Practical Book

PHYSICS
Level 1
2022-2023
Practical skills & paper 3

Dr / Nahed Issa
Name: ………………………………………………..………………………..
PRACTICAL SKILLS - PAPER 3 LEVEL 1
2022/2023
Physics – L1 Dr/ Nahed Issa 1

Convert A Number To Scientific Notation
Example:

A proposal intended to explain certain facts or

observations
Hypotheses Tips
1. The question comes first
2. A hypothesis is a statement, not a question.
To create a “testable” hypothesis makes sure of:
• Make it clear.
• Keep the variables in mind.
• defines the variables in easy-to-measure
•
➢ Independent: The one that you change

(normally plotted on the x-axis)
➢ Dependent: The one that you measure plotted on the (y- axis)
➢ Control : What you keep the same to ensure that the experiment is fair.
(Tip: Imagine you doing the experiment, don't just say keep the same measuring
cylinder, keep using the same stop watch – those things are assumed and will not get you
mark!)

Example:
When investigating the rate of cooling, controls would be keeping the room temp constant,
start temperature of water the same, ensuring there are no draughts, keeping the amount of
liquid the same and keeping the amount of stirring constant.
To insure a fair test, a good experiment
Values and Readings

The values are the measurements
you must
✓ Decide the maximum and minimum values.
✓ Identify Intervals between values.
✓ Repeat readings.

Errors
Systematic error Random error

Causes by 1-Imperfect calibration of measurement 1-Unknown and unpredictable
2-Imperfect methods of observation changes in the experiment.
3 -Interference of the environment with 2-The environmental
the measurement process, conditions.
Examples Zero error Parallax error
Incorrect calibration Incorrectly using apparatus
Reduced Re-calibrate the apparatus or change it Repeat the readings and take
by an average
Zero error:
Caused by faulty equipment that doesn’t reset to zero properly.
Example :the needle on an ammeter failing to return to zero when no
current flows.
Parallax error
Caused by not reading the measurement at eye level.
To avoid parallax error
The eye line must in line or perpendicular to the plan of scale

Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy Precision
how close the readings are to the how close together repeat readings are
true value
You can improved accuracy by: You can improved precision by
• Improve the design of an • Using apparatus with smaller
investigation to reduce error scale divisions)higher resolution,
• Using more precise apparatus meaning more decimal places
• Repeating the measurment and For example, a digital thermometer is
calculate mean. preferable over an analogue one as it
Reliability ( repeatabillity ):
getting same results when repeating investigation to make sur the results are not
by chance

You can improved reliabitity by

• Contral other varibles
• Reapeating experiment untill no anamallous results are
achieved
Processing data
Tables
• Drawing a table by hand use a ruler and a pencil
• Column headings should show quantity and unit (examples: I/A, or t/s) y/
• independent variable in the first column and dependent variables in columns to the
right
• All results for a particular quantity should be recorded to the same number of decimal
places
• No units in the body of the table

Mathematical operation
1-Sample size and anomalous results

❑ An anomalous result
✓ Anomalies data points can be considered anomalies if they do not fit the trend
of the data, which happens as a result of random errors during the experiment.
✓ Anomalies should always be removed from the data set before calculating or
concluding anything.
Anomalous
2-Calculating percentage change:

❑ The percentage increasing:
Find the (increase) between the two numbers you are comparing.
Increase = New Number - Original Number
Divide the increase by the original number and multiply the answer by 100.
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆
Percentage of increasing = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
If your answer is a negative number then this is a percentage decrease.
❑ The percentage decreasing :
Find the (decrease) between the two numbers you are comparing.
Decrease = New Number - Original Number
Divide the increase by the original number and multiply the by 100.
𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞
Percentage of decreasing = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞
If your answer is a negative number, then this is a percentage increase.

Example
3- Mean / average:
∑𝒙
𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏 = n is the number of items of data
𝒏

4- Calculating the range of data:

Range = (largest value of x) – (smallest value of x)
5- Uncertainty:
Means the range of possible values within which the true value of the measurement lies.
The most common way to show the range of values is:
measurement = best estimate ± uncertainty
Example:
A measurement of 5.07 g ± 0.02 g
Means that the experimenter is confident that the actual value for the quantity being
measured lies between 5.05 g and 5.09 g.
Calculating uncertainty

Good procedures
• Repeat readings to spot anomalous errors or to calculate an average
• Avoid making parallax errors, {the line of sight should be perpendicular to the
reading on the scale}
• Look carefully at any scale that is used
❑ notice the unit in which the scale is calibrated - always give the unit of any
measurement
❑ notice the maximum reading that can be obtained
❑ notice the smallest change in value that can be obtained
❑ aim to
use
quantities that have magnitudes that are towards the upper values of the scale.
Graph
Drawing a graph
Tips Usually worth 5 marks
1) Draw axes correct way round, label axes and include units e.g. Resistance / Ω (Don't
write Resistance (Ω), use the forward slash "/")
2) Use appropriate scales so that the graph takes up most of the graph paper available.
If your range of values is, for example, 89 to 170, you don't need to start at zero, start
at 80.
Do not use an awkward scale to force the graph to take up all of the grid.
3) Plot all points to within ½ small square (examiner checks this very carefully!)
4) Ensure line of best fit.
Don't force a line through 0,0 unless the graph should go through the origin
5) Draw a single, continuous and sharp line.

