CHAPTER I

PLANT LAY OUT

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 KVASU DAIRY PLANT

Kerala Veterinary And Animal Sciences University (KVASU) Dairy Plant was
established in the year 1986 and was a commissioned in 1993.The pasteurization unit
capacity is rated at 1000lph milk. This
state of the art dairy plant is not just a
training for students in the university but
also Center of Excellence in Dairy
Technology. The plant is situated inside
the campus of the College of Veterinary
and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy.

The plant comes under the gamut

of the Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, a constituent Faculty under
KVASU. The unit is managed by a group of expert professionals including Veterinarians,
Dairy Technologists, Dairy Engineers, Management experts, etc.

FACILITIES

1. Processing Section:-

 1000LPH pasteurizer
 Storage tanks, multipurpose vats, form fill seal machines
 The product wing is equiped with a pilot spray drier, drum drier, tray drier,
vaccum pan, khoa vat, ice cream freezers, vaccum packing machines, butter
chumers, cheese vats, cream separators, homogenizers etc.
 A very efficient utility section consisting of ammonia refrigeration unit, steam
boilers, hot water generator, diesel generator etc.
 The effluent generated from the plant is treated and is used for watering the
homestead garden in the premises of the Dairy Plant.

2. Quality control:-

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  Fully equipped microbiology and chemistry laboratory.
 Fine instruments lab to assist R&D works with technological wonder instruments
like the INSTRON texture analyser, Lactostar etc.

PRODUCT LINE

 Pasteurized cow milk and buffalo milk

 Skim milk curd
 Ice cream (Different flavours and packing)
 Gulab jamun, Sweet Khoa, Paneer, Whey drink (healthy whey),
Sambharam(masala buttermilk), yoghurt, ghee, butter, sip-up etc.

The product are sold through the sales counter at Dairy Plant, AITC Counter, Mannuthy
and through selected supermarkets at Thrissur.

PLANT LAYOUT

Raw Milk Reception Dock

RMRD at KVASU university dairy plant is well equipped with weighing balance,
dump tank, weigh bowl and rotary can washer and can conveyor. The process of RMRD
starts from unloading the cans from vehicles. On the way to weighing section opens the
can lids and organoleptic tests are conducted. If anything wrong with can then it is
detected and such can is taken out from the conveyor. Then these cans are weighed in
weighing balance manually. The cow milk and buffalo milk is collected separately on

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RMRD. The suspected / sour milk is not allowed to mix with good/ fresh milk. A lab
person analyse the samples for platform tests such as Fat, SNF, CLR, Acidity etc. The
parameters like fat, CLR and quantity of milk are used to calculate the price of milk per
litre. Sampling is done manually by lab persons from each milk cans is taken in beakers
and carried to the milk testing chamber.

RMRD Equipment Details

1. Gravity roller conveyers or chain conveyers are used to permitt inspection and
sampling before the milk is dumped in to the weighing bowl.
2. Floor mounted tubular can tipping arrangement with rubber padded cross bar
is used for resting the can with milk for tilting and unloading the milk into the
weighing bowl.
3. Weigh scale, weigh tank strainer. The stainless steel bowl of 250 or 500kg
capacity is attached to the circular dial weigh scale in such a way that the portion
towards the outlet valve with antispalsh stainless steel strainer overhangs so that
after recording the weight, the milk can be discharged into the dump tank situated
below through s/s chute between the weigh bowl and dump tank. The outlet valve
is suited for manual or air-actuated operation.
4. Centrifugal pump. A s/s milk pump is installed to deliver the milk from the
dump tank to the storage tank throgh a plate chiller.
5. Drip Saver. The inverted empty cans are moved over the can drip saver of
tubular construction usually 2m long with rack arrangement to drain off the
residual milk from the can inverted into s/s tray.
6. Semi automatic rotary can washer. A revolving type washer for cleaning and
sterilizing empty cans with lid with a capacity to wash and sterilize 3- 4 cans/min
is necessary to clean and to return the empty cans to the producer.
7. Boiler. For operation of can washer hot water station or can steaming block, a
boiler of suitable capacity is necessary.
8. Semi circular can washing trough is useful for manual cleaning with scrubbing
brush.
9. Can scrubbing trough with two rotating nylon, brushes mechanically operated to
clean the can is also used.
10. Can steaming block. In case the number of milk cans are not many, a pedal
operated steaming block is useful.

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 11. Can sanitization. In this assembly the sanitizing solution from tank is sprayed on
the inverted milk can by a centrifugal pump through a quick opening self closing
valve and steaming block.
12. Draining rack. The can rack keeps the washed cans and lids dry for reuse.
13. Can :
Material of Construction = Aluminium
Capacity = 40 Liters.

Fig 2 : Schematic representation of Milk Reception Dock

1. Can Conveyer 2. Tipping Bar

3. Weigh Scale 4. Dump Tank
5. Milk Pump 6. Plate Chiller
7. Storage Tank 8. Drain Rack
9. Can Washer 10. Milk Can Out

Milk reception flow line

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 Reception of cans on platform

Can conveyor

Organoleptic testing

Tilting of can

Sour milk

Weighing

Sampling (testing CLR and Fat)

Processing Dump tank Reception of milk from

tankers

Empty can

Milk draining

Can washer Can scrubbing

Dispatch

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 Fig 3: Can scrubber Fig 4:Weighing Balance

Fig 5: Rotary Can Washer Fig 6: Weigh Bowl

If the milk is kept in the can for a long time the cream will accumulate on the top and it
will wrongly affect the fat and SNF test. To avoid this, milk is mixed by using a Plunger.

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Fig 7: Can Rinsing and steaming

Fig 8: Mixing of milk using Plunger Fig 9: Gravity roller conveyor

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 CHAPTER II

EQUIPMENTS

1. CREAM SEPARATOR

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 A separator is a centrifugal device that separates milk into cream and skimmed
milk. Enough cream was saved to make butter, and the excess was sold.

The separator consists of a centrifuge in the form of a rapidly revolving bowl

containing a set of disks. The bowl is mounted
on a spindle situated underneath the milk supply
tank. As milk enters the bowl at the top, it is
distributed to the disks through a series of
openings, the distributor. The Initial   product  
comes into the bowl through the   in-and-outlet
device  and fills the  space  between  the   discs, 
where   the   searation   is performed.

The original design had a manual bowl that required manual cleaning. Most
modern separators use a self-ejecting centrifuge bowl that can automatically discharge
any sedimentary solids that may be present, and that allow for clean-in-place (CIP). Thin
films of milk are generated as whole milk is forced out between the disks; the milk
assumes the speed of the bowl, approximately 6,000 to 8,000 revolutions per minute and
the heavier skim milk is thrown to the outer edge of the bowl and led off through an
opening. The cream concentrates in the interior and moves up to the cream outlet near the
centre of the bowl. The most efficient separators leave less than 0.01 percent fat in the
skim milk.

2. SPRAY DRYER

Spray drying consists of the following unit operations:

• Pre-concentration of liquid •Atomization (creation of droplets)

• Drying in stream of hot, dry air •Separation of powder from moist air

•Cooling • Packaging of product

Capacity of spray dryer: 2L condensed milk/hr

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 Relatively high temperatures are needed for spray drying operations. In contrast,
heat damage to products is generally only slight, due to an evaporative cooling effect
during the critical drying period and short exposure time to high temperatures. The
typical surface temperature of a particle during the constant drying zone is 45-50 0C. The
physical properties of the products are intimately associated with the powder structure
which is generated during spray drying. It is possible to control many of the factors which
influence powder structure in order to obtain the desired properties.

The diagram shows an industrial spray dryer for milk powder. For spray drying, a
concentrate of the liquid form of the product is pumped to the atomizing device where it
is broken into small droplets. These droplets meet a stream of hot air and they loose their
moisture very rapidly while still
suspended in the drying air. The dry
powder is separated from the moist air
in cyclones by centrifugal action. The
centrifugal action is caused by the high
increase in air speed when the mixture
of particles and air enters the cyclone
system. The dense powder particles are
forced toward the cyclone walls while
the lighter, moist air is directed away
through the exhaust pipes. The powder
settles to the bottom of the cyclone
where it is removed through a discharging device.

Centrifugal Atomizer. This is a spinning disk assembly with radial or curved vanes
which rotates at high velocities (2000-20,000 rpm). The feed is delivered near the center
and spreads between the two plates and is accelerated to high linear velocities before it is
thrown off the disk in the form of thin sheets, ligaments or elongated ellipsoids.
However, the subdivided liquid
immediately attains a spherical shape under
the influence of surface tension. The
atomizing effect is dependent upon
centrifugal force but also must depend upon

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the frictional influence of the external air. Centrifugal atomizers have the great advantage
of less tendency to become clogged. For this reason, they are preferred for spray drying
of non-homogeneous foods.

