Chapter Four: Flexural Members

Chapter Four: Flexural Members

4.1 Introduction

Flexural members, otherwise known as beams, are structural elements that

span between or across supports carry principally lateral loads which are
resisted by flexural bending and shear. A beam is a combination of a tension
element and a compression element. In view of his phenomenon, the
concepts of tension members and compression members are combined in
the treatment of a beam member. The main uses of beams are to support
floors and columns, carry roof sheeting as purlins, side cladding as sheeting
rails, and to support bridge decks. The main kinds of flexural members are as
shown in Fig. 4.1

Fig. 4.1 Different sections of beams

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members

According to the width-thickness ratios of the component elements, steel

sections used for flexural members are classified into a number of classes
depending on the standard specification implemented for design.
Accordingly, EBCS 3, 1995 classifies flexural members into four classes while
AISC-LRFD Specification categorizes them into three classes.

4.2 Classification of Cross-sections

The four classes of flexural members adapted by EBCS 3, 1995 based on the
width-to-thickness ratios of their components are Class 1 (plastic), Class 2
(Compact), Class 3 (Semi-compact), or Class 4 (thin-walled) according to
their capacity in the following manner.

Class 1 cross sections, also known as plastic sections, can develop their plastic
moment resistance (fy times plastic moment resistance) with the rotation
capacity required for plastic analysis. Only cross sections falling in this class
may only be used for plastic design.

Class 2 cross sections can develop their plastic moment resistance but with
limited rotation capacity. Cross-sections falling in this group are also known as
compact sections.

Class 3 cross sections are those which can reach their “yield” moment (fy
times elastic modulus) but local buckling prevents the development of the
plastic moment resistance. In Class 3 sections, the stress in the extreme fibers
should be limited to the yield stress because local buckling prevents
development of the plastic moment capacity. Cross-sections falling in this
group are also known as semi-compact sections.

Class 4 cross sections, also known as thin-walled cross-sections, are those in

which local buckling is liable to prevent the development of the “yield”
moment: i.e., premature buckling occurs before yield is reached.

The moment resistances for the four classes defined above are:

for Classes 1 and 2: the plastic moment (Mpl = Wpl . fy)

for Class 3: the elastic moment (Mel = Wel . fy)

for Class 4: the local buckling moment (Mo < Mel).

The four classes given above are recognized for beam sections in bending.
For axial compression members, Classes 1, 2 and 3 become one, and, in the

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members

absence of overall buckling are referred to as "compact"; in this case Class 4

is referred to as "slender".

The response of the different classes of cross-sections, when subject to

bending, is usefully represented by dimensionless moment-rotation curves as
shown in Table 4.1.

According to EBCS 3 1995, the classification of sections depends on the

classification of flange and elements. The classification also depends on
whether the compression elements are in pure compression, pure bending, or
under the influence of combined axial force and bending. While
compression cases have been presented in Chapter three, the case of
combined axial and bending presented later in Chapter Six. The present
Chapter presents classification of flexural members coated to pure flexural
bending according to Table 4.2.

Model of Moment Rotation Capacity Class

Behaviour Resistance
Plastic moment Sufficient
M on full section M
M pl
fy
M pl

Local 1
buckling 1
φrot
φpl φ
φ 1 φ pl

Plastic moment Limited

on full section M
M M pl
fy
M pl
1
Local 2
buckling

φ
φ 1 φ pl

Elastic moment None

on full section M
M M pl
fy
M pl
M el 1
Mal
Local Mpl 3
buckling

φ
φ 1 φ pl

Elastic moment on None

effective section M
M M pl
fy
M pl
M el 1

Local 4
buckling

φ
φ 1 φ pl

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members

Table 4.1 Cross section requirements and classifications

Fig. 4.2 EBCS 3 1995 definition of geometric properties

Table 4.2. Classification of Flexural Sections According to EBCS 3 1995

(Modified to meet the latest Euro code Standard) (Refer to Fig. 4.1 for the
various parameters under “ratio checked”)