Always use a very sharp pencil to plot points correctly and to draw a sharp line.

Interpret Graphs ( How to write the relation between variables)

• y increases as x increases
• straight line through the origin, if x is doubled then y is doubled, direct
proportionality
• y decreases as x increases
• x times y = k, inversely proportionality.
• Inverse proportionality is generally not properly understood
Calculate slop / gradient

1. Pick two points on the line and determine their
coordinates.
2. Determine the difference in y-coordinates of these
two points (rise).
3. Determine the difference in x-coordinates for
these two points (run).
4. Divide the difference in y-coordinates by the
difference in x-coordinates (rise/run or slope).

Conclusions
A conclusion identifies what has been learned from the investigation and may agree
or disagree with the hypothesis made during planning.
Justification
To justify a statement must be by reference to the readings.
A theoretical justification in a practical test will not gain marks.
For example:
You are shown the following table
which shows the temperature of two
different volumes of water.
Q: State whether the rate of cooling is

significantly faster, slower, or about the
same when using the larger volume of
hot water.
Justify your answer by reference to the
readings.
Statement: The rate of cooling is about
the same
Justification: The 150cm3 beaker cools from 84oC to 66oC in 150 seconds, which is an
18oC drop and the 250cm3 beaker cools from 85oC to 68oC which is a 16oC drop.

Develop arguments and explanations

Scientific arguments are based on evidence gathered during an investigation.
Evidence can be used to produce an explanation.
Data often allows more than one possible explanation.

Different scientists can have different explanations about the same evidence
collected.
Risk assessment
Hazards and risks
All experiments should be risk assessed to identify the hazards and minimize risks.
for example, the practical for investigating whether an increase in the size of a solar
panel increases the size of the voltage produced. This would involve shining a lamp on a
solar panel from a fixed distance and measuring the voltage produced from a voltmeter.
The risk assessment for this experiment might look like this:
Precaution to achieve a reliable result

A safe thing to say is "Repeat and average". Don't forget to say "and average”

Precaution or improvement the result

• when using a thermometer
❑ position the eye so that the mercury thread appears to touch the scale
❑ decide whether you can read between the marks on the thermometer, some
thermometers can be read to better than 1 ºC even though the marks are every
10 º C
❑ check whether the thermometer is full or 1/3 immersion
• in heat experiments
❑ choose volume/mass values of the quantities that give large changes in the
temperature
❑ insulate the container, cover the container
❑ stir and wait for highest temperature after stopping heating
• in electrical experiments
❑ check for a zero error
❑ tap the meter to avoid sticking
❑ initially choose the highest range for the ammeter/voltmeter, then reduce the
range for the ammeter so that the deflection is almost full scale
❑ always check polarities before closing the switch (completing the circuit)
❑ always check that connections are clean.
❑ switch off the current when not making a measurement.
❑ when measuring resistance use low currents/voltages to avoid heating and
changing the resistance you are measuring

Measurements
1- Measuring length
Length is usually measured by meter rule, tape measure or a trundle wheel
While taking measurements using a ruler the eye must be placed in line with the point
where the reading is to be taken.
position the eye perpendicularly at the mark on the scale to avoid parallax errors.
Precaution in experiments involving the measurement of a length

❑ Use lengths that are at least 100 mm in length
❑ measure to the nearest mm with a rule, or perhaps 0.5 mm
❑ Ensure that the rule is held perpendicular to the base
❑ Know how to arrange a set square either side of a cylinder.
❑ Avoid zero error by re-calibrate the tool.
Examples
1-Measuring the thickness of a coin
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2-Measuring the diameter of a wire
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3-Measuring the diameter of a ball
The diameter of a ball is measured using a meter rule and two set-squares
The readings on the rule are 16.8 cm and 20.4 cm.
Each reading has an uncertainty of ±1 mm.
Calculate, for the diameter of the ball
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4-Measuring the radius of a ball

2-Measuring volume
The amount of space that an object occupies is its volume.
The SI unit of volume is metre cubed, (m3 ).
Other units are: mm3 , cm3 , dm3 and litres
1 m3 = 1 000 000 cm3
1 dm3 = 1 000 cm3
1 litre = 1 dm3
1 litre = 1 000 cm
Regular Solids
The volume of regular solids is determined by measuring the dimensions and then
applying an appropriate formula.
Irregular Solids
The volume of irregular solids is determined by
1-Using displacement method.
(a) Measuring cylinder, water and a piece

of thin silk thread. Or
(b) Measuring cylinder, overflow

(displacement) can, water and a piece of silk
thread.
2-Using a measuring cylinder
- Fill a measuring cylinder with water. - Read

and record the initial reading.
- Tie the irregular object with a piece of thin
silk thread and lower it carefully into the
water in the cylinder until it is fully
immersed.
- Shake it gently to remove any air bubbles. -
Read and record the final reading.
Volume of irregular object = Final reading - Initial reading

Measurement of volume of Liquids

The volume of a given liquid is determined by using a measuring cylinder.
The liquid is carefully poured into the measuring cylinder and the volume is read off by
placing the eye level in line with the bottom of the meniscus of the liquid surface in
order to avoid error due to parallax.
Liquid levels
Reading must be taken at the of meniscus or curved surface of the liquid.
Reading must be taken at the top level of meniscus or curved surface (Mercury)
Top level
lowest level
water mercury.

