1.

Introduction

Packed columns are used for many applications such as stripping, distillation, e.t.c. These
applications involve continuous contact of liquid and gas flowing counter currently or co-
currently. Hold up in the column is needed for reasonable contact. For constant water
velocity the gas flowrate increases the hold up in the column rapidly decreasing the free
area for gas flow. This point is known as loading point and pressure drop increases. As
the gas flowrate increases, amount of water contained fill the column and it floods. This
is known as the flooding point. Packed columns are operated at gas velocities between
the flooding and loading points.

Two packed columns of 90mm and 160mm ID containing rachis rings were used to
determine the flooding and loading points. Air rotameter, water rotameter and two
manometers were also used.

1
2. Theory

The relationship between the pressure drop and volumetric gas flowrate per unit area of
column ( ) as shown in Coulson and Richardson is represented in figure 2.1 below.

Figure 2.1 Pressure drop against gas velocity on logarithmic axes.

From Coulson and Richardson, at high Reynolds number, pressure drop is proportional to
. From figure 2.1 there is a linear relationship between curves A and B with slope
equal to 1.8 as predicted in Coulson and Richardson 2002. In the region between the
loading (X) and the flooding (Y) points, pressure drop rises rapidly and is proportional to
as in Coulson and Richardson 2002. The slope between points X and Y is 2.5.

In packed columns there is counter current flow of liquid down the column and gas up the
column. For constant water velocity, increasing the gas flowrate increases the water hold
up rapidly. Free area for gas flow becomes smaller, hence pressure drop increases. This is
known as the loading point (X).

As the gas flowrate is increased, the amount of water contained increases rapidly until the
water starts to fill the column. This increase the amount of water in the column until it
floods. This is known as the flooding point (Y).

2
Contact between gas and liquid result in pressure drop across the column which is
proportional to the gas velocity. The pressure drop can be correlated to the experimental
pressure drop by the expression developed by Rose and Young as follows:

(1)

Where: = Pressure drop across the wet column in Pa

= Pressure drop across the dry column in Pa
= Nominal diameter for the Raschig rings in mm

Pressure drop is a result of the friction between the packing in the column and the air.
The Pressure drop in wet column is higher than that of dry packed column.

There is calibration curves supplied in the lab. These charts were calibrated on the basis
of temperature and a pressure of 1atm. From these charts flowrate is read. The
experiment was performed at and a pressure of 1030hPa. Therefore it is important
to find a correction factor at other temperature in order to get better results corresponding
to the temperature (refer to the appendix).
The equation for the correction factor is:

= . (2)

Where Ta is the temperature measured

Tb is the basis temperature of the chart
Pa is the measured pressure
Pb is basis pressure of the chart
is the density of the air at temperature in the lab
is the density of air at a basis temperature of the chart

3
3. Experimental

3.1 Apparatus

The apparatus used to investigate the flooding and loading points is shown below in
figure 3.1.

Figure
3.1

Schematic representation of the loading and flooding apparatus.

The apparatus above shows two packed columns of 90mm and 160mm ID containing the
raschig rings of heights 1.13m and 1.21m respectively. Two air and water rotameters
labeled A and B respectively were used to measure the flowrates. Two manometers were
also available(C and D above) to measure the pressure difference across the two columns.
Water flows into the columns by opening valves V9 and V10. Valves V8 and V6 were
used to drain the water from the columns. Valves V3 and V4 were fully opened during
the experiment. The air flowrate is controlled by valves V1 and V2. The calibration
curves were also supplied.

3.2 Precautions

4
  Ensure that there is no oil in the gas rotameters because it causes the float of the
rotameter to stick to the walls. Oil is removed by opening valve V11 for few
minutes.
 The manometer must read zero pressure difference before each run for no gas
flow through the column and free of air bubbles to get better results.
 The two columns must be ensured dry by passing air overnight by opening valve
V11.
 Valves V9 and V10 must be closed

3.3 Procedure

The two columns were investigated separately for each run by adjusting valves V5 and
V7. If a run is made on the160mm ID column valve V5 must be closed and V7 opened.
Four runs namely the dry, wet , low water flowrate and high water flowrate run were
done in each column.