Width - Thickness Ratios for Flexural Elements ( those exceeding these limits are
taken as Class 4 sections)
Section Element Ratio Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
Checked
General - None Assumed Class 3
Rectang - None Assumed Class 2
ular
I-shape Web d/tw 72ε 83ε 124ε
(rolled)
d/tw
(Welded)
Flan Flange-end in c/tf 10ε/α 11ε/α 23 ε kσ

ge compression (rolled)
zone

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members

c/tf 9 ε/α 10ε/α 21 ε kσ

(welded)
Flange-end in c/tf (
10 ε / α α ) (
11ε / α α ) 23 ε / kσ
tension zone (rolled)
c/tf (
9ε / α α ) (
10 ε / α α ) 23 ε / kσ
(welded)
Box Web d/tw 10ε 83ε 12ε
Flan (b-3tf)/tf 33ε 38ε 42ε
ge (rolled)
b/tf 33ε 38ε 42ε
(others)
Channel Web d/tw 33ε 38ε 42ε
Flan Flange-end in c/tf 10ε/α 11ε/α 23 ε / κσ
ge Compression (rolled)
zone

c/tf 9ε/α 10ε/α 21ε kσ

(Welded)
Flange-end in c/tf 10 ε (α α ) (
11 ε α α ) 23 ε k σ

tension zone (rolled)

c/tf 9ε α α ( ) (
10 ε α β ) 23 ε / κσ

(Welded)
T-shape Web h/tw 33 ε 38 ε 42 ε
Flan b/2tf 10 ε 11ε 15 ε
ge (rolled)
b/2tf 9ε 10 ε 14 ε
(welded)
Angle - h/t 33 ε 38 ε 15 ε
(b + h ) / 11.5 ε
(2t)
Round - None Assumed Class 1
bar
Pipe - d/t 50ε2 70ε2 90ε2
Double - h/t NA NA 15.0ε
angle (b+h)/(2t 11.5ε
)

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members

Note: αc = 2ac/h

Where: ac is the distance from the plastic neutral axis to top fiber.

4.3 Design Criteria for Flexural Members

The following criteria should be considered for establishing the moment

resistance of flexural members:
(1) yielding of the cross section or its flexural strength
(2) local buckling (Class 4 sections only)
(3) lateral-torsional buckling
(4) shear strength including shear buckling
(5) local strength at points of loading or reaction; i.e., criteria for
concentrated loads
(6) deflection criterion; with respect to serviceability limits states,

Flexural members are to be designed in such a way that both the cross-
sections resistance to applied loads be established and member capacity
verified against possible buckling failures. These will be presented
subsequently for both EBCS 3 1995.

4.4 Ethiopian Building Code Standard EBCS 3 1995

Resistance of Cross section

According to the EBCS 3 Specification, members designed to resist a factored

uniaxial bending Msd, calculated using appropriate load combinations, must
satisfy the condition:

Msd ≤ Mc, Rd (4.1)

Where Mc, Rd = design moment resistance of the cross-section taken as the

smallest of:

a) the design plastic resistance moment Mpl, Rd of the gross section

W PI x f y
M = For class 1 or 2 cross sections (4.2a)
γ
PI , Rd
M0

b) the design elastic resistance moment Mel, Rd of the gross section

WeI x f y
M el , Rd = For class 3 cross sections (4.2b)
γ M0

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members

c) the design local buckling resistance moment Mo,Rd of the gross section
Weff x f y
M 0, Rd = For class 4 cross sections (4.2c)
γ M1

d) the design ultimate resistance moment of the net section at fastener

holes Mu,Rd.It shall be assessed by evaluating possible influence of the
reduced section in the tension flange due to fastener holes. Fastened
holes in the tension flange need not be allowed for when:
A f , net fy γ M2
0 .9 ≥
Af fu γ M 0
(4.3)

When this relationship does not hold, a reduced flange area may be
assumed which satisfies the limit.

Torsional Buckling

Consideration of lateral-torsional buckling may be discounted for the

following classes of member:
- Bending only takes place about the minor axis
- Beams laterally restrained throughout their length by adequate
bracing
- Non-dimensional lateral slenderness parameter λLT ≤ 0.4.