Measuring Time
✓ The duration for a particular event to take place is measured using:
Stop clocks and stopwatches (both mechanical and digital).
✓ Due to accuracy and ease in reading, the digital stopwatches are preferred.
They measure to 0.01 second.
When using a stop watch/ clock
Reset it to zero then start it immediately
When the activity starts and stops it when the activity is finished.
Reset it again and repeat the experiment say three times.
Measurement of period of a simple pendulum

❑ Displace the bob from its rest position and then released.
❑ It begins to move to and fro (oscillate) about its rest position in a vertical plane.
❑ Obtain time for say 20 oscillations using a stop watch or stop clock.
e.g. t=48s The period of oscillation T is obtained by dividing this time by the number of
oscillations.
𝑻 = 𝒕 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟒𝟖/ 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝒔
Errors occur in measuring time

Human timing is not precise and accurate because of
reaction times in starting and stopping.
Measuring the reaction time

• Hold the top of the ruler with your arm stretched out.
Your fingers should be on the highest measurement.
• Ask a friend to put their thumb and index finger
slightly open at the bottom
of the ruler, with the ruler between their fingers.
• Drop the ruler and record the measurement on the
ruler where the fingers are.
Repeat for all participants.

• Precaution when measuring an interval of time

❑ a stopwatch can measure to about 0.1 s, it may give a reading to 0.01 s
❑ for oscillations (of a pendulum or vibrating rule), be able to define a complete
oscillation
❑ time N oscillations, usually N>10 and use the terminology periodic time T = t/N
❑ explain where the eye should be placed to avoid parallax errors
Mass and weight

Mass is a measure of how much matter there is in an object, while weight is a measure of the
size of the pull of gravity on the object.
Density
Density tells us how compact the
mass is in a material.
Definition: Density is defined as mass per unit volume of a substance.
Mathematically, it is expressed as: Density = Mass/ Volume; in symbols ρ = m/ v

Pressure :
Hooke's Law
The extension of a material or a spring is its increase in length when pulled.
Hooke’s Law says that the extension of an elastic object is directly proportional to the force
applied to it. In other words:
• if the force applied is doubled, the extension doubles

• if no force is applied, there is no extension
You can investigate Hooke’s Law using a spring:
1. hang the spring from a stand and clamp

2. measure its length with a ruler

3. hang an empty slotted mass carrier from the lower end and measure the new length of the spring
4. keep adding more slotted masses, measuring the new length each time
For mass added, calculate the extension (new length – length at
start). You can then plot a force-extension graph:
The graph should be a

straight line that passes
through the origin (0,0).
The diagram shows an
example of this.
Determining speed
Laboratory measurements of speed
Laboratory measurements of speed
Here are some different ways to measure the speed of a trolley in the laboratory
as it travels along a straight line.
1-Using two light gates
Figure 1.4 the leading edge of the card in breaks the light beam as it passes the
first light gate.
This starts the timer, the timer stops when

the front of the card breaks the second
beam.
The trolley’s speed is calculated from the

time interval and the distance between the
light gates.

Figure 1.5 using one light gate the timer

starts when the leading edge of the card
breaks the light beam.
It stops when the trailing edge passes

through.
In this case, the time shown is the time

taken for the trolley to travel a distance
equal to the length of the card.
The computer software can calculate the speed directly by dividing the distance
by the time taken
2- A data logger (data recorder)

An electronic device that records data and stores it.
It can be set to record at regular time intervals or upon the pressing of a key or
button.
3- Slow motion cameras

Sometimes something can be moving too quickly for us to accurately take a
reading.
A bouncing ball can be filmed with a slow-motion camera bouncing up against a
Scale to see the height it bounces to.
This will improve the accuracy of the measurement
4- A motion sensor :
The motion sensor (Figure 1.7) transmits
regular pulses of ultrasound at the trolley.
It detects the reflected waves and
determines the time they took for the trip to
the trolley and back.
From this, the computer can deduce the
distance to the trolley from the motion
sensor. It can generate a distance–time
graph.

Note : Measuring the reaction time

Reaction time depends on the time taken for the signals to travel between your eye, brain
and hand.
5-The ticker-tape timer
The ticker-timer marks dots on the tape
at regular intervals, usually 1 50 s (i.e.
0.02 s).
This is because it works with alternating
current and in most countries the
frequency of the alternating mains
The distance between dots on a ticker tape
1. The distance between two adjacent dots on a

ticker-tape represents the displacement of the
object in a tick (0.02 s).
2. If the object moves quickly, the dots are far apart.
If the object moves slowly, the dots are close to each other.
3. Figure below shows the ticker-tapes produced by a fast and a slow-moving
object.
The distance between dots on a ticker tape represents the object's position
change during that time interval.
A large distance between dots indicates that the object was moving fast during
that time interval.

A small distance between dots means the object was moving slow during that
time interval.
The analysis of a ticker tape diagram will also reveal if the object is moving with
a constant velocity or accelerating.
A changing distance between dots indicates a changing velocity and thus
an acceleration.
A constant distance between dots represents a constant velocity and therefore
no acceleration.
Example problem
working out the speed
The piece of tape in the diagram is 5 SPACES long.

Each space is 1/50 s so five spaces will be 5/50 s or 1/10s.
So the piece of tape went through the timer in 1/10s.
The piece of tape is 7 cm long.
If 7cm of tape go through in 1/10

The speed is then 70 cm/s.