For the dry run, the two columns were ensured dry by passing air overnight. Valves V9
and V10 were closed to prevent water flow into the column. Valves V1 and V2 were
adjusted to manipulate the flow of gas in the column investigated. The rotameter readings
were taken and the flowrates were read from the calibration curve. Manometer readings
were also taken.

For the wet run, water was passed through the columns to soak the raschig rings by
opening valves V9 and V10. Water was then drained by opening valves V8 and V6. The
same procedure as in dry column above was repeated except drying the column.
Rotameter and manometer readings were also taken.

Low water velocity was chosen from the rotameter calibration curve for one column.
Then the water rotameter was set at the chosen low water flowrate and kept constant. Gas
was passed through the column at various flowrates at constant water velocity.
Manometer and rotameter readings were taken at each gas velocity. The corresponding
velocity for the other column was calculated using the following equation:
(3)

Where is the water flowrate of 90mm ID column

is the water flowrate of 160mm ID column
and are the areas of the 90mm and 160mm ID columns.

The same procedure was repeated for the other column at the calculated water velocity.
High water flowrate was chosen for one column and the corresponding water velocity for
the other column was calculated using equation (3). The procedure is the same as the one
above.

4. Results

5
From the graphs in figure 4.1, 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4, pressure drop across the tower increases
with the increasing gas velocity. The dry runs show the lowest pressure drop and the
higher water flowrate curve shows the highest pressure drop in each column.

4.1 90mm ID column

Figure 4.1 below shows the curves obtained when investigating the 90mm column. It can
be observed that the pressure drop across the wet packed column is higher than that of the
dry packed column. The pressure drop is highest at a higher water flowrate of 2.9l/min,
i.e at a rotameter reading of 15.4cm. There is also a linear relationship between the wet
and dry packed column as the graphs are almost a straight line.

There are points where the slopes change rapidly for low water flowrate curve
(1.27l/min) and high velocity curve (2.9l/min). At these points the pressure drop also
increases. These points are known as the flooding (B) and the loading (A) points (refer to
figure 4.1). The flooding point and the loading point at the higher water velocity is higher
than that of low water velocity. When water at low velocity is passed through the column,
the flooding and loading points occur at high gas velocity than when the column is wetted
with water at high velocity. The slopes of the low and high water rate are 2.12 and 2.49
respectively (refer to the appendix).

10000

B
A 1000

100

90mm low water velocity

Pressure(Pa)

90mm dry
10
90mm high water velocity
90mm wet

1
0.01 0.1 1

0.1

0.01
Velocity(m/s)

Figure 4.1 Relationship between the experimental pressure drop and the gas velocity in
90mm column.

4.2 160mm ID column

6
Figure 4.2 shows the curves obtained during the investigation of the 160mm column.
There is the linear relationship between the wet and dry packed column at low gas
velocity. As also observed in the 90mm column, the flooding point (Q) and the loading
point (P) at high water velocity of 9.165l/min occurs at a high pressure drop than that of
the low water velocity at 4.01l/min.

The loading point at high water velocity is at a higher gas velocity than at low water
velocity. The slopes of the flooding and loading points are similar to each other. The
slopes of the low and high water rate are 0.82 and 1.15 respectively (refer to the
appendix). These values differ from the ones in literature because of the equipment not
working properly.

1000
Q
P

100
Pressure(Pa)

10
160mm low water velocity
160mm high water velocity
160mm dry
160mm wet
1
0.01 0.1 1

0.1

0.01
Velocity (m/s)

Figure 4.2 Relationship between the theoretical pressure drop and the gas velocity in
160mm column.