The design buckling resistance mo ment of a laterally unrestrained beam may

be calculated as:

Mb,Rd = χLTβw,y Wpl.y fy/γMl (4.4)

βw,y = 1 for class 1 or class 2 cross-sections

βw,y = Wel.y/ Wpl.y for class 3 cross-sections
βw,y = Weff.y/ Wpl.y for Class 4 cross-sections
Where:
Wpl.y = plastic modulus of cross-section about the major axis
Wel.y = elastic modulus of cross-section about the major axis
Weff.y = elastic modulus of effective cross-section about the major axis
χLT = a reduction factor accounting for lateral-torsional buckling and
given by:

χLT = 1 for λLT < 0.4

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members

χLT = 1

φ LT (
+ φ2 LT −λ
2
LT )
0.5

 but χ LT ≤1 for λ LT ≥ 0.4

[ (
φ LT = 0.5 1 + α LT λ LT − 0.2 + λ ) 2
LT ]
− 1 f y βW . y
λ LT = λ LT
π E
λLT = lateral-torsional slenderness
φLT = imperfection factor which shall be taken as αLT = 0.21 for rolled
sections and αLT = 0.49 for welded sections.

Elastic Critical moment for lateral-torsional buckling

The elastic critical moment for lateral-torsional buckling of a beam of uniform

symmetrical cross section with equal flanges, under standard conditions of
restraint at each end, loaded through its shear centre and subjected to
uniform moment is given by:

0.5
π 2 EI z  I w L2GI t 
M cr =  +  (4.5a)
L2  I z π EI z 
2

E
Where G =
2(1 + υ )
It is the torsion. Constant
Iw is the warping constant
Iz is the second moment of area about the minor axis
L is the length of the beam between points which have lateral
restraint.

The standard conditions of restraint at each end are:

- Restrained against lateral movement
- Restrained against rotation about the longitudinal axis
- Free to rotate in plane

In the case of a beam of uniform cross-section which is symmetrical about the

minor axis, for bending about the major axis the elastic critical moment for
lateral-torsional buckling is given by the general formula:

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members

0.5
π EI z   K  I w 
2

M cr = C1 {  
( KL) 2   K w  I z
+
( KL) 2 GI t
π 2 EI z
[
+ C2 Z g − C3 Z j ]
2
 [ ]
− C2 Z g − C3Zj }
 
(4.5b)

Where C1, C2 and C3 are factors depending on the loading and end
restraint conditions k and kw are effective length factors.

The effective length factors k and kw vary from 0.5 for full fixity to 1. 0 for no
fixity with 0.7 for one end fixed and one end free.

The factor k refers to end rotation on plan. It is analogous to the ratio l/L for a
compression member.

The factor kw refers to end warping. Unless special provision for warping fixity is
made, kw should be taken as 1.0.

Values of C1, C2 and C3 are given in Tables 4.12 and 4.13 for various load
cases, as indicated by the shape of the bending moment diagram over the
length L between lateral restraints. Values are given corresponding to various
values of k.

For cases with k= 1.0 the value of C1 for any ratio of end moment loading as
indicated in Table 4. is given approximately by:

C1 = 1.88 – 1.40ψ + 0.52ψ2 but C1 ≤ 2.70

The sign convention for determining Zj, see Fig. 4. is:

a) Zj is positive for the compression flange
b) Zj is positive when the flange with the larger value of Iz is in compression
at the point of largest n1omen

The sign convention for determining Zg, is:

c) For gravity loads Zg is positive for loads applied above the shear centre
d) In the general case Zg is positive for loads acting towards the shear
centre from their point of application.

For beams with doubly symmetric cross-sections Zj = 0, thus:

0.5
π EI z   K  I w 
2

M cr = C1 {  
( KL) 2   K w  I z
+
( KL) 2 GI t
π 2 EI z
[
+ C2 Z g ] 2
 [ ]
− C2 Z g } (4.5c)
 

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members

For beams with doubly symmetric cross-sections and with end-moment

loading C2 = 0 and for transverse loads applied at the shear centre Zg = O. For
these cases:
0.5
π EI z   K  I w ( KL) 2 GI t 
2

M cr = C1    +  (4.5d)
( KL) 2   K w  I z π 2 EI z 
 

For beams with doubly symmetric cross-sections and when K = kw = 1.0(no end
fixity):
0.5
π EI z  I w ( KL ) 2 GI t 
M cr = C1  +  (4.5e)
( KL ) 2  I z π 2 EI z 

Values of the reduction factor χLT for the appropriate non-dimensional

slenderness λLT may be obtained from Table 4.3.