Experiment 1 Measuring acceleration
Using a light gate:

The card is designed to break the light beam twice
The computer can then calculate the velocity and find its acceleration.
1 1
Note : 𝑣1 = & 𝑣2 =
𝑡1 𝑡3
𝑣2 − 𝑣1
𝑎=
𝑡2
T1 1 T3 1 T2 𝑣2 − 𝑣1
𝑣1 = 𝑣2 = 𝑎=
𝑡1 𝑡3 𝑡2

Experiment 2 Measuring acceleration due to gravity
Aims of the Experiment

• The overall aim of the experiment is to calculate the value of the
acceleration due to gravity, g
• This is done by measuring the time it takes for a ball-bearing to fall a
certain distance. The acceleration is then calculated using an equation of
motion
Variables
• Independent variable = height, h
• Dependent variable = time, t
• Control variables:
o Same steel ball–bearing
o Same electromagnet
o Distance between ball-bearing and top of the glass tube
Equipment List

• Resolution of measuring equipment:

o Metre ruler = 1 mm
o Timer = 0.01 s
Method
Apparatus set up to measure the distance and time for the ball
bearing to drop
This method is an example of the procedure for varying the

height the ball-bearing falls and determining the time taken –
this is just one possible relationship that can be tested
1. Set up the apparatus by attaching the electromagnet

to the top of a tall clamp stand. Do not switch on the current
till everything is set up
2. Place the glass tube directly underneath the electromagnet, leaving space for the ball-
bearing. Make sure it faces directly downwards and not at an angle
3. Attach both light gates around the glass tube at a starting distance of around 10 cm
4. Measure this distance between the two light gates as the height, h with a metre ruler
5. Place the cushion directly underneath the end of the glass tube to catch the ball-bearing
when it falls through
6. Switch the current on the electromagnet and place the ball-bearing directly underneath so it
is attracted to it
7. Turn the current to the electromagnet off. The ball should drop
8. When the ball drops through the first light gate, the timer starts
9. When the ball drops through the second light gate, the timer stops
10. Read the time on the timer and record this as time, t
11. Increase h (eg. by 5 cm) and repeat the experiment. At least 5 – 10 values for h should be
used
12. Repeat this method at least 3 times for each value of h and calculate an average t for each
Example Table of Results

d/cm 𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐 t2
1
g= 𝑑/𝑡 2
2
g = slop ×2
Evaluating the Experiment
Systematic Errors:
•
Residue magnetism after the electromagnet is switched off may cause t to be recorded as
longer than it should be
Random Errors:
• Large uncertainty in d from using a metre rule with a precision of 1 mm

• Parallax error from reading d
• The ball may not fall accurately down the centre of each light gate
• Random errors are reduced through repeating the experiment for each value of h at least 3-
5 times and finding an average time, t
Safety Considerations
• The electromagnetic requires current

o Care must be taken to not have any water near it
o To reduce the risk of electrocution, only switch on the current to the electromagnet
once everything is set up
• A cushion or a soft surface must be used to catch the ball-bearing so it doesn’t roll off /
damage the surface
• The tall clamp stand needs to be attached to a surface with a G clamp so it stays rigid

Experiment 3
Force, mass and acceleration
Aim of the Experiment

• The aim of this experiment is to investigate the effect of varying force on
the acceleration of an object of constant mass
Variables
• Independent variable = force, F

• Dependent variable = acceleration, a
o Mass, m
Equipment List
• Resolution of measuring equipment

o Stopwatch = 0.01 s

Method
1. Use the metre ruler to measure out intervals on the bench, e.g. every 0.2 m
for a total distance of 1 m. Draw straight lines with pencil or chalk across
the table at these intervals
2. Attach the bench pulley to the end of the bench
3. Tie some string to the toy car or trolley. Pass the string over the pulley and
attach the mass hanger to the other end of the string
4. Make sure the string is horizontal (i.e. parallel to the bench) and is in line
with the toy car or trolley
5. Hold the toy car or trolley at the start point
6. Attach the full set of weights (total = 1.0 N) to the end of the string
7. Release the toy car or trolley at the same time as you or a partner starts
the stopwatch. Press the stopwatch (in lap mode) at each measured
interval on the bench and for the final time at 1.0 m
8. Record the results in the table and repeat step 7 to calculate an average
time for each interval
9. Repeat steps 5-8 for decreasing weights on the weight hanger, e.g. 0.8 N,
0.6 N, 0.4 N, and 0.2 N. Make sure you place the masses that you remove
from the weight stack onto the top of the car, using the Blu-tac, each time
you decrease the weight
A possible results table is illustrated as an example below:

Analysis of Results
• Use the table
• of results to determine the average speed of the trolley between intervals
o Use the distance between each interval (0.2 m) and the average time
it takes for the toy car or trolley to travel that distance to calculate the
average speed per interval
• Compare the average speed between the first and last intervals for
different weights
• Use the equation below to calculate the acceleration between the first and
the last intervals:
• Do this for each different weight, comparing how the acceleration varies
• Plot a graph of acceleration (y – axis) against force (x- axis).
• Use the graph to answer the following questions:

Analysis of Results
• As in Experiment 1, use the table of results to determine the average speed of the trolley
between intervals
o Use the distance between each interval (0.2 m) and the average time it takes for the
toy car or trolley to travel that distance to calculate the average speed per interval
• Compare the average speed between the first and last intervals for different weights
• Use the equation below to calculate the acceleration between the first and the last intervals:
Evaluating the Experiments

Systematic Errors:
• Experiment 1: ensure any weights removed from the weight hanger are transferred to the
toy car or trolley
o This is to ensure the total mass of the system remains constant
Random errors:
• A main cause of error in this experiment is the measurements of time

o Ensure to take repeat readings when timing intervals and calculate an average to
keep this error to a minimum
• Start the toy car by releasing it, allowing it to accelerate under the force of the weights
attached by the string
o Ensure not to give it a 'push'
• Don't stand directly beneath the weight hanger, in case any weights become loose and fall
off.