4.3 Comparison of the 90mm and 160mm columns

7
Figures 4.3 and 4.4 shows the comparison of the 90mm and 160mm columns at the same
water velocities. The slopes of the flooding and loading points are not similar. The
loading and flooding points of the 160mm column occur at a lower gas velocity as
compared to the 90mm column. The pressure drop in the 160mm column is higher until
at the point of the loading of the 90mm column. The slopes of the 90mm column for low
and high water rate are steeper than for 160mm column. The curves are not parallel due
to gas rotameter not reaching the maximum point when they were all fully opened.
1000

100
Pressure(Pa)

90mm low water

velocity
160 low water
velocity

10

1
0.01 0.1 1
Velocity(m/s)

Figure 4.3 Comparison of the 90mm column and the 160mm column at the same low
water velocity.

10000

1000
P ressu re(P a)

100

90mm high velocity

160mm high velocity

10

1
0.01 0.1 1
Velocity(m/s)

Figure 4.4 Comparison of the 90mm column and the 160mm column at the same high
water velocity.
5. Discussions

8
From the results obtained above there was an increase in pressure drop with increasing
gas velocity. This increase in pressure is due to the decrease in the free area of the gas as
it flows up the column because pressure is inversely proportional to the area.

From the correlation in literature, the slopes of the dry and wet packed column curves are
found to be approximately 1.8. The slope of the wet and dry packed column determined
from the experiment was found to be 1.1 and 1.19 respectively in 90mm columns (refer
to the appendix). For low and high water flowrate curves in 90mm column, the slopes are
2.12 and 2.49. These values are different from the one in literature due to the inefficiency
of the apparatus. The deviation of the slope values from literature is due to the inaccuracy
when measuring the manometer reading as the height difference was very small for low
gas flowrate. Also in the 160mm column, the slopes are different from the ones in
literature due to inaccuracy in measuring manometer readings at low gas velocities.

For the high and low water flowrate curves, the slopes should be equivalent to the slopes
of the dry and wet columns at low gas velocities as in figure 2.1 (Coulson and Richardson
2002). The slopes of the low water flowrate curve in 90mm column before loading point
and after flooding point are 0.9 and 1.7 respectively. For high water flowrate curve, the
slopes before loading point and after flooding point are 1.27 and 1.6 respectively in
90mm column. These deviations from literature could be due to the oil in the gas
rotameter which causes the float to move down after adjusting the gas flowrate to the
desired flow. The float of the rotameter was not stable and causes inaccuracy when taking
readings.

For the wetted column, the curve at low gas velocity must be similar to the dry packed
column curve as the liquid flowrate is constant and does not depend on gas velocity. The
increase in pressure drop between flooding and loading point is due to the liquid hold up
in the column. This also results in resistance to water flow. Flooding and loading point in
160mm column is at low gas velocity. This is due to the large diameter of 160mm
column which gives the larger area for packing and ensures enough contact of liquid and
gas.

6. Conclusions

9
  Larger columns provide large surface area for the packing to ensure reasonable
contact and results in low gas velocity.
 The apparatus must be set correctly before the experiment and all the equipments
must be working properly to correctly predict the loading and flooding points.
More readings must be taken in order to predict the loading and flooding points
correctly.
 The slopes of the wet and dry packed column are similar. There is a linear
relationship between the pressure drop and the superficial gas velocity in wet and
dry packed columns. The wet packed column curve is above the dry packed
column curve. Pressure drop is higher in wet column than in dry column.
 Flooding and loading occurs at higher pressure drop for high water. Flooding and
loading occurs when there is contact between constant water flowing down the
column and gas flowing up the column.
 The column operates best between the flooding and the loading points, it is
important to determine these points to ensure optimum operation of the column.

Reference:

10
1. Coulson, J.H., & Richardson, J.F, 2002. Chemical Engineering Particle Technology &
Separation Processes Volume 2. 4th ed., pp 162, 163.

2.Perry, R.H., Green, D.W., 1998. Editors of Chemical Engineer’s Handbook.

7th ed., pp 2-91, McGraw-Hill, New York.

Appendices

11
Appendix A: correction factor

The temperature in the lab was approximately 297K, and pressure was 1030hPa which is
772.6mmHg during which the experiment was performed. The air density at 297K is
. At 288K, air density is 1.2Kg/m^3.
The following equation was used to calculate the correction factor:

= (2)
The correction factor was 1.1.