3. CLIMBING FILM SINGLE EFFECT EVAPORATOR

Evaporation involves heat transfer to a boiling liquid so that vapour of the solvent
is removed to get more concentrated solution can be distinguished from some other
drying methods in that the final product of evaporation is a concentrated liquid, not a
solid. For the evaporation of liquids that are adversely affected by high temperatures, its
necessary to reduce the temperature of boiling by operating under reduced pressure.
When the vapour pressure of the
liquid reaches the pressure of the
surroundings, the liquid boils. The
reduced pressure required to boil
the milk is obtained by vacuum
pumps combined with condensors
for the vapours from the
evaporators.At low pressure, boiling
point of milk reduces and milk boils
at about 50-540C. Typical examples
of evaporation include
concentration of aqueous solution
of sugar, salt, sodium hydroxide,
glycerol, glue, milk and fruit juice.

Working:

The liquid rises up in the core of the tube in the form of a thin film, because the
liquid flows faster than the vapor. Such a flow of the liquid is against gravity and thus it
is highly turbulent. Theygive high heat transfer rates and have a low contact time.Steam
is fed into the steam chest, concentrate and vapor is separated from the concentrated
liquid phase and condensed and removed from the system.The product is removed from
the side of the evaporator.

4. ICE CREAM MAKING

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Two important sections of ice cream making unit are homogenizer and batch freezer.

Homogenizer
Homogenizer is used to mix the ingredients and to disrupt the fat globules to a
size range of 0.2- 10 microns. Efficient homogenization is essential for the quality of ice
cream. The main purpose of homogenization is to achieve a stable emulsion of the fat by
reducing the size of the fat globules. The right homogenization improves the binding of
water and air, giving a final product that is less icy. Furthermore, homogenization gives
ice cream a dry appearance, the right consistency and slow melting properties, in
combination with smoother texture and creamier appearance. Homogenization is a must
for any ice cream mix containing fat or oil.

The capacity of homogenizer is 1000 l/hr.

The advantages of homogenization of mix are:

a. Fat globule size is reduced and hence no cream
layer formation.
b. Produces more uniform ice cream with a smooth
texture.
c. Improves whipping ability.
d. Reduces ageing period.
e. Reduces the amount of stabilizer required in ice
cream mix.
After ageing ice cream is prepared in batch freezer in
which air incorporation, whipping is done along with freezing.

Batch freezer

The mix is run into the freezer, the dasher started and then the refrigerant is turned
on. This sequence must be observed at all times to avoid damage to the machine. The
flavouring and colouring materials are added to the mix. The total volume of the mix,
flavour and colour should be about half the total volume of the freezing chamber. To
avoid variation from batch to batch, each batch of mix must be measured carefully before
putting in to the freezer. The freezing operation must be closely watched to know the
correct time to shut-off refrigeration.

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 This comes mostly by experience of the operator. If the refrigerant is allowed to
run for a longer period the following problems may arise.
Difficulty in obtaining the desired overrun
Mix becomes stiff
Whipping becomes difficult
After refrigerant is shut-off, the freezer without certain limits continue to operate,
incorporate more air, freezing more of water until the product attains both the desired
over run and desired consistency. The ice cream from the freezer should be emptied into
the container/package as rapidly as possible to avoid fluctuations in overrun in packages.
When the ice cream is drawn from the freezer it should be stiff enough to hold its shape
and yet soft enough to loose its shape within a short time.

5. PASTEURIZER

Pasteurization is a process of heating food, usually a liquid, to a specific

temperature for a predefined length of time and then immediately cooling it after it is
removed from the heat. This process slows spoilage caused by microbial growth in
the food. Unlike sterilization, pasteurization is not intended to kill all micro-organisms in
the food. Instead, it aims to reduce the number of viable pathogens so they are unlikely to
cause disease (assuming the pasteurized product is stored as indicated and is consumed
before its expiration date). Commercial-scale sterilization of food is not common because
it adversely affects the taste and quality of the product. Certain foods, such as dairy
products, may be superheated to ensure pathogenic microbes are destroyed
Two common types of pasteurization techniques used for pasteurizing milk are:
 Low Temperature Long Time (LTLT)
 High Temperature Short Time (HTST)

LTLT

LTLT involves heating the milk to 62.5ºC/144.5ºF and holding this for 30 minutes, and is
the method used by milk banks whi11ch perform either the Holder
method of pasteurization or the similar Vat method of pasteurization.

HTST

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 This process involves heating the milk faster and to a higher temperature than
used with the Holder and Vat methods, and holding this for only a few seconds. One type
of HTST is flash-heating. Flash-heating was designed to imitate flash-pasteurization,
another type of HTST, which is a high-tech commercially used
dairy pasteurization method that involves heating to 72ºC/161.5ºF for 15 seconds.
Because of its rapid heating, flash pasteurization is considered a superior type of
commercial pasteurization compared to Vat Pasteurization.

The capacity of pasteurizer is 1000 l/hr.

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 HTST Pasteurizer

Plate Heat Exchanger

Plate Heat Exchangers consist of an accurately arranged with  thin heat transfer
plates clamped with each other in a frame. Plate heat exchangers use the thin plates to
keep two media of different temperatures apart while allowing heat energy to flow
between them through the plate. The heat energy transfer across the plate acts to change
the temperatures of the two media. The hotter one becomes cooler, and the colder one
becomes hotter. Counter current flow is usually preferred because there is moreheat
transfer achieved for the same flow rates of media than in concurrent flow.

Every second channel allows the same fluid pass through it. Between each pair of
plates there is a rubber gasket, which blocks the the two stream fluids from mixing and
from leaking to the surroundings. Heat is thus transferred from the warm fluid to the
colder fluid via the thin stainless steel plate.

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Advantages

1. The plates can be readily separated for cleaning

2. Heat transfer area can be increased by simple adding more plates.
3. It being very compact requires very small floor space
4. Low pressure drops
5. High heat transfer coefficients with smaller volume

6. MILK PACKING MACHINE

The packaging machine used here is form fill seal machine are working.
Packaging material is Low Density Poly Ethylene (LDPE) film. Roll is fixed on the
backside of the machine and it is carried out to the top of front side mechanically by the
nib rollers. It is sterilized by UV light. Vertical edges of material are sealed to each other
by vertical Teflon coated electrode rod at a temperature of 60 OC. then the material comes
down and sealed by horizontal electrode rod at 90 OC. The horizontal rod seals first lower
end of pouch horizontally and after filling adjusted amount of milk with the help of

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pneumatically operated pistons having
adjustable stroke volume, the pouch slips
down a specified distance and its upper edge is
sealed. Horizontal sealing of upper side of one
pouch and lower side of next pouch and
horizontally ctting of filled pouch is carried
out in single stoke of horizontal sealer.
Packaging machine and quantity of milk to be
packed without leakage.

The milk packets with net volume of 500ml

are usually packed in this machine. The total
weight of one packet of milk is 520grams.

7. STEAM BOILER

A boiler or steam generator is a device used to create steam by applying heat

energy to water. Although the definitions are somewhat flexible, it can be said that older
steam generators were commonly termed boilers and worked at low to medium pressure
(1–300 psi or 6.895–2,068.427 kPa) but, at pressures above this, it is more usual to speak
of a steamgenerator.A boiler or steam generator is used wherever a source of steam is
required. The form and size depends on the application.

Type of boiler mainly used in dairy industry is water tube boiler. Feed the water
under pressure into a tube or tubes surrounded by the combustion gases. The tubes
frequently have a large number of bends and sometimes fin to maximize the surface area.
This type of boiler is generally preferred in high pressure applications since the high
pressure water/steam is contained within narrow pipes which can contain the pressure
with a thinner wall. It can however be susceptible to damage by vibration in surface
transport appliances. If the steam pressure is exceed or below working range it will
automatically cutoff.

Specification:

Steam temperature: 200ºC

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 Steam pressure: 5-7.5 kg/cm2

Fuel: diesel

Capacity: 300kg water/hr

For boiler safety prior to steam generation, a soft water generator is used. Water
will be pumped with help of a centrifugal pump .Filter cartridge is provided to remove
impurities present in diesel and sprayed with the help of spraying gun. Photosensitive
sensor is used to prevent the accumulation of fuel before ignition.

8. REFRIGERATION ROOM

Food materials like milk are stored at temperature much below the room
temperature, probably of order 40C or 00C. Refrigeration are commonly used for
preservation of those categories of food items which are spoiled by microorganism or
enzyme degradation. Refrigeration is the process of pumping heat from a high
temperature source to a lower temperature sink. This process is achieved by using a
compressor to compress and expand a material called as refrigerant. Refrigerants have a
very peculiar property of changing the phase.

