraged a radical rethink in India on a broad range of issues. And it
shifted focus to safeguarding strategic autonomy. The Look East policy summarized the
changed Indian approach to world affairs, which also saw adjustments in its position on
Israel. This is a period where India reached out to engage the US more intensively, yet
did so while protecting its equities in critical areas. This quest for strategic autonomy
was particularly focused on securing its nuclear weapon option, but also visible in trade
negotiations. After 1998, it was now a declared nuclear weapon power, had fended off
Pakistan’s military adventurism in Kargil in 1999, generated enough economic growth to
be of global interest, and managed well a United States that was focusing more on
developments in Asia and the consequences of Islamic fundamentalism.

This more competitive environment opened up new windows of opportunity for India,
especially as the United States found it difficult to maintain the same degree of
unipolarity. As a consequence, India discovered the benefits of working with different
powers on different issues. This fifth phase is one where India gradually acquired the
attributes of a balancing power. It is reflected in the India-US nuclear deal. At the same
time, India could also make common cause with China on climate change and trade,
and consolidate further ties with Russia while helping to fashion BRICS into a major
forum. This was, in some senses, a period of opportunity where India moved the global
needle by taking new positions.

A number of developments came together to change calculations by 2014, initiating the

sixth phase. To begin with, China gathered more momentum and the terms of
engagement it offered to the world progressively hardened. At the other extreme, the
American trumpet sounded increasingly uncertain. U.S. resource limitation was
aggravated by risk aversion in the aftermath of the Iraq war. Declaring an Afghan
withdrawal and displaying growing tepidity in the Asia-Pacific sent messages well
beyond the immediate issues. For its part, Europe too turned increasingly inwards, not
appreciating that political agnosticism would have its own cost. Japan’s efforts to
acquire a greater say continued to unfold only gradually. The full impact of the 2008
financial crisis and global economic rebalancing made itself felt in a variety of ways. As
the world saw a wider dispersal of power and more localized equations, it was evident
that multi-polarity was now seriously upon us. Clearly, this called for a very different
approach than practicing politics with a more limited set of dominant players.