Experiment 4
Terminal velocity lab
Introduction
When an object falls through a liquid or a gas, it accelerates until it reaches a terminal
speed.
This effect occurs due to the force of drag acting against the force of weight.
As the speed of an object increases, the size of the drag force also increases until the
drag force is equal in size but opposite in direction to the force of weight and
acceleration can no longer increase.
The drag force acting on an object depends on the surface area of the object and the
speed at which it is travelling through the fluid.
Scientists use these ideas to make space shuttles, planes and cars move through the air
more efficiently and also to slow things down.
Aim
Investigate the terminal speed of a falling object.
Equipment
• At least 5 paper cake cases
• 2 meter rules
• Clamp stand, boss and clamp
• Stopwatch
• Pointer (such as a pencil)
• Mass balance
Method
1 Set up the equipment as shown.
Ensure there is a convenient height between the pointer and the floor.
Record this distance in the results table in the observations section.

2 Use the mass balance to measure the mass of one cake case.
Record this in the results table.
3 Release the paper cake case from a height about 20–30 cm above the pointer.
4 Measure the time taken for the paper cake case to travel from the height of the
pointer to the floor. Record this time in the results table.
5 Repeat steps 3 and 4 twice more.
6 Repeat steps 3–5, increasing the number of stacked cake cases by one until you reach
a total of six cases.
7 Calculate a value for the terminal speed using the appropriate equation and complete
the final column of the results table.


Experiment 5
Centripetal Force and Speed
Purpose:
lab
The purpose of this lab is to investigate the relationship between the speed of an object in
uniform circular motion (and centripetal force on the object.
Tools :
Plastic tube
Nylon thread
Paper clip
Rubber bung 0r washer
Mass
Procedures
1. Place a rubber bung or washers (on

the bottom clip of the apparatus.
This part of the apparatus hangs
straight down, and the weight of the
washers supplies the centripetal
force.
2. Practice whirling the stopper (or
ball) until you can keep the top clip a
short distance below the bottom of the glass tube while the stopper
whirls. IMPORTANT! If the clip touches the bottom of the glass tube, the
weights are no longer supplying the centripetal force! If the clip rises or falls
appreciably as the stopper whirls, the radius of the circle is changing. Practice!
3. Use a stopwatch to measure the time taken for a reasonable number of revolutions (20
- 30 perhaps). Record your data.
4. Change the number of washers on the bottom clip (centripetal force) and repeat steps
3 and 4. Repeat for several different weights. Record the data.
5. Change the position of the top clip to change the radius of the circle. Repeat the
experiment for this radius. Be sure to indicate where the radius changes in your data
table.
6. If you have time, you might try to determine the relationship between mass and
centripetal force.
In order to do this, you need to keep both the radius of the circle and the speed
constant while you vary the mass and the centripetal force. You can design your own

data table for this. You could also investigate the relationship between the radius and
the centripetal force.
Results table
Key
Speed = 2πr/T
R radius
T period time

Experiment 6
Momentum lab
Tools
Ramp
Marbles
Stop watch.
Steps
1- Roll a marble down a ramp by itself and measured its

velocity across a horizontal track. The velocity
measurement let them calculate the marble’s
momentum across the track since they’d measured the
mass of the marble before rolling it down the ramp:
momentum = mass x velocity
Note that since mass was measured in grams (g) and velocity in centimeters per second
(cm/s), their units of momentum were gram-centimeters per second (g cm/s).
2- Next they put a second marble at the bottom of the ramp as a target, so the
first marble would hit it and redistribute the momentum
3- Finally, calculate the momentum of the two marbles at the end, and the
combined momentum should have been equal to the momentum of the one
marble from before if momentum had been conserved.

Experiment 7 Conservation of energy

Essential Question: How do I analyze and apply the principle of conservation
of energy?
MATERIALS:
Meter stick, tape measure, golf ball, and calculator
Instructions:
1. Calculate the weight of the golf ball. The mass of the golf ball is 45.0
grams.
2. Drop the golf ball from a certain height, record this height in Table , and
calculate for the gravitational potential energy ( GPE).
3. Measure the bouncing heights of the golf ball and record them on the
succeeding tables.