Milk after pasteurization should be kept at refrigerated condition to prevent

spoilage. Under refrigerated condition pasteurized milk will not spoil for 5 days. The
packing material used for sealing walls of cold room are insulators for example PVF,
glass wool, thermocoal etc. The refrigerant in the vapour phase enters at h into the
compressor at temperature T4 and pressure p2 is compressed, and it leaves the
compressor at a. The pressure and temperature at a are T1 and p1 which are higher than
T4 and p2. The phase changes to liquid. At these conditions, the refrigerant enters the
condenser where heat is removed by air cooling or cold water circulation.Hence the
temperature falls to T2 which is less than T1,but pressure remains constant at p1 and in
liquid phase. The refriferant enters an expansion valve at d which is at higher pressure p1
and is almost at room temperature T2. It gets expanded in the expansion valve and leaves
at e, where its pressure falls to p2, and the phase changes to vapour phase. The phase
change takes place with absorption of heat, which in turn results in lowering he
temperature to T3. Some common refrigerants used include Freon, CFCs

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Schematic representation of vapour- compression refrigeration cycle

Refrigeration Room

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 CHAPTER III

VALUE ADDED PRODUCTS

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 PREPARATION OF VALUE ADDED PRODUCTS FROM DAIRY INDUSTRY

1. CURD

Take 80l of milk taken in large vessel

Boil the milk upto 90oC and provide continuous stirring

Cool the milk into room temperature by keep it in water bath

After cooling add the starter culture

( Lactococcuslactis/ Lactococcuscremoris)

Pack this into 200ml LDPE covers

(LDPE- Low Density Poly Ethylene)

Keep it for ripening overnight at room temperature

Curd is formed

2. SAMBHARAM

Take 10l curd and 20l water

Mix well

Add Ginger Green chilly paste and curry leaves

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 Add salt in required amount

Mix well and pack this in 200ml LDPE covers

Keep it in fridge

3. WHEY DRINK

Take 60l of Whey

Add curd and keep it for overnight fermentation

On next day add Ginger Green chilly paste and curry leaves

Add salt in required amount

Mix well and pack this in 200ml LDPE covers

Keep it in fridge

4. DAIRY COOL

Take 60l of Whey

Add ginger, lime juice and honey in required amount

Mix well and pack this in 200ml LDPE covers

Keep it in fridge

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5. ICE CREAM

Boil the milk upto 90OC And provide continuous stirring

Add 3kg sugar, 1.350kg skimmed milk powder,

100g stabilizer & emulsifier and cream

Heat this mixture till boil

Pour this solution into homogenizer for homogenization

After homogenization keep the solution for aging (16hrs)

Add essence or flavor

Freezing done in the Batch freezer

Stored in cups and freezed

6. SIP – UP

Mix 6L Milk Water and 4L Milk

Heat the Milk Water solution

Add 5g stabilizer, 150g skimmed milk powder, 2kg sugar

Heat the mixture till boil

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 Cool this solution by placing in cold water bath

Pack this into packets and kept for freezing in freezer

7. KHOA

Take 70l Milk on large container

Boil the milk by using hot steam and provide continuous stirring

Boiling will be carried out till all the water content will vaporize
And get a caramel colored solid residue

Keep this in refrigerated condition and it is used

for the preparation of Peda and GulabJamun

8. PEDA

Take 7kg of previously prepared Khoa

Add 7kg Sugar, small amount of Milk and flavor

Mix thoroughly and keep this overnight in freezer

After overnight freezing cut this into small pieces by using molds

Well packed and kept in freezer

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9. GULAB JAMUN

Mix this Khoa (2kg) with Maida (200g) and Rawa (100g)

Knead this mixture properly and weigh out 5g

Each 5g is divided into 5 equal pieces and form small balls

Fry these balls in ghee and oil mixture

Keep these balls in concentrated sugar solution

(6kg in 10ls of Water)

After some time pack 10 pieces of GulabJamun in

1packet with sugar solution

10. PANEER

Take 10ls of Milk and keep it for boiling Take 2l of Water and boil

When the temperature of Milk reaches 90oC, add 1% Citric Acid powder and mix
properly
cool the milk into 70oC (Citric acid solution will be 20% of milk)

Very slowly add hot Citric Acid solution to milk and provide a very slow stirring

Stir until Milk will turn into a light green colour that means
milk get coagulated

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 Drain the solution by using Muslin cloth and get Chhana as filtrate

This Chhana is keep in a perforated tray and press by provide very high pressure

Paneer formed

11. PANEER PICKLE

Ingredients
Paneer - 1Kg
Green chilly - 100g
Red chilly - 150g
Achar powder - 40g
Mustard - 8g
White Mustard- 10g
Vinegar - 250ml
Ginger - 40g
Gingely Oil - 50ml
Fenugreek - 0.5g
Asafolida - 1g

Procedure

Cut paneer into small pieces Add Mustard, Green Chilly, Garlic,
Ginger, White Mustard into hot oil
and mix

Fry in Sunflower Oil Add roasted, crushed Red chilly

and
(Golden Yellow Color) Curry leaves
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Boil it in 2% salt solution ( 20min) Add Fenugreek + Asafolida
Powder
Add salt and mix well

Turn off fire and add prepared Paneer

Add hot gingerly oil and Vinegar

Add salt

Add hot Olive Oil

Paneer pickle is formed

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CHAPTER IV

LECTURES

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LECTURE 1 :PASTEURIZATION

It is a process of heating a food, which is usually a liquid, to a specific

temperature for a predefined length of time and then immediately cooling it after it is
removed from the heat. This process slows spoilage caused by microbial growth in
the food. It is not intended to kill all micro-organisms in the food. Instead, it aims to
reduce the number of viable pathogens so they are unlikely to cause disease.

Pasteurization of milk was suggested by Franz von Soxhlet in 1886. It is the main
reason for milk's extended shelf life. High-temperature, short-time (HTST) pasteurized
milk typically has a refrigerated shelf life of two to three weeks, whereas ultra-
pasteurized milk can last much longer, sometimes two to three months. When ultra-heat
treatment (UHT) is combined with sterile handling and container technology (such
as aseptic packaging), it can even be stored unrefrigerated for 6 to 9 months.

Schematic representation of Pasteurization

Flow balance tank is the tank in which milk is collected for pasteurization and it
has a flow contolling facility. A centrifugal pump is followed by this tank and it helps to
pump the milk from the tank to the heat exchanger. There will be a Duplex filter to
remove the sediments presents in the milk. The temperature of the incoming milk is

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nearly 35OC. After leaves the regeneration I section its temperature become 45 OC by
utilising the heat from the out going milk. Then the milk enters into regeneration II, the
temperature becomes 65 OC. In heating section the temperature becomes 72 OC by
contacting with hot water and enters into the holding tube. The length of holding tube is
based on how much the milk will be kept in 72 OC. Usually the holding time will be 15
Sec. After that the milk goes in to flow diversion valve, in which there will be a sensory
apparatus for checking the temperature. If the temperature of the milk did not reach 72 OC,
then it will moves to the Flow balance tank and if the temperature reached to 72 OC it will
go to the regeneration II and by contacting with the incoming milk it will decrease its
temperature and thereby increasing the temperature of incoming milk. Then move on to
regeneration I and again temperature loss will be there. At last it enters to the cooling
section where chilled water is circulated and temperature of the milk reduced to 4 OC and
stored in the storage tank.

LECTURE 2 : DRUM DRYER

They were used in drying almost all liquid food materials before spray drying
came into use. Nowadays, drum dryers are used in the food industry for drying a variety
of products, such as milk product, baby foods, breakfast cereal, fruit and vegetable pulp,
mashed potatoes, cooked starch, and spent yeast. In a drying operation, liquid, slurry, or
puree material is applied as a thin layer on to the outer surface of revolving drums that
are internally heated by steam. After about three quarters of a revolution from the point of
feeding, the product is dried and removed with a static scraper. The dried product is then
ground into flakes or powder. Drum drying is one of the most energy efficient drying
methods and is particularly effective for drying high viscous liquid or pureed foods.

A drum dryer consists of one or two horizontally mounted hollow cylinder(s)

made of high grade cast iron or stainless steel, a supporting frame, a product feeding
system, a scraper, and auxiliaries. The diameter of typical drums ranges from 0.5m to 6m
and the length from 1m to 6m.