Appendix B: 90mm Column

The columns were investigated separately. First dry run was made on the 90mm column.
Pressure drop and gas velocity are the parameters to find in the experiment. The gas
velocity is calculated from the following formula:

(4)
Where Q represent the volumetric flowate obtained from the calibration chart
C is the correction factor
A is the area of the column which is .

The manometer readings were taken in order to calculate the pressure drop. The equation
used to calculate the pressure drop is:

(5)
Where is the difference in manometer.
is the density
g is the gravitational acceleration.
For the dry run the density of air used was and value of g is . The
values obtained for the dry run are shown in table 1.1.

The slopes of the 90mm column were calculated as follows:

Slope dry column

Slope wet column

12
Slope low water rate curve

Slope high water rate curve

Table 1.1: Pressure drop and gas velocity values for the 90mm dry column.

R Q(l/min) h(m) p v
1.1 17 0.0005 0.005886 0.053459
2.4 22.5 0.000856 0.010077 0.070755
3.5 27.2 0.000871 0.010251 0.085535
6 40 0.001173 0.013809 0.125786
7.3 46 0.001295 0.015239 0.144654
8 50 0.001526 0.017964 0.157233
10 60 0.001817 0.021393 0.188679
12.6 82.8 0.002419 0.028472 0.260377
18 102.5 0.003871 0.045569 0.322327
21 120 0.00427 0.050266 0.377358
23.3 132.5 0.004612 0.054292 0.416667
25.5 146 0.005089 0.059908 0.459119
27 155 0.005723 0.067371 0.487421
30.2 181.02 0.00624 0.073457 0.569245
32.1 211.8 0.007282 0.085724 0.666038
35.1 203.9 0.00841 0.099003 0.641195

Wet and dry packed columns only differ in that the wet column was first soaked with
water and then drained. For the wet packed column the density used is that of water
which is .

Table 1.2: Pressure drop and gas velocity values for the 90mm wet column.
R Q(l/min) h(m) p v
1 16 0.001047 10.27107 0.050314
2 21 0.001373 13.46913 0.066038
3.5 27.5 0.001608 15.77448 0.086478
5.4 37 0.001873 18.37413 0.116352
7 45 0.002235 21.92535 0.141509
8 50 0.002751 26.98535 0.157233
9.7 58 0.003184 31.23504 0.18239
11.8 69.8 0.003519 34.52433 0.219497
13 75 0.003829 37.56249 0.235849
15.5 88 0.004941 48.47121 0.27673
17.1 97.5 0.005482 53.77548 0.306604
19.6 111 0.00642 62.9802 0.349057
22.2 126.4 0.007238 71.00478 0.397484
24 137 0.007826 76.77502 0.430818

13
26.7 163.5 0.00866 84.9546 0.514151
27 155 0.009679 94.95295 0.487421
33.3 195 0.01128 110.6568 0.613208
36.7 212.5 0.0187 183.447 0.668239

Low water velocity was chosen using the calibration chart. The value chosen is
1.25l/min. this value is kept constant when investigating the flooding and loading point.
Only the gas flowrate is varied.
The density which is used is the density of water which is . Equations (5)
and (4) are used to calculate the pressure drop and the gas velocity. Values obtained are
shown in table 1.3.

Table 1.3: Pressure drop and gas velocity values for the 90mm column at low water
flowrate of 1.27l/min.