Experiment 8 Measuring specific heat capacity

• The aim of the experiment is to determine the specific heat capacity of a

substance, by linking the decrease of one energy store (or work done) to
the increase in temperature and subsequent increase in thermal energy
stored
Variables:
• Independent variable = Time, t

• Dependent variable = Temperature, θ
o Material of the block
o Current supplied, I
o Potential difference supplied, V
Equipment List


o Thermometer = 1 °C
o Voltmeter = 0.1 V
o Ammeter = 0.01 A
Method
Apparatus to investigate the specific heat capacity of the aluminium block
1. Start by assembling the apparatus, placing the heater into the top of the
block
2. Measure the initial temperature of the aluminum block from the
thermometer
3. Turn on the power supply and start the stopwatch
4. Whilst the power supply is on, the heater will heat up the block. Take
several periodic measurements, eg. every 1 minute of the voltage and
current from the voltmeter and ammeter respectively, calculating an
average for each at the end of the experiment up to 10 minutes
5. Switch off the power supply, stop the stopwatch and leave the apparatus
for about a minute. The temperature will still rise before it cools
6. Monitor the thermometer and record the final temperature reached for the
block

Analysis of Results
• The thermal energy supplied to the block can be calculated using the equation:
E = IVt
• Where:
o E = thermal energy, in joules (J)
o I = current, in amperes (A)
o V = potential difference, in volts (V)
o t = time, in seconds (s)
• The change in thermal energy is defined by the equation:
ΔE = mcΔθ
• Where:
o ΔE = change in thermal energy, in joules (J)
o m = mass, in kilograms (kg)

o c = specific heat capacity, in joules per kilogram per degree Celsius (J/kg °C)
o Δθ = change in temperature, in degrees Celsius (°C)
• Rearranging for the specific heat capacity, c:
• These values are then substituted into the specific heat capacity equation to calculate the
specific heat capacity of the aluminium block
Systematic Errors:
• Make sure the voltmeter and ammeter are initially set to zero, to avoid zero
error
Random Errors:
• Not all the heat energy supplied from the heater will be transferred to the
block, some will go into the surroundings or heat up the thermometer
o This means the measured value of the specific heat capacity is likely
to be higher than what it actually is
o To reduce this effect, make sure the block is fully insulated
• A joulemeter could be used to calculate energy directly
o This would eliminate errors from the voltmeter, ammeter and the
stopwatch
• Make sure the temperature value is read at eye level from the
thermometer, to avoid parallax error
• The experiment can also be repeated with a beaker of water of equal
mass, the water should heat up slower than the aluminium block
• Make sure never to touch the heater whilst it is on, otherwise, it could burn
skin or set something on fire
o Run any burns immediately under cold running water for at least 5
minutes
• Allow time for all the equipment, including the heater, wire and block to cool
before packing away the equipment
• Keep water away from all electrical equipment
• Wear eye protection if using a beaker of hot water

Experiment 9
This experiment is designed to measure the specific heat capacities of water Before starting
the experiment read through the instructions carefully.
You will need:

✓ 12 V immersion heater 60 W
✓ aluminium saucepan
✓ 12 V power supply (6 A)
✓ stop clock
✓ balance
✓ 2 digital multimeters
Method
Put 1 kg of water in the saucepan and measure its
temperature. Now hold the heater in your hand and switch on the power supply. When you feel
the heater getting warm put it in the water and start the stop clock. After 10 minutes switch off
the power supply, stir the water and take its temperature. Allow the heater to cool in air.
Safety
Check the seals on the immersion heaters before use. Reject any that are obviously defective.
In doubtful cases, any water which has entered during a precious activity can be removed by
placing the heater in an oven for an hour at about 80 °C.
Measurements to make
Mass of water (m) = kg
Temperature of water before heating = oC
Temperature of water after heating = oC
Rise in temperature of water (Δ ) = oC
ΔE = P X t (heat supplied = power × time). = J
E = m × c × ΔT
Specific heat capacity of water c = m × ΔT / E

= J / (kg oC)

Specific heat capacity lab

This experiment is designed to measure the specific heat capacities of water Before starting
the experiment read through the instructions carefully.
You will need:

✓ 12 V immersion heater 60 W
✓ aluminium saucepan
✓ 12 V power supply (6 A)
✓ stop clock
✓ balance
✓ 2 digital multimeters
What to do
Water
Put 1 kg of water in the saucepan and measure its temperature. Now hold the heater in your
hand and switch on the power supply. When you feel the heater getting warm put it in the
water and start the stop clock. After 10 minutes switch off the power supply, stir the water and
take its temperature. Allow the heater to cool in air.
Safety
Check the seals on the immersion heaters before use. Reject any that are obviously defective.
In doubtful cases, any water which has entered during a precious activity can be removed by
placing the heater in an oven for an hour at about 80 °C.
Measurements to make
Mass of water (m) = kg
Temperature of water before heating = oC
Temperature of water after heating = oC
Rise in temperature of water (Δ ) = oC
ΔE = P X t (heat supplied = power × time). = J
E = m × c × ΔT

Specific heat capacity of water c = m × ΔT / E

= J / (kg oC)
Questions
1. Why do you think that you allowed the heater to warm up before putting it in the water?
2. Why will your result for either experiment not be very accurate?
3. Why should you stir the water at the end?
4. Why would it not be a good idea to get the water or aluminium too hot?
Follow up topic
Devise an experiment to measure the specific heat capacity of soil.