In operation, steam at temperature up to 2000C heats the inner surface of the

drum. The moist material is uniformly applied in a thin layer (0.5mm to 2mm) on to the
outer drum surface. Most of the moisture is removed at water boiling temperature. The

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residence time of the product on the drum ranges from a few seconds to dozens of
seconds to reach final moisture contents of often less than 5% (wet basis)

Drum dryers are classified into single drum dryer, double drum dryer, and twin
drum. A double drum dryer has two drums that revolve dryer toward each other at the
top. The spacing between the two drums controls the thickness of the feed layer applied
to the drum surfaces. A twin drum dryer also has two drums, but they rotate away from
each other at the top.

Fig 18: Single drum dryer and Double drum dryer

Among the three types, single and double drum dryers are most commonly used
for fruits and vegetables. For materials sensitive to heat damage, a vacuum drum dryer
may be used to reduce drying temperature. A vacuum drum dryer is similar to other drum
dryers except that the drums are enclosed in a vacuum chamber.

The advantages of drum drying include:

 The products have good porosity and hence good rehydration due to boiling
evaporation.
 Drum dryers can dry very viscous foods, such as pastes and gelatinized or cooked
starch, which cannot be easily dried with other methods.
 Drum dryers normally have high energy efficiency.
 Drum drying can be clean and hygienic.
 Drum dryers are easy to operate and maintain.
 The dryers are flexible and suitable for multiple but small quantity production.

The disadvantages of drum drying are the following:

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  Some products may not form a good film on the drum surface and are not suitable
for drum drying.
 Some products, especially those with high sugar content, may not be easily
scrapped off from the drum.
 Relatively low throughput compared to spray drying.
 High cost of changing drum surface because of the precision machining that is
required.
 Possible scorching of the product to impart cooked favor and off color due to
direct contact with high temperature drum surface.
 Notable to process salty or other corrosive materials due to potential pitting of
drum surface.

Feeding methods

The method of applying product on to the drum surface differs, depending on the
drum arrangement, the solid concentration, viscosity, and wetting ability of the product.
Industrial drum dryers use five basic feeding methods, namely, roll feeding, nip feeding,
dipping, spraying, and splashing.

Nip feeding is the simplest feeding method

solely used in double drum dryers. It is suitable for
drying of thin solutions, such as milk and whey. Nip
feeding utilizes the adjustable gap between the two
drums as a means to control the film thickness. The
uniform distribution of the feed over the length of
the drums is essential. Pendulum feed or perforated pipe is used to supply material into a
pool in the space between the two drums.

Products containing high sugar contents, such as tomato puree, may be difficult to
remove from the drums at high temperatures due to the thermo plasticity of those
materials. A cooling mechanism may be used at the location just before the product
reaches the scraper. The purpose of the cooling is to bring the Product from a rubbery
state into a glassy state to facilitate separation of the product from the drum surface.

33
 Fig 19: Double Drum Dryer

LECTURE 3 :FOOD QUALITY

Food quality is the quality characteristics of food that is acceptable to consumers.

This includes external factors as appearance (size, shape, colour, gloss, and consistency),
texture, and flavor; factors such as federal grade standards (e.g. of eggs) and internal
(chemical, physical, microbial). It is important to ensure that the food processing
environment is as clean as possible in order to produce the safest possible food for the
consumer. Food quality also deals with product traceability, e.g. of ingredient and
packaging suppliers, should a recall of the product be required. It also deals with labelling
issues to ensure there is correct ingredient and nutritional information.

During the degustation, the products must meet the following selection criteria,
required by the Institute: sensory analysis, bacteriological and chemical analysis, the
nutrition and health claims, and the utilization notice. In short, the judgments are based
on the following areas: taste, health, convenience, labeling, packaging, environmental
friendliness and innovation.

Clean Milk Production

The production of clean milk involves thorough cleanliness at all stages of handling.

34
  Healthy herd:  routine examination of cattle is necessary to assure that they are
disease free. Otherwise this can infect human beings and is transmittable via milk.
 Housing:  milking area must be free from flies, rodents, vermin, dust, smoking, all
manure dung and dust particles.
 Cow stalls and other quarters must be surfed with disinfectants consisting of
quaternary ammonium compounds diluted with only 60% water for sanitizing
purpose.
 Ensure that feeds and fodders are free of pesticides and feed ingredients must be
stored in moisture free conditions to inhibit the production of aflatoxins.
 Milking utensils should be made up of aluminum or galvanized iron.  Properly
clean and sundry the vessels before and after milking.
 Chemicals like sodium hypochlorite in liquid form or iodophore, quaternary
ammonium compounds, detergents like Teepol can also be used.  Never use ash
or mud for cleansing the utensils.
 Udder and teats of the cow should be washed with warm water adding a pinch of
potassium permanganate or sodium hypochlorite before and after milking. After
washing the udder should be dried.
 Pre milking: Two or three drops of milk from each quarter should be stripped.
This also removes the first milk which is usually high in bacterial count.
 Ensure the milker is free from any diseases, wounds and he should keep proper
personal hygiene. Wearing of hand gloves by milker is highly recommended.
 Teats should also be dipped with iodophore solution after milking to prevent
mastitis.
 The milk has to be cooled to a temperature below 50C by using household
refrigerators / water coolers/ bulk milk coolers preferably within 2 hours after
milking.

Pre-requisites for Good Milking:

 Milking is the key operation on a dairy farm; it depends on the income derived.
Any amount of scientific feeding or possession of high yielding cows will not
help if the milking is inefficient.
 Milking is an art requiring experience and skill. Milking should be conducted
gently, quietly, quickly, cleanly and completely. Cows remaining comfortable

35
 yield more milk than a roughly handled and excited cow. Maintenance of clean
condition in the milking barn results both in better udder health and production of
milk that remains wholesome for longer time. The act of milking should be
finished within 5 to 7 minutes, so that the udder can be emptied completely so
long as the effect of oxytocin is available. Complete milking has to be done, lest
the residual milk may act an inducer for mastitis causing organisms and the
overall yield may also be less.

Milking Procedure:

 The milk must be squeezed and not dragged out of teats. The first few strips of
milk from each teat should be let on to a strip cup to see clues in milk for possible
incidence of mastitis. This also helps in getting rid of bacteria which have gained
access and collected in the teat canal.
 Stripping and full-hand milking are the two commonly used methods of milking.
Stripping consists of firmly seizing the teat at its base between the thumb and
forefinger and drawing them down the entire length of the teat pressing it
simultaneously to cause the milk to flow down in a stream.
 Full hand milking removes milk quicker than stripping, because of no loss of time
in changing the position of the hand, Full-hand method is superior to stripping as
it simulates the natural suckling process by calf. Stripping causes more irritation
to teats due to repeated sliding of fingers on teats; and so discomfort to cows.
 Wet-hand milking makes the teats look harsh and dry chafes, cracks and sores
appear which are painful to animal. The hands should be perfectly dry while
milking.
 When cracks and sores are noticed on teats, some antiseptic ointment or cream
should be smeared over them after milking.

Milk safety and quality assurance has become an area of priority and necessity for
consumers, retailers, manufacturers and regulators. The components of milk and its
physical and chemical properties provide a favorable milieu for the growth and
multiplication of microorganisms, thus causing milk spoilage and transmission of disease
in humans..

36
 Production of clean and safe milk is essential for the safety of consumers and also to
make the product competitive at national and global levels. However, the livestock
farmers who are mostly spread in villages and are away from access to information
technology are by and large uninformed and not quality conscious. This leads to the need
to create awareness among the dairy farmers, extension functionaries and office bearers
about the measures to be taken for quality and clean milk production.

For a proper milk value chain, a systematic approach to quality care is needed,
focusing on each individual link in the production chain. Every participant in the dairy
supply chain must be responsible in developing this quality system. The authorities are
required to continuously monitor the quality of products and production processes to
ensure compliance with applicable rules and regulations.

When received, raw milk is stored in storage tanks until required for further
processing. Storage tanks are used for the storage of raw, pasteurized or processed
products. The storage tanks must be designed for ease in sanitation, preferably by the
circulation-cleaning method. In addition the tanks should be insulated or refrigerated, so
that they can maintain the required temperature throughout the holding period.

To allow quality assurance, the storage should be in position to;

1. To maintain the milk at a low temperature to prevent any deterioration in quality

prior to processing / product manufacture.
2. To facilitate bulking of raw milk supply, this will ensure uniform composition.
3. To allow for uninterrupted operation during processing and packing.
4. To facilitate standardization of milk quality.

LECTURE 4 :VALUE ADDED PRODUCTS IN DAIRY INDUSTRY

Dairy farmers can add value to their milk by processing and marketing their own
products, such ascheeses, yogurt, butter, ice cream, and farm-bottled milk. Many consumers
are willing to pay apremium for locally produced, high-quality, farmstead dairy products;
organic certification mayfurther enhance the market potential. Many of the value added

37
functional dairy foods are designed to decrease chances of diseases, managing the disease
conditions and promoting health of the consumers.