R1 R2 Rtot Q(l/min) h(in) V(m/s) Pa

0 0 12.5 0 0.039308 0
1 1 16 0.1 0.050314 24.9174
2 2 21 0.12 0.066038 29.90088
3.1 3.1 26 0.14 0.081761 34.88436
4.1 4.1 31 0.17 0.097484 42.35958
6.2 6.2 41 0.21 0.128931 52.32654
7.3 7.3 46 0.23 0.144654 57.31002
8.5 8.5 52.5 0.25 0.165094 62.2935
9.7 9.7 58 0.3 0.18239 74.7522
10.4 10.4 62.5 0.31 0.196541 77.24394
11.8 11.8 69.8 0.33 0.219497 82.22742
13.1 13.1 76 0.37 0.238994 92.19438
14.1 14.1 81 0.4 0.254717 99.6696
15.5 15.5 88 0.48 0.27673 119.6035
17.2 17.2 98 0.5 0.308176 124.587
18 18 102.5 0.56 0.322327 139.5374
19.6 19.6 111 0.63 0.349057 156.9796
20.7 20.7 117.5 0.7 0.369497 174.4218
21.2 21.2 120 0.72 0.377358 179.4053
22.2 22.2 126.4 0.85 0.397484 211.7979
23.3 23.3 132.5 0.89 0.416667 221.7649
24.2 24.2 137.2 0.92 0.431447 229.2401
25.4 25.4 145 1.09 0.455975 271.5997
26.6 26.6 152.5 1.23 0.47956 306.484
25.7 1 26.7 163.5 1.35 0.514151 336.3849
26 2.5 28.5 170.5 1.41 0.536164 351.3353
25.5 4.7 30.2 181.08 1.75 0.569434 436.0545
26.2 7.8 34 197.8 2.3 0.622013 573.1002
24.8 8.5 33.3 195 2.45 0.613208 610.4763
26.3 10.4 36.7 212.5 2.62 0.668239 652.8359
27.1 12.7 39.8 229 3.25 0.720126 809.8155

14
Table 1.3: Pressure drop and gas velocity values for the 90mm column at high water
flowrate of 2.9l/min.

R1 Q1 R2 Q2 Rtot Qtot(l/min) h(in) V(m/s) Pa

0 12.5 0 12.5 0 0.039308 0
1.8 20 1.8 20 0.14 0.062893 34.88436
3.8 30 3.8 30 0.2 0.09434 49.8348
5.9 39.8 5.9 39.8 0.3 0.125157 74.7522
7.3 46 7.3 46 0.4 0.144654 99.6696
8.7 52.5 8.7 52.5 0.5 0.165094 124.587
10 53 10 53 0.54 0.166667 134.554
11.8 69 11.8 69 0.7 0.216981 174.4218
14 80 14 80 0.9 0.251572 224.2566
15.5 88 15.5 88 1.1 0.27673 274.0914
16.8 95.8 16.8 95.8 1.3 0.301258 323.9262
18.4 105 18.4 105 1.55 0.330189 386.2197
19.6 111 19.6 111 1.9 0.349057 473.4306
21.2 120 21.2 120 2.45 0.377358 610.4763
22.5 127.7 22.5 127.7 2.8 0.401572 697.6872
23.6 134.8 23.6 134.8 3.1 0.423899 772.4394
26.4 152.5 26.4 152.5 3.9 0.47956 971.7786
27 155 2.2 22 29.2 177 6.9 0.556604 1719.301
27 155 5.5 37.5 32.5 192.5 8.1 0.605346 2018.309
25.9 148.4 7.8 48 33.7 196.4 9.2 0.61761 2292.401
25 142.5 9.3 56.5 34.3 199 9.6 0.625786 2392.07

Appendix c: 160mm column

The calculations of the pressure drop and the gas velocities is the same as in 90mm
packed column. The slopes of the 160mm column were calculated as follows:

Slope dry column

Slope wet column

Slope low water rate curve

Slope high water rate curve

15
Table 1.4: Pressure drop and gas velocity values for the 160mm dry column.

R Q(l/min) h(m) p v(m/s)

4 43.12 0.00209 0.024603 0.04312
6.7 55.34 0.00258 0.030372 0.05534
8 67.23 0.002823 0.033232 0.06723
10 79.98 0.003512 0.041343 0.07998
15.5 115.39 0.004386 0.051632 0.11539
20.5 157.38 0.004857 0.057177 0.15738
24 189.48 0.005479 0.064494 0.18948
30 225.27 0.006746 0.079417 0.22527

Table 1.5: Pressure drop and gas velocity values for the 160mm wet column.