Reduction factors for lateral-torsional buckling

λLT ≤ 0.4 No lateral-torsional buckling verification required

0.4 < λLT ≤ 3.0 1 Rolled with αLT = 0.21
χ LT = ≤1
2
φ + φ 2 − λ LT
Welded with αLT = 0.49

Table 4.3 can be used with:

λ = λLT
χ = χLT , using:
a) curve a (α = 0.21) for rolled sections
b) curve c (α = 0.49) for welded sections

Table 4.3 Reduction factors χ

Reduction factor

Curve a Curve b Curve c Curve d

0,2 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000

0,3 0,9775 0,9641 0,9491 0,9235

0,4 0,9528 0,9261 0,8973 0,8504

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members

0,5 0,9243 0,8842 0,8430 0,7793

0,6 0,8900 0,8371 0,7854 0,7100

0,7 0,8477 0,7837 0,7247 0,6431

0,8 0,7957 0,7245 0,6622 0,5797

0,9 0,7339 0,6612 0,5998 0,5208

1,0 0,6656 0,5970 0,5399 0,4671

1,1 0,5960 0,5352 0,4842 0,4189

1,2 0,5300 0,4781 0,4338 0,3762

1,3 0,4703 0,4269 0,3888 0,3385

1,4 0,4179 0,3817 0,3492 0,3055

1,5 0,3724 0,3422 0,3145 0,2766

1,6 0,3332 0,3079 0,2842 0,2512

1,7 0,2994 0,2781 0,2577 0,2289

1,8 0,2702 0,2521 0,2345 0,2093

1,9 0,2449 0,2294 0,2141 0,1920

2,0 0,2229 0,2095 0,1962 0,1766

2,1 0,2036 0,1920 0,1803 0,1630

2,2 0,1867 0,1765 0,1662 0,1508

2,3 0,1717 0,1628 0,1537 0,1399

2,4 0,1585 0,1506 0,1425 0,1302

2,5 0,1467 0,1397 0,1325 0,1214

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members

2,6 0,1362 0,1299 0,1234 0,1134

2,7 0,1267 0,1211 0,1153 0,1062

2,8 0,1182 0,1132 0,1079 0,0997

2,9 0,1105 0,1060 0,1012 0,0937

3,0 0,1036 0,0994 0,0951 0,0882

Table 4.4. Value of Factors C1, C2,and C3 corresponding to values Factor k:

Transverse Loading Cases

Table 4.5. Value of Factors C1, C2, and C3 corresponding to values Factor k:
End Moment Loading

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members

Shear Resistance

The shear resistance is either limited by the shear plastic resistance, VRd, or the
shear buckling resistance, Vb, Rd.

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members

Plastic shear resistance

According to the EBCS 3 Specification, members designed to resist a factored

shear force Vsd calculated using appropriate load combinations, must satisfy
the condition:

Vsd ≤ Vpl,Rd (4.6)

Where
Vpl, Rd = the plastic shear resistance of a cross-section given by

V pl , Rd =
(
Av f y / 3 ) (4.7)
γ M0

In which Av = the shear area, normally given by h x tw where h is the overall

depth of the web and tw the web thickness.