Types of Value added dairy products are

1. Heat desiccated products

2. Heat acid coagulated products
3. Fermented products
4. Frozen desserts
5. Fat rich products
6. Milk based deserts and puddings

1. Heat desiccated products

Khoa:is a milk food widely used in the Indian cuisine, made of either dried whole milk
or milk thickened by heating in an open iron pan.A concentration of milk to one-fifth
volume is normal in the production of khoa. It is made
from both cow and water buffalo milk and normally
white or pale yellow. The ideal temperature to avoid
scorching is 175–180°F (80°C).

Khoa is used in various types of sweets:

 Pedha is sweetened khoa formed into balls or thick disks with flavorings such as
saffron and/or cardamom added.
 GulabJamun also a round ball sweet made from khoa and then deep fried and
soaked in rose water flavoured sugar or honey syrup.
 Burfi is also flavoured, but khoa is not the only ingredient add thickened fruit
pulp or coconut shavingstokhoa and slow cooked until the moisture evaporates
sufficiently to give the consistency of fudge, so it can be flattened and cut into
rectangles, parallelograms or diamond shapes.
 Gujia, a sweet dumpling stuffed with khoa
 Halwa is essentially fudge made by adding khoa to give a dairy-like taste and
texture and as a thickening agent.

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2. Heat acid coagulated product

Paneer :is a fresh cheese common in South Asian cuisine.It is an unaged, acid-set, non-
melting farmer cheese or curd cheese made by curdling heated milk with lemon juice,
vinegar, or any other food acids.To prepare paneer,
food acid is added to hot milk to separate the curds
from the whey. The curds are drained in muslin or
cheesecloth and the excess water is pressed
out.Thecurds are wrapped in cloth and placed under a
heavy weight, such as a stone slab, for 2–3 hours, and
then cut into cubes for use in curries.

Some common foods prepared from Paneer are, SandeshMattarpaneer (paneer

with peas)Saagpaneer or Palakpaneer (paneer with spinach),Shahipaneer, Paneertikka,
Paneertikkamasala,Kadaipaneer

Chhana :In Eastern Indian and Bangladeshi cuisines, the curds are beaten or kneaded by
hand into a dough-like consistency calledchhana, a salty
semi-hard cheese with a sharper flavor and high salt
content.The product made by using chhana is Rasagulla
and is made from ball shaped dumplings of chhena and
semolina dough, cooked in light syrup made of sugar.
This is done until the syrup permeates the dumplings.

3. Fermented products

Curd : These are a dairy product obtained by curdling (coagulating) milk with rennet or
an edible acidic substance such as lemon juice or vinegar,
and then draining off the liquid portion. The increased
acidity causes the milk proteins (casein) to tangle into solid
masses, or curds. The remaining liquid, which contains only
whey proteins, is the whey. In cow's milk, 80% of the

39
proteins are caseins. Milk that has been left to sour will also naturally produce curds, and
sour milk cheese is produced this way.

Cheese : It is produced in wide-ranging flavors, textures, and forms.Cheese consists of

proteins and fat from milk. It is produced
by coagulation of the milk protein casein. Typically, the
milk is acidified and addition of the
enzyme rennetcauses coagulation. The solids are
separated and pressed into final form.Hundreds of types
of cheese are produced. Their styles, texture
andflavorsdepend on the origin of the milk, whether they
have been pasteurized, the butterfat content, the bacteria and mold, the processing, and
aging. Herbs, spices, or wood smoke may be used as flavoring agents.

Cheese is valued for its portability, long life, and high content
of fat, protein,calcium, and phosphorus. The long storage life of some cheese, especially
if it is encased in a protective rind, allows selling when markets are favorable. Additional
ingredients may be added to some cheeses, such as black
peppers, garlic, chives orcranberries.

Yogurt:  is a dairy product produced by bacterial fermentation of milk. The bacteria used

to make yogurt are known as "yogurt cultures". Fermentation of lactose by these bacteria
produces lactic acid, which acts on milk protein to give yogurt its texture and its
characteristic tang.Cow’s milk, the protein of which mainly comprises casein, is most
commonly used to make yogurt, but milk from water buffalo, goats, ewes, mares,camels,
and yaks is also used.

Dairy yogurt is produced using a culture of Lactobacillus

delbrueckii subsp. Bulgaricusand Streptococcusthermophilus bacteria. In addition,
other lactobacilli and bifidobacteria are also sometimes added during or after culturing
yogurt.

The milk is first heated to about 80 °C (176 °F) to kill any undesirable bacteria
and todenature the milk proteins so that they set together rather than form curds. The milk
is then cooled to about 45 °C (112 °F).The bacteria culture is added, and the temperature
is maintained for 4 to 7 hours to allow fermentation.

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4. Frozen Desserts

Ice cream is a frozen dessert usually made from dairy products, such as milk and cream,
and often combined with fruits or other ingredients and flavours. Most varieties contain
sugar, although some are made with other sweeteners. In
some cases, artificial flavourings and colourings are used in
addition to, or instead of, the natural ingredients. The
mixture of chosen ingredients is stirred slowly while
cooling, in order to incorporate air and to prevent large ice
crystals from forming. The result is smoothly textured
semi-solid foam that is malleable and can be scooped. The
most popular flavours of ice cream are vanilla and
chocolate.

Kulfi is a popular frozen dairy dessert from the Indian Subcontinent. Kulfi has

similarities to ice cream in appearance and taste, but is denser and creamier. It comes
invariousflavours,includingcream,raspberry, rose, mango, cardamom (elaichi), saffron (k
esar or zafran), and pistachio, the more traditional flavours, as well as newer variations
like apple, orange, strawberry, peanut, and avocado. Unlike Western ice creams, kulfi is
not whipped, resulting in a solid, dense frozen dessert similar to traditional custard based
ice-cream. Thus, it is sometimes considered a distinct category of frozen dairy-based
dessert. Due to its density, kulfi takes a longer time to melt than Western ice-cream.

5. Fat rich products

Butter is a dairy product made by churning fresh or fermented cream or milk. It is

generally used as a spread and a condiment, as well as in cooking, such as baking, sauce
making,and pan frying. Butter consists of butterfat, milk proteins and water.Most
frequently made from cows' milk, butter can also be
manufactured from the milk of other mammals,
including sheep, goats, buffalo,
and yaks. Salt, flavourings and preservatives are
sometimes added to butter. Rendering butter
produces clarified butter or ghee, which is almost entirely
butterfat.
41
 Butter is a water-in-oil emulsion resulting from an inversion of the cream, an oil-
in-water emulsion; the milk proteins are the emulsifiers. Butter remains a solid
when refrigerated, but softens to a spreadable consistency at room temperature, and melts
to a thin liquid consistency at 32–35 °C (90–95 °F). The density of butter is 911 g/L
(56.9 lb/ft3).

It generally has a pale yellow color, but varies from deep yellow to nearly white.
Its unmodified color is dependent on the animals' feed and is commonly manipulated
with food colorings in the commercial manufacturing process, most
commonly annatto or carotene.

Ghee is a class of clarified butter that originated in South Asia and is commonly used in

South Asian cuisine and ritual. To prepare ghee, butter is melted in a pot over medium
heat. The butter begins to melt, forming a white froth on top. It is then simmered, while
occasional stirring reduces the froth slowly and the color of the
butter changes to pale yellow. Then it is cooked on low heat
until it turns golden. The residue settles at the bottom and the
ghee, which is now clear, golden, translucent and fragrant, is
ready. The ghee is then filtered and it solidifies when
completely cool. Ghee has a long shelf-life and needs
no refrigeration if kept in an airtight container to
prevent oxidation. The texture, colour and taste of ghee depends on the source of the milk
obtained and the duration of boiling.

6. Milk based dessert and puddings

Kheer (Payasam)means "milk". It is prepared using milk, rice,

ghee, sugar/jaggery, Khoa. Some also add a little bit of Heavy Cream to give it more
richness in taste. It is often garnished using almonds,
cashews, raisins and pistachios.

It is an essential dish in many Hindu feasts and

celebrations. While the dish is most often made with
rice, it can also be made with other ingredients such
as vermicelli (sayviah).

42
Rice was known to the Romans, and possibly introduced to Europe as a food crop as
early as the 8th or 10th century AD, and so the recipe for the popular English rice
pudding is believed by some to be descended from kheer. 

LECTURE 5 : HOW TO CHECK FAT % AND SNF

LACTOSCAN

It offers series of user-friendly, rapid analysis which can be applied for measurement of
fat (FAT), solids non-fat (SNF), density, proteins, lactose, salts, water content
percentages, temperature (°C), freezing point, pH,
conductivity, as well as total solids of one and the same
sample directly after milking, at collecting and during
processing. It possess high accuracy and speed. Their
minimal power consumption and lack of consumables
make milk analyser Lactoscan attractive for the dairy
industry. Easy to work with, low cost maintenance and
low price make milk analyzer Lactoscan suitable for dairy
farms, dairy enterprises, milk selection centers and laboratories.