R Q(l/min) h(m) p v(m/s)

1.1 17 0.00241 23.6421 0.017
3.6 28 0.00283 27.7623 0.028
6 40.5 0.003324 32.60746 0.0405
10.1 62.5 0.004098 40.20138 0.0625
17.4 103.5 0.005883 57.71223 0.1035
20.5 154.5 0.007608 74.63644 0.1545
26.8 169.5 0.008121 79.66701 0.1695
30.3 193 0.00831 81.5162 0.193
32.4 210.6 0.008736 85.69722 0.2106
36.2 221 0.009273 90.96813 0.221

The equivalent water flowrate for the 160mm packed column was calculated using the
following relationship:
(3)

Where is the water flowrate of 90mm ID column

is the water flowrate of 160mm ID column
and are the areas of the 90mm and 160mm ID columns.
For low water flowrate of 1.27l/min, the equivalent water flowrate for the 160mm packed
column was 4.01l/min.
Same method was used to calculate high water flowrate of the 160mm packed column
which is 9.165l/min. results are on tables 1.6 and 1.7.

16
Table 1.6: Pressure drop and gas velocity values for the 160mm column at low water
flowrate of 4.01l/min.

R1 Q1 R2 Q2 Rtot Qtot(l/min) h(in) V(m/s) Pa

0 12.5 0 12.5 0 0.0125 0
1.1 17 1.1 17 0.11 0.017 27.40914
2.3 22.5 2.3 22.5 0.16 0.0225 39.86784
3.5 27.2 3.5 27.2 0.2 0.0272 49.8348
4.5 32.5 4.5 32.5 0.22 0.0325 54.81828
6.1 40 6.1 40 0.25 0.04 62.2935
7.5 52.5 7.5 52.5 0.26 0.0525 64.78524
9.2 56.5 9.2 56.5 0.28 0.0565 69.76872
10.9 64 10.9 64 0.29 0.064 72.26046
12.6 72.5 12.6 72.5 0.29 0.0725 72.26046
13.8 79 13.8 79 0.3 0.079 74.7522
14.9 85 14.9 85 0.31 0.085 77.24394
16.5 94 16.5 94 0.32 0.094 79.73568
18.5 105 18.5 105 0.36 0.105 89.70264
20.5 116 20.5 116 0.38 0.116 94.68612
22.2 126.4 22.2 126.4 0.39 0.1264 97.17786
25.5 146 25.5 146 0.4 0.146 99.6696
26.7 152.5 26.7 152.5 0.4 0.1525 99.6696
27 155 1.5 18 28.5 173 0.45 0.173 112.1283
26.5 153 4.5 32.5 31 185.5 0.5 0.1855 124.587
26.8 153.6 8.3 50.3 35.1 203.9 0.6 0.2039 149.5044

Table 1.7: Pressure drop and gas velocity values for the 160mm column at high
water flowrate of 9.165l/min.

R1 Q1 R2 Q2 Rtot Qtot(l/min) h(in) V(m/s) Pa

0 12.5 0 12.5 0 0.0125 0
1.5 18 1.5 18 0.2 0.018 49.8348
2.4 22.5 2.4 22.5 0.27 0.0225 67.27698
4.1 31 4.1 31 0.3 0.031 74.7522
5.4 37 5.4 37 0.4 0.037 99.6696
7.4 46.5 7.4 46.5 0.3 0.0465 74.7522
10.1 60 10.1 60 0.35 0.06 87.2109
13 75 13 75 0.4 0.075 99.6696
15.2 87.5 15.2 87.5 0.45 0.0875 112.1283
17.1 97.5 17.1 97.5 0.6 0.0975 149.5044
19.3 108 19.3 108 0.6 0.108 149.5044
21.2 120 21.2 120 0.65 0.12 161.9631
23.2 132 23.2 132 0.8 0.132 199.3392
25 142.5 25 142.5 0.85 0.1425 211.7979
26.8 153.6 26.8 153.6 0.9 0.1536 224.2566
27 155 2.7 25 29.7 180 1.2 0.18 299.0088
25.8 147.8 6 40 31.8 187.8 1.4 0.1878 348.8436
26.7 153 10.3 62.4 37 215.4 1.9 0.2154 473.4306
24.8 142.5 11.9 69.8 36.7 212.3 2.05 0.2123 510.8067

17
18