Experiment 10
Investigating I–V Characteristics
Aim of the Experiment
• The aim of the experiment is to use circuit diagrams to construct appropriate circuits to
investigate the I–V characteristics of a variety of circuit elements
• These include a fixed resistor at a constant temperature, a lamp and diode
Variables:
• Independent variable = Potential difference, V

• Dependent variable = Current, I
o Potential difference of the power supply
o Use of the same equipment eg. wires, diodes
Equipment List
• Ammeter
• Voltmeter
• Variable resistor
• Fixed resistor (between 100 Ω and 500 Ω)
• Filament lamp
• Diode
• Voltage Supply
• Wires
• Resolution of measuring
equipment:
o Variable resistor = 0.005 Ω
o Voltmeter = 0.1 V
o Ammeter = 0.01 A
Method
Circuit diagram of the apparatus set up. The fixed resistor will be replaced by a filament
lamp and diode

1. Set up the circuit as shown with the fixed resistor

2. Vary the voltage across the component by changing the resistance of the variable resistor,
using a wide range of voltages (between 8-10 readings). Check the appropriate voltage
reading on the voltmeter
3. For each voltage, record the value of the current from the ammeter 3 times and calculate
the average current
4. Increase the voltage further in steps of 0.5 V and repeat steps 2 and 3
5. Make sure to switch off the circuit in between readings to prevent heating of the component
and wires
6. Reverse the terminals of the power supply and take readings for the negative voltage (and
therefore negative current)
7. Replace the fixed resistor with the filament lamp, then the diode, repeating the experiment
for each
• An example o f a suitable table might look like this:
Analysis of Results
• Plot a graph of average current against voltage (an I–V graph) for each component
• If the I–V graph is a straight line, it is an ohmic conductor. This is expected from the fixed
resistor
o This means it obeys Ohm's Law: V = IR
• If the I–V graph is a curve, it is a non-ohmic conductor. This is expected from the filament
lamp and diode
• Compare the results from the graphs obtained to the known I–V graphs for the resistor,
filament lamp and diode. These should look like:


Systematic Errors:
• The voltmeter and ammeters should start from zero, to avoid zero error in the readings
Random Errors:
• In practice, the voltmeter and ammeter will still have some resistance, therefore the
voltages and currents displayed may be slightly inaccurate
• The temperature of the equipment could affect its resistance. This must be controlled
carefully
• Taking multiple readings of the current for each component will provide a more accurate
result and reduce uncertainties
• When there is a high current and a thin wire, the wire will become very hot
o Make sure never to touch the wire directly when the circuit is switched on
• Switch off the power supply right away if burning is smelled
• Make sure there are no liquids close to the equipment, as this could damage the electrical
equipment
• The components will get hot especially at higher voltages
o Be careful when handling them - especially the filament lamp
• Disconnect the power supply in between readings to avoid the components heating up too
much

Experiment 11
Investigating Resistance in Thermistors & LDRs
• To investigate the relationship between the resistance of a thermistor and temperature, or
the resistance of an LDR and light intensity, the following circuits must be set up:
• For the LDR circuit:

o Begin with the lamp turned off in a dark room
o Record the reading on the voltmeter and ammeter
o Slowly increase the light intensity of the lamp using the dimmer switch
o Record the reading on the voltmeter and ammeter for each increase in light intensity
• For the thermistor circuit:
o Begin with the heater turned off
o Record the reading on the voltmeter and ammeter
o Slowly increase the heat of the heater using the dimmer switch
o Record the reading on the voltmeter and ammeter for each increase in temperature
of the heater
• In both situations, make sure the lamp and heater are close, but not touching, the LDR and
thermistor respectively
• Wait a few seconds before taking the voltmeter and ammeter readings to allow the LDR
and thermistor to react to the change in the environment
• Calculate the resistance of the LDR or thermistor for each change in light intensity or
temperature using the equation:

THE RESISTANCE OF A THERMISTOR
mA
thermistor
V
Eye protection advised
PURPOSE OF THE EXPERIMENT

The aim of the experiment is to investigate how the resistance of a thermistor changes with temperature.
YOU WILL NEED

A thermistor connected to leads that have been insulated with silicone jelly.
A variable voltage d.c power supply (0 -12V).
A millimeter (0 - 100mA)-A d.c voltmeter (0 -12v)
A beaker of water- A thermometer (0 -100o C)-A bunsen burner tripod- gauze and mat.
WHAT TO DO
Set up the circuit shown in the diagram and place the thermistor in the beaker of water at room temperature.
Measure the temperature of the water, the current shown by the milliammeter and the voltage shown by the
voltmeter.
Heat the water and record readings of temperature, current and voltage roughly every 10o C.
MEASUREMENTS TO MAKE
For each value of temperature taken:
Temperature of water (and thermistor)
Ammeter reading (I)
Voltmeter reading (V)
CALCULATIONS
Work out the resistance of the thermistor for
each temperature value (V/I)
and record them in your table.
Plot a graph of resistance (Y axis) against
temperature (X axis)

LDR (light dependent resistor)

Investigating LDR’s
Equipment
▪ LDR
▪ multi-meter
▪ desk lamp
▪ meter ruler
Variables
In this investigation the dependent variable is the resistance of the LDR
The independent variable is the light intensity which changes as the lamp is moved to different
distances.
To make this a fair test the same lamp must be used throughout the experiment.
The ambient light (the light in the room from outside or overhead lights) should also be kept
constant.
Method
1. Connect the LDR to the multi-meter and select the resistance setting.
2. Using the meter rule position the lamp on the desk at a distance of 10 cm
from the LDR.
3. Switch on the lamp and using the meter measure the resistance of the LDR.
4. Repeat this at distances of 20, 30, 40 and 50 cm.
Safety:
• The light bulb will get hot and could cause a burn, to prevent this switch the lamp off
when it not being used and avoid touching the bulb.
• The bulb is also made of glass and could easily be broken, broken glass could cause cuts
so report breakages immediately and handle the lamps with care.
• Electrical items in contact with water could result in an electric shock, make sure that
the area you are working in is dry and not too close to the sinks in the lab.