Shear buckling resistance

The design shear buckling resistance, Vb,Rd, may be obtained from:

dw tw τ b
Vb, Rd = (4.8)
γ M1
Where:
ιb = the design value of the mean shear strength given in Table 4.6 as a
function of:
0 .8 d w fy
λw =
kτ t w E

in which kι is he buckling factor for shear obtained as follows:

For unstiffened webs (webs with transverse stiffners at the supports

but no intermidaite transverse stiffners)
kι = 5.34 (4.8a)

For webs with transverse stiffeners at the supports and intermediate

transverse stiffeners with panel ratio a/dw < 1.0:
5.34 (4.8b)
kτ = 4 +
(a / d w ) 2

For webs with transverse stiffeners at the supports and intermediate

transverse stiffeners giving panel aspect ratio a/dw ≥ 1.0:

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members

4
kτ = 5.34 +
(a / d w )2 (4.8c)

In both the above latest expressions:

a = panel length between stiffeners
dw = panel depth between flanges.

Table 4.6 design value of the mean shear strength ιb.

0.8 d w fw ιb for an unstiffened ιb for a web with
λw =
kτ t w E web transverse stiffeners
including at supports
λw ≤ 0.2 fy / 3 fy / 3
0.2 ≤λw ≤ 0.6 [1 − 0.63 (λ w − 0.2 )] f y / 3 [1 − 0.63 (λ w )]
− 0.2 f y / 3

λw > 0.6

(1 − 0.42 λ ) f
−

w / 3 27 − λ w fy
y
−
3
24 + 19 λ w

Transverse stiffeners should be designed to comply with the requirements

stipulated under “Transverse stiffeners” subsequently.

Resistance to bending and Shear

The theoretical plastic resistance moment of a cross section is reduced by the

presence of shear. For small values of the shear force this reduction is so small
that it is counter balanced by strain hardening and may be neglected.
However, when the shear force exceeds half the plastic shear resistance,
allowance shall be made for its effect on the plastic resistance moment.
Provided that the design value of the shear force doesn’t exceed 50% of the
design plastic shear resistance Vpl,rd no reduction need be made in the
resistance moments given by equations 4.2.

When Vsd exceeds 50% of Vpl,rd the design resistance moment of the cross
section should be reduced to Mv,rd the reduced plastic resistance moment
allowing for the shear force obtained as follows:
a) For cross section with equal flanges, bending about the major axis:

 ρA 2  f y
M v , rd = Wpl − v  but Mv,rd ≤ Mc,rd
 4t w  γ Mo

Where ρ = (2Vsd/Vpl,rd – 1)2

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members

b) For other cases Mv,Rd should be taken as the design plastic resistance
moment of the cross section, calculated using a reduced strength (1-
ρ)fy for the shear area, but not more than Mc,rd

Resistance of webs to transverse Forces

The resistance of an unstiffened web to forces from concentrated loads or

support reactions will be governed by one of three possible failure modes:

Crushing of the web close to the flange, accompanied by plastic
deformation of the flange.

Crippling of web in the form of localized buckling and crushing of the
web close to the flange, accompanied by plastic deformation of the
flange.

Buckling of the web over most of the depth of the member.
As a guide, Table 4.7 indicates the need for checking a particular mode
depending on the type of section and load application.

Table 4.7. Checks for local strength of webs

TYPE OF SECTION CRUSHING CRIPPLING BUCKLING

Fabricated by welding:
1. Load resistance by web shear • •
2. Load resistance by reaction • •
on opposite flanges
Cold formed • •

Crushing resistance (Art. 4.6.6.3, EBCS 3)

The design crushing resistance Ry,rd of the web of an I, H or U section should be

obtained from:

( ss + s y )tw f yw
Ry , rd =
γ M1
(4.9a)
In which sy is given by:

bf f yf σ f , Ed
s y = 2t f ( )( )[1 − ( )2 (4.9b)
tw f yw f yf

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members

- But bf should not be taken as more than 25tf and σf,Ed is the longitudinal
stress in the flange.

- At the end of a member sy should be halved

Crippling resistance (Art. 4.6.6.4, EBCS 3)

The design crippling resistance Ra,rd of the web of an I, H or U section should

be obtained from:

tf t s
( Ef yf )[( ) + 3( w )( s )]
tw tf d
Ra , rd = 0.5tw
2
(4.10)
γ M1

Where Ss is the length of stiff bearing (see Section 4.6.6.2, EBCS 3)

Ss/d should not be taken as more than 0.2

Buckling resistance (Art. 4.6.6.5, EBCS 3)

1) The design buckling resistance Rb,rd of the web of an I, H or U section

should be obtained by considering the web as a virtual compression
member with an effective breadth beff obtained from:
b eff = h 2 + s 2
2) Near the ends of a member (or at openings in the web) the effective
breadth beff should not be taken as greater than the breadth actually
available, measured at mid-depth, see Fig. 5.15.