We can determine fat%, solid not fat (SNF), CLR (corrected lactometer reading), protein,
lactose, Water by using lactoscan.

DETERMINATION OF TOTAL FAT

The price of milk fixed on its fat content. To determine the fat level in milk
generally uses Gerber method. In this test H2SO4(90- 92%) is used to increase specific
gravity of milk serum which makes greater difference between milk serum and fat
globules. It also destroys stickiness of milk by dissolving all the SNF. The free fat
globules rise to the surface by subsequent application of centrifugal force to this mixture
and heat produced due to mixing of acid and milk, causing melting of fat. It facilitates the
fat particles to come to the surface freely. The specific gravity of fat is 0.9 and that of

43
acid milk mixtures is 1.43. This situation promotes complete separation of fat when
proper centrifugal force is applied.
Due to application of centrifugal force lighter substances (Butter fat) are thrown towards
centre and rest of serum portion that is heavier is thrown towards the pheriphen.
Addition of amyl alcohol helps for separation of fat from the milk acid mixture and also
prevents the charging of fat and sugar by the H2SO4.

1. Put the clean and dry butyrometer in a butyrometer stand with open mouth
upwards.
2. Run 10 ml of sulphuric acid with the tilt measure in the butyrometer.
3. Pipette out 10.75 ml of milk sample gently by the side of butyrometer, whose
temperature is   about 60-70 0 F.
4. Pour 1 ml of amyl alcohol with tilt measure. Stopper the butyrometer with the
help of lock stopper using regulating pin/guiding pin.
5. The tube is well (mixed) shaken till mahogany red colour is obtained. Keep the
butyrometer in hot water bath till it attains 60-70 0 F and the butyrometer are
placed in the centrifuged machine that is revolved at 1100 rpm for 4 minutes.
6. Take out the butyrometer in an upright position with the stopper end down wards.
Keep the butyrometer in hot water bath a 149 0 F (600 C) for some time.
7. Adjust the fat column which will appear clear and yellowish within the graduation
with the help of key.
8. Note the reading. Reading should be taken from bottom of the fat column to lower
border of meniscus on the scale.

SNF TEST

It is used to estimate the level of Total solid content of milk and to decide the
quality of milk on the basis of total and SNF. Total solids content is the entire residue left
after complete evaporation of water from milk. This includes fat protein, lactose and
mineral matter. These solid constituents exist in milk in a mechanical mixture.

The equation used for the calculation of SNF,

SNF = 0.25 LR + 0.25 F + 0.5

44
LR = 1000 + x

1000

LR = Lactometer reading ( in 29OC)

x = Reading in the lactometer

F = Total fat content

LECTURE 6 :DAIRY STARTER CULTURE

The preservation of food by fermentation is one of the oldest methods known to

mankind. A typical example is lactic acid fermentation, which is widely used for the
preparation of several fermented milk products, such as dahi (curd), yoghurt, acidophilus
milk, shrikhand and various varieties of cheeses. These are carefully selected
microorganisms, which are deliberately added to milk to initiate and carry out desired
fermentation under controlled conditions in the production of fermented milk products.
Most of them belong to lactic acid bacteria (Lactococcus, Lactobacillus, Streptococcus
and Leuconostocs). In some cases, few non-lactic starters (bacteria, yeast and mold) are
also used along with lactic acid bacteria during manufacturing of specific fermented milk
products, such as kefir, kumiss and mold ripened cheeses.

Functions of Starter Cultures

Starter cultures can be used as single strain, mixed strain and multiple strains
depending upon the type of products to be prepared. The ability of starter culture to
perform its functions efficiently during manufacture of fermented dairy foods depends
primarily on purity and activity of starter cultures.
The major roles of starter culture during fermentation of milk are:

a) Production of primarily lactic acid and few other organic acids, such as formic
acid and acetic acid.

b) Coagulation of milk and changes in body and texture in final products.

c) Production of flavouring compounds, e.g., diacetyl, acetoin and acetaldehyde.

d) Help in ripening of cheeses by their enzymatic activities.

45
 e) Produce antibacterial substances in the finished product.

f) In addition, they may possess functional properties.

Types of Starter Cultures

There are two major groups of starter cultures which are used in the preparation of
fermented milk products classified on the basis of their

a) Physiological and growth characteristics, such as

(i) Mesophillic starter culture
(ii) Thermohillic starter culture
b) Biochemical characteristics such as
(i) Homofermentative lactic acid bacteria
(ii) Heterofermentative lactic acid bacteria.

Mesophillic starter culture

These cultures have optimum temperature for growth between 20 to 30°C and include
LactococcusandLeuconostoc. These mesophillic lactic cultures are used in the production
of many cheese varieties where important characteristics are:

1. Acid producing activity

2. Gas production, and
3. Production of enzymatic activity for cheese ripening, e.g., proteases and peptidases
enzymes.
The importance of fermented milk derived from mesophilic fermentation are
consistency which is due to the lactic acid coagulation of the milk proteins and aroma and
flavour produced by citric acid and lactose fermentation.

Thermophilic starter culture

These cultures have optimum temperature for growth between 37 to 45°C.

Thermophilic cultures are generally employed in the production of yoghurt, acidophilus
milk, swiss type cheese. Thermophilic cultures include species of Streptococcus and
Lactobacillus. These cultures grow in association with milk and form the typical yoghurt

46
starter culture. This growth is considered symbiotic because the rate of acid development
is greater when two bacteria are grown together as compared to single strains.
Propagation of starter culture
Large quantities of starter culture in active and pure form are essential to the
success of starter in product manufacture. This can be achieved by careful propagation of
cultures.
The propagation is required to maintain activity of the culture and also to increase
the number of cells and volume of the culture for inoculation into the milk for product
manufacture. Strict aseptic conditions are required to maintain the purity of starters
during propagation. Similarly, the medium (milk) should be free from antibiotic residues
or any other substances harmful to the starter. Control of temperatures during
pasteurization of milk, incubation and cooling are also important factors affecting the
activity of culture.
The starter preparation techniques described below can be used for all types of
fermented milk products. The starter is produced in several steps.
Master culture : Starter available commercially from Laboratories.
Mother culture : Starter inoculated with master culture.
Intermediate/Feeder culture: Larger quantities of mother culture.
Bulk Culture : Culture used in production.
Following is the flow diagram for the propagation of starter culture:

47
 This traditional method of starter propagation is time consuming, laborious,
requires skilled personnel and is more prone to contamination. The other method, make
use of concentrated culture sufficient to inoculate large quantity of milk for bulk starter
production or directly for product manufacture. In recent years to prevent the
contamination during starter propagation and bulk starter production, especially from
bacteriophage, several new techniques have been developed. These include Lewis
system, Jones system and Alfa-Laval system which employ mechanical and chemical
control measures in design of equipment and bulk starter tank to prevent the entry of
contaminants during propagation. Starter propagation in specially designed media such as
devoid of calcium ions which help in controlling phage infection. Such media are called
phage inhibitory media (PIM) or phage resistant media (PRM).
Now-a-days, several laboratories supply DVS or DVI (Direct-vat-set or Direct-
vat-Inoculation) cultures, which are highly concentrated cultures, having cell population
of about 1010 to 1012 cells per gram which are used directly for setting the vat or for the
preparation of bulk culture. These cultures omit the need of culture propagation at the
factory and reduce the risk of failure of milk fermentation for product development.
Maintenance of starter cultures
The usual method of maintenance of these dairy starter cultures is by regular transfer into
a small quantity of clean, previously well-sterilized and cooled milk. The cultures can be

48
stored in the refrigerator and sub-cultured once in 2 or 3 days. During such frequent
transfers, cultures are likely to get contaminated, if proper precautions are not taken. The
best method of preservation and maintenance of cultures is to maintain them in ampules
or vials under freeze-dried condition and sealed under vacuum. The desirable
characteristics and activity of these cultures can be maintained satisfactorily under this
condition and transported over long distances with ease. Now, the freeze dried starter
culture powder and converted culture have also been converted in the form of DVI or
DVS culture so that these can be handled with ease and convenience to maintain
fermentation operations in dairy industry.