Experiment 12
Measuring Wave Properties
Equipment List


o Signal generator ~ 10 nHz
• To measure frequency, wavelength and wave speed by observing water waves in a ripple
tank
Variables
• Independent variable = frequency, f

• Dependent variable = wavelength, λ
o Same depth of water
o Same temperature of water
Method
Set up of ripple tank to investigate wave properties
1. Set up the apparatus as shown and fill the ripple tank with water to a depth of no more than
1 cm
2. Turn on the power supply and the light source to produce a wave pattern on the screen
3. The wavelength of the waves can be determined by using a ruler to measure the length of
the screen and dividing this distance by the number of wavefronts
4. The frequency can be determined by timing how long it takes for a given number of waves
to pass a particular point and dividing the number of wavefronts by the time taken
5. Record the frequency and wavelength in a table and repeat the measurements

• An example of the data collection table is shown below:
Analysis of Results
• The speed of the waves can be determined using the equation:
Wave Speed = Frequency × Wavelength
v = fλ
• Where:
o v = wave speed in metres per second (m/s)
o f = frequency in Hertz (Hz)
o λ = wavelength in metres (m)

Systematic Errors:
• It can be difficult to identify the wavefronts while they are moving
o Use a stroboscope (flashing light) matched to the same frequency of the waves, this
will be indicated by the waves appearing to be stationary
o The frequency can be read from the frequency setting of the stroboscope, and the
wavelength will be easier to determine while the waves appear still
Random Errors:
• To improve the accuracy of the wavelength measurement in the ripple tank:

o Measure across a number of waves (e.g. 5 of them) and then divide the distance by
the number of waves
• To improve the accuracy of the frequency measurement in the ripple tank:
o Measure across a longer time period (e.g. a minute) and then divide the number of
waves by the time
• Care should be taken when working with water and electricity in close proximity
o Carelessness could lead to electric shock
• No food or drink should be consumed near the experiment
• If using strobe lighting to see the wavefronts more clearly, ensure no one in the room has
photosensitive epilepsy

Past paper questions

3 Systematic errors occur due to
A. overuse of instruments
B. careless usage of instruments
C. both A and B
D. human sight

4 Measurement which is close to true value is
A. accurate
B. average
C. precise
D. error
5 A measurement which on repetition gives same or nearly same result is

called
A. accurate measurement
B. average measurement
C. precise measurement
D. estimated measurement

8 Systematic error occurred due to poor calibration of instrument that can be

corrected by
A. taking several readings

B. replacing instruments
C. taking mean of values
D. taking median of values
9 Error that occurs due to equally affected measurements is called
A. random error
B. systematic error
C. frequent error
D. precision
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PHYSICS

Practical skills & paper 3

Physics – L1 Dr/ Nahed Issa 1

Convert A Number To Scientific Notation

Physics – L1 Dr/ Nahed Issa 2

A proposal intended to explain certain facts or

➢ Independent: The one that you change

Physics – L1 Dr/ Nahed Issa 3

To insure a fair test, a good experiment

Values and Readings

✓ Decide the maximum and minimum values.

✓ Identify Intervals between values.

Physics – L1 Dr/ Nahed Issa 4

Systematic error Random error

Physics – L1 Dr/ Nahed Issa 5

Accuracy and Precision

Physics – L1 Dr/ Nahed Issa 6

You can improved reliabitity by

Physics – L1 Dr/ Nahed Issa 7

1-Sample size and anomalous results

2-Calculating percentage change:

Physics – L1 Dr/ Nahed Issa 8

Physics – L1 Dr/ Nahed Issa 9

4- Calculating the range of data:

Physics – L1 Dr/ Nahed Issa 10

❑ notice the smallest change in value that can be obtained

Physics – L1 Dr/ Nahed Issa 11

Physics – L1 Dr/ Nahed Issa 12

Interpret Graphs ( How to write the relation between variables)

Calculate slop / gradient

Physics – L1 Dr/ Nahed Issa 13

Q: State whether the rate of cooling is

Physics – L1 Dr/ Nahed Issa 14

Develop arguments and explanations

Data often allows more than one possible explanation.

Precaution to achieve a reliable result

Physics – L1 Dr/ Nahed Issa 15

Precaution or improvement the result

Physics – L1 Dr/ Nahed Issa 16

Precaution in experiments involving the measurement of a length

❑ measure to the nearest mm with a rule, or perhaps 0.5 mm

❑ Ensure that the rule is held perpendicular to the base

❑ Know how to arrange a set square either side of a cylinder.

❑ Avoid zero error by re-calibrate the tool.

Physics – L1 Dr/ Nahed Issa 17

2-Measuring the diameter of a wire

4-Measuring the radius of a ball

Physics – L1 Dr/ Nahed Issa 18

1-Using displacement method.

(a) Measuring cylinder, water and a piece

(b) Measuring cylinder, overflow

2-Using a measuring cylinder

- Fill a measuring cylinder with water. - Read

Physics – L1 Dr/ Nahed Issa 19

Measurement of volume of Liquids

Physics – L1 Dr/ Nahed Issa 20

Measurement of period of a simple pendulum