LECTURE 7 :WASTE WATER-TREATMENT IN DAIRY

INDUSTRIES

A steady rise in the demand for milk and milk products inmany countries has led
to advancements in veterinary science,which has subsequently led to steady growth in the
productionof milk per head of cattle. This has causedenormous growth of dairy industries
in most countries of theworld. Consequently, the amount of wastewater generated
anddischarged from these industries has also increased.
The dairy industry wastewaters are primarily generated fromthe cleaning and
washing operations in the milk processingplants. It is estimated that about 2% of the total
milk processedis wasted into drains. Dairy wastewaters are characterizedby high
biological-oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygendemand (COD) concentrations,
and generally containfats, nutrients, lactose, as well as detergents and sanitizing agents.
Nutrients lead to eutrophication of receivingwaters, and detergents affect the aquatic life.
Due to the highpollution load of dairy wastewater, the milk-processing
industriesdischarging untreated/partially treated wastewater causeserious environmental
problems. Thus, appropriate treatment methods are required soas to meet the effluent
discharge standards.

49
 Dairy wastewaters are generally treated using biologicalmethods such as activated
sludge process, aerated lagoons, tricklingfilters, sequencing batch reactor (SBR),
anaerobic sludgeblanket (UASB) reactor, anaerobic filters, etc. Oftentimes the post-
treatment of dairy wastewater is also
done using the physico-chemical treatment methods consistingof coagulation/flocculation
by various inorganic and organicnatural coagulants, and membrane processes like
nanofiltration(NF) and/or reverse osmosis (RO). Membrane processes producepurified
water without milk proteins and lactose and whichcould be recycled. At the same time
the recovered proteins andlactose can be used for non-human consumption. Few studies
onthe adsorptive treatment of dairy wastewater are also reported inliterature.
Occasionally, pre-treatment strategies like wetlandsare used to improve the treatment
efficiency
Common techniques for treating dairy industry wastewatersinclude grease traps,
oil water separators for separation of floatablesolids, equalization of flow, and clarifiers
to remove SS. Biologicaltreatment consists of the aerobic and anaerobic
process.Sometimes anaerobic treatment followed by aerobic treatmentis employed for the
reduction of soluble organic matter (BOD)and biological nutrient removal (BNR) is
employed for the reductionof nitrogen and phosphorus. Sometimes chlorination ofthe
effluent is also done for the purpose of disinfection beforereusing the water.

Biological Treatment

Aerobic Process
Aerobic biological treatment involves microbial degradationand oxidation of
waste in the presence of oxygen. Conventionaltreatment of dairywastewater by aerobic
processes includes processessuch as activated sludge, trickling filters, aerated lagoons, or
a combination of these. All compoundsof dairy wastewater are biodegradable except
proteinand fats which are not easily degraded. Owingto the presence of high organic
matter, dairy wastewatersare well suited for biological treatment, especially anaerobic
treatment. However, the presenceof fats shows the inhibitory action during anaerobic
treatment ofdairy wastewaters. This inhibition is due tothe presence of long-chain fatty
acids formed during the hydrolysisof lipids, which causes retardation in methane

50
production. Long-chain fatty acids were reported tobe inhibitory to methanogenic
bacteria but lipidsdo not cause serious problems in aerobic processes.
Amongst the variousaerobic technologies, sequential batch reactor (SBR) seemsto
be the most promising technology for treatment of dairywastewater. It is a fill- and draw-
activated sludge system. In thissystem, wastewater is added to a single batch reactor,
treated toremove undesirable components, and then discharged. Equalization,aeration,
and clarification can all be achieved using asingle-batch reactor. Hence, savings on the
total cost are obtainedby elimination of clarifiers and other equipment. The treatment
efficiencyof SBR depends on the operating parameters such asphase duration, hydraulic
retention time (HRT) and organicloading, temperature, mixed liquor-suspended solid
(MLSS),pH, dissolved-oxygen concentration, and the strength of thewastewater.

Anaerobic Treatment

Despite variousstudies and some advantages of the aerobic biological treatmentof

dairy wastewater (Table 5), there are a number of drawbacksassociated with these
studies. High energy requirementby aerobic treatment methods are the primary drawback
of theseprocesses. Dairy effluents have high COD and organic contentand are warm,
enabling them to be ideal for anaerobic treatment. Furthermore, no requirement for
aeration, lowamount of excess sludge production, and low area demand areadditional
advantages of anaerobic treatment processes in comparisonto aerobic processes (Table 5).
Consequently, a numberof studies have been reported in open literature for the
treatmentof dairy wastewater by anaerobic methods.
UASB reactors have been widely used for the dairy wastewatertreatment in full-
scale applications. The basic elements of a typical UASB reactor are asludge blanket,
influent-distribution system, gas-solid separator,and the effluent-withdrawal system. In
the UASB reactor,the influent is distributed at the bottom and travels in up-flowmode.

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 An anaerobic-aerobic combination treatment gives betterresults but more studies
are required to optimize the treatmentefficiency.

Physico-Chemical Treatment Process

Physico-chemical treatment processes like coagulation/flocculation, adsorption,
and membrane process are requiredto remove suspended, colloidal, and dissolved
constituents.Coagulation and flocculation is a frequently appliedprocess in the primary
purification of industrial wastewater. Coagulationusing chemical coagulants consists of
combining insoluble particlesand/or dissolved organic matter present in dairy
wastewaterinto large aggregates, thereby facilitating their removal insubsequent
sedimentation, floatation, and filtration stages.
Among the various physico-chemical treatment methods, adsorptionhas been
found to be attractive for the removal of organiccompounds in wastewaters. Activated
carbon (AC) is generally used as an adsorbent for the treatment of various types
ofwastewaters. However, many investigators have utilized severallow-cost adsorbents
like coal fly ash, rice husk ash, and bagassefly ash (BFA), etc., for the treatment of awide
variety ofwastewaters.
The membrane-treatment process includes microfiltration(MF), ultrafiltration (UF),
nanofiltration (NF), reverse osmosis(RO), dialysis, and electrodialysis. These methods
are verypromising where product recovery is feasible and produce highquality effluent
suitable for direct reuse.

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LECTURE 8 THERMAL PROCESSING OF MILK

PASTEURIZATION

Pasteurization is the process of heating liquids or foods to kill microorganisms

(such as Brucella, Campylobacter, E. coli O157:H7, Listeria, Mycobacterium
bovis, Salmonella, and Yersinia) that can cause disease. It was developed by Louis
Pasteur in 1864, and the practice became commercialized around the late 1800s and early
1900s.

The Purpose of Pasteurization

1. To increase milk safety for the consumer by destroying disease causing
microorganisms (pathogens) that may be present in milk.
2. To increase keeping the quality of milk products by destroying spoilage
microorganisms and enzymes that contribute to the reduced quality and shelf life of
milk.

Methods for Pasteurization

High Temperature Short Time Treatment. Milk is pasteurized at 161 F for 15 seconds.

1. Low Temperature Long Time Treatment. Milk is pasteurized at 145 F for 30

minutes.
2. Flash Pasteurization. This type of pasteurization, which involves high temperature
for 3 to 15 seconds followed by cooling and packaging, is used for drink boxes and
other liquids that can be stored for long periods of time without refrigeration.
3. Steam Pasteurization. Pressurized steam is used to kill E. coli, Salmonella, and
Listeria in beef carcasses. Exposure of the beef to steam results in a surface
temperature of about 200 F.
4. Irradiation Pasteurization. Exposure to gamma rays can prevent the growth of
some foodborne microbes in foods such as meats, spices, and produce.
5. Ultrapasteurization. Heating milk or cream to 280 F for 2 seconds can extend the
refrigerated shelf life of milk from 60 to 90 days.

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6. Ultra-High Temperature Pasteurization. Heating milk to 280 to 302 F for 1 or 2
seconds followed by packaging in airtight containers allows storage without
refrigeration for up to 90 days.

Pasteurization typically uses temperatures below boiling, since at very high

temperatures, casein micelles will irreversibly aggregate, or "curdle". The two main types
of pasteurization used today are: high-temperature, short-time (HTST) and "extended
shelf life" (ESL) treatment. Ultra-high temperature (UHT or ultra-heat-treated) is also
used for milk treatment. In the HTST process, milk is forced between metal plates or
through pipes heated on the outside by hot water, and is heated to 71.7°C (161°F) for 15–
20 seconds. UHT processing holds the milk at a temperature of 135°C (275°F) for a
minimum of one second. ESL milk has a microbial filtration step and lower temperatures
than UHT milk.Milk simply labelled "pasteurized" is usually treated with the HTST
method, whereas milk labelled "ultra-pasteurized" or simply "UHT" has been treated with
the UHT method.

Proponents of unpasteurized milk make the argument that if milk is obtained from
humanely raised cows that are grass fed and handled hygienically, then there is little
problem with disease. However, raw milk can become contaminated in a number of
ways: by coming into contact with cow faeces or bacteria living on the skin of cows,
from an infection of the cow's udder, or from dirty equipment, among others. Improperly
handled raw milk is responsible for nearly three times more hospitalizations than any
other foodborne disease outbreak, making it one of the world's most dangerous food
products.

Pasteurization methods are usually standardized and controlled by national food safety
agencies. These agencies require milk to be HTST pasteurized to qualify for the
"pasteurized" label. Standards for dairy products differ, depending on the fat content and
the intended usage. For example, the pasteurization standards for cream differ from the
standards for fluid milk, and the standards for pasteurizing cheese are designed to
preserve the phosphatase enzyme, which aids in cutting.

The HTST pasteurization standard was designed to achieve a five-log reduction, killing
99.999% of the number of viable micro-organisms in milk. This is considered adequate
for destroying almost all yeasts, molds, and common spoilage bacteria and also to ensure
adequate destruction of common pathogenic, heat-resistant organisms

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(including Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which causes tuberculosis, but
not Coxiellaburnetii, which causes Q fever). HTST pasteurization processes must be
designed so the milk is heated evenly, and no part of the milk is subject to a shorter time
or a lower temperature.

Pasteurization conditions used for milk products.

Typical Holding
Pasteurization Type Typical Product Temperature
Storage Time
Batch, vat Milk Refrigerated 145°F (62.8°C) 30 min
Viscous products, or
products with more
" " 150°F (65.6°C) 30 min
than 10% fat or
added sweetener
Egg nog, frozen
" " 155°F (68.3°C) 30 min
dessert mixes
Continuous, high
temperature short time Milk " 161°F (71.7°C) 15 sec
(HTST)
Viscous products, or
products with more
" " 166°F (74.4°C) 15 sec
than 10% fat or
added sweetener
Egg nog, frozen
" " 175°F (79.4°C) 25 sec
dessert mixes
" " " 180°F (82.2°C) 15 sec
Continuous, higher heat
Milk " 191°F (88.3°C) 1 sec
shorter time (HHST)
" " " 194°F (90°C) 0.5 sec
" " " 201°F (93.8°C) 0.1 sec
" " " 204°F (96.2°C) 0.05 sec
" " " 212°F (100°C) 0.01 sec
Continuous, Milk and cream Refrigerated, 280°F 2 sec

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 extended
Ultrapasteurization (137.8°C)
storage
Aseptic, ultra high Room 275-302°F
Milk 4-15 sec
temperature (UHT) temperature (135-150°C)

Effectiveness of pasteurization

Milk pasteurization has been scientifically proven to be at least 90% effective in

eliminating harmful bacteria in milk. While some pathogens are heat resistant, modern
equipment is readily able to test and identify bacteria in milk being processed.
Pasteurization is the only effective means of eliminating 90% or more of harmful
organisms in milk.

Diseases pasteurization can prevent include tuberculosis,

brucellosis, diphtheria, scarlet fever, and Q-fever; it also kills the harmful
bacteria Salmonella, Listeria, Yersinia, Campylobacter, Staphylococcus aureus,
and Escherichia coli O157:H7.

STERILIZATION OF MILK

Sterilized milk may be defined as milk which has been heated to a temperature of
100oC or above or such lengths of time that it remains fit for human consumption for at
least 7 days at room temperature.

Commercially sterilized milk must

a. Keep without deterioration for a sufficient period to satisfy commercial

requirement.
b. Be free of micro organisms and toxins harmful to health of consumer.
c. Be free of any microorganisms capable to proliferate, it should not show any signs
of bacterial growth.

Sterilization Systems and Plants:

There are three methods of milk sterilization as indicated bellow

A. In-container sterilization, in which milk is bottled and heated for 20 to 40 mts at

temperature between 110 and 120oC.

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 B. Ultra high temperature process discussed under UHT pasteurization
C. Two-stage process, where the milk is first sterilized according to UHT process,
then bottled and finally subjected to further heat treatment to destroy any spores
which may have entered during bottling.

In-container Sterilization

In this process the milk is heated in container at a temperature of 100 oC – 120oC,

usually by steam. The temperature of milk rises slowly on account of the slow heat
penetration especially when the container is not agitated in the sterilizer, because of this,
and for the fact that the bottles do not withstand sudden and extreme temperature
changes, the milk must be sterilized by a time. Temperature combination where by the
temperature is low and the time correspondingly is long. This tends to give the milk a
rather strong flavour and a brownish colour, especially when the bottles are not agitated
in the sterilizer. In container sterilizers are grouped in two categories i.e Batch Sterilizer,
Continuous sterilizer

Batch Sterilizer :

These sterilizers use steam as heating medium. Batch sterilizers may be either
stationary type or rotary type. The simplest type is the stationary autoclave or Sterilizer.
This is a pressure vessel, either cylindrical or rectangular in cross-section, designed to
hold steam under a pressure sufficient to give required sterilizing temperature. Batch
process is relatively wasteful of steam, and large heat losses are unavoidable. The steam
consumption will be 0.2 – 0.5 kg per litre of milk.

Continuous Sterilizer

In this system the contain ERs of milk are loaded mechanically in to a conveyor
which carries them in continuous sequence through the plant, so that the milk is
automatically subjected to the required sterilizing process. These sterilizers can be
divided into two kinds – namely those operating with steam as the sterilizing medium and
those using hot air. Those operating with steam are either hydrostatic or hydrolock
system.

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Hydrostatic Sterilizer : Consists of a number of towers which together form a number of
‘U’ shaped passages. One of the towers filled with steam, is maintained at high
temperature.

Hydrolocksterilizers contains a water sealed rotary valve, not commonly used.

Flow Diagram of sterilization of Milk

Receiving milk

Cooling to 5 0 C and bulk storage

Pre-heating (35 – 40 0 C)

Cooling 5 o C

Standardization and storage 5 o C

Preheating (60 o C)

Homogenization (2500 psi at 60 o C)

Clarification (60 o C)

Filling and capping

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 Sterilization (108 – 111 o C / 25 – 30 mts)

Cooling (Room Temperature)

Storage (Room Temp)

Sterilised Milk

The sterilisation of milk is accomplished by heating it up to the boiling point, 2120

F. In a vacuum this may be accomplished by a temperature a few degrees lower. Siebert
removes the grosser impurities of milk by placing it on a thick layer of sterilised
absorbent cotton in a clean glass funnel. A quart of milk will pass through in ten or 15
minutes.

The taste of sterilised milk is peculiar and resembles that of boiled milk. If put in
bottles which have been sterilised by boiling water or steam, by stopping them with
pledgets of absorbent cotton which have been baked, the milk will keep fresh for a
number of days - long enough to be carried upon a voyage to England or across the
continent. Milk drawn by clean hands from the cow into bottles which have been
sterilised by boiling water is germ-free, and need not be further treated; but the milk
usually served in cities from large cans which have been hawked about the streets has
passed through several receptacles and been exposed to the air. It is better always to keep
milk germ-free, but it is absolutely necessary to do so in summer if it is to be fed to
infants. If milk be too long sterilised it becomes of a brownish hue, owing to the
conversion of its lactose into caramel.

The following alterations are produced in milk by sterilisation at 2120 F.:

1. The amylolytic ferment is destroyed.

2. The casein coagulates less readily by rennin.

3. The digestibility of casein by the gastric and pancreatic juices is somewhat retarded.

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4. The fat is less promptly absorbed than normally from the intestine.

5. If the heating is continued for some time, the milk sugar is destroyed.

The mineral salts of milk are also dissociated in some degree from their organic
compounds. It is thus demonstrated that the chief change produced by sterilisation of
milk, and even by Pasteurisation at 1670 F., is destruction of the enzymes or organic
ferments of which this highly complex fluid contains a number.

In churning sterilised milk, butter forms more slowly than from raw milk, a period
two or three times longer being required. Hirsch attributes this to toughening of the
albuminoid envelopes (of lactalbumin) of the fat globules, which is produced by the heat.

CONCLUSION

As part of the training programme at Kerala Veterinary And Animal Sciences

University (KVASU) Dairy Plant, I got enough experience in processing and quality
control of Milk and other Milk based products. The training period includes 14days from
1st to 14th of January 2013.

The plant contains a pasteurizer having 1000LPH capacity, Storage tanks,

multipurpose vats, form fill seal machines. The product wing is also equipped with large

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number of equipments like driers, different types of pans and vats, ice cream freezers,
vaccum packing machines, cream seperators and homogenizers. It also have a very
efficient microbiology and chemistry laboratory equipped with fine instruments to check
the quality of raw milk collected from the farms.

This course given me the opportunity to move liberally in every section of the
industry to learn the industrial work and follow the process sequence virtually. In the
production floor the commading power of the officers, compliance, administration rules
everything are appealing. I hope that this industrial training will help me a lot to work in
the future period wherever I want to develop my career.

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