3) The buckling resistance should be determine from chapter three using

buckling curve c and BA = 1.

4) The buckling length of the virtual compression member should be

determined from the conditions of lateral and rotational restraint at the
flanges at the point of load application.

5) The flange through which the load is applied should normally be

restrained in position at the point of load application. Where this is not
practicable, a special buckling

Transverse stiffeners (Art. 4.6.6.6 and 4.6.4.4, EBCS 3)

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members

1. When checking the buckling resistance, the effective cross section of a

stiffener should be taken including the width of web plate equal to
30εtw, arranged with 15εtw, each side of the stiffener(see Fig. 4.3,
chapter-4). At the ends of the member (or openings in the web) the
dimension of 15εtw, should be limited to the actual dimension available.

Fig 4.3 Effective cross section of stiffeners for buckling

2. the out of plane buckling resistance should be determined by

considering them as compression members using buckling curve C and
a buckling length L of not less than 0.75d, or more if appropriate for
conditions of restraint.

The buckling resistance of symmetric stiffeners may be determined

from:
A fy
4 b , Rd = χ β A
γ M1
(4.11)

Where:
βA = 1 for Class 1,2,3 cross-sections
= Aeff/A for Class 4 cross-section

where Aeff is the effective cross-section for Class 4 cross-sections

A = gross area
χ = a reduction factor accounting for buckling

= 1.0 for χ ≤ 0.2

1
=
(
φ + φ2 −λ )
2 0.5 But χ ≤ 1 for 0.2 ≤ λ ≤ 3.0

in which:

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members

[ (
φ = 0.5 1 + 0.76 λ − 0.2 + λ ) 2
]
Lef f 1 fy βA λ 2 π
λ = = β A Af y / 4 er = β A ; λ1 = = 93.9ε
r π E λ1 (E / f )
y
5

ε = 235 f
y

Leff = effective length of stiffener ≥ 0.75dw or more if appropriate

for conditions of
restraint.
Ner = the elastic critical force for the relevant buckling mode
r = radius of gyration of the gross cross section
α = an imperfection factor.

3. For both the simple post-critical method and tension field method , the
compression force Ns in an intermediate transverse stiffeners should be
obtained from:
dt τ
4 s = Vsd − w bb but Ns ≥ 0 (4.11a)
γ M1
In which τbb is the initial shear buckling strength from eqns (5.4c, 5.4d
&5.4e)); the lower value of for the two panels adjacent to the stiffener
should be used.

4. The second moment of area of an intermediate stiffener, Is, should

satisfy the following:

If a I s ≥ 1 .5 d 3 w t 3 w / a 2
dw < 2:

if a ≥ 2 : I s ≥ 0.75 d w t 3 w
dw

5. End stiffeners and stiffeners at internal supports should normally be

doubled sided and symmetric about the centre line of the web.

6. Where single sided or other asymmetric stiffeners are used, the resulting
eccentricity should be allowed for.

7. In addition to checking the buckling resistance, the cross section

resistance of a load bearing stiffener should also be checked adjacent
to the loaded flange. The width of the web plate included in the

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members

effective cross section should be limited to Sy (see Section 4.6.6.3, EBCS

3)

Flange Induced Buckling

1. To prevent the possibility of the compression flange buckling in the

plane of the web, the ratio d/tw of the web shall satisfy the following
criterion:

d E Aw
≤k (4.12a)
tw f yf A fc

Where Aw is the area of the web

Afc is the area of the compression flange
fyf is the yield strength of the compression flange

The value of the factor k should be taken as follows:

For class 1 flanges = 0.3
For class 2 flanges = 0.4
For class 3 or class 4 flanges = 0.55

2. When the girder is curved in elevation, with the compression flange

on the concave face, the criterion should be modified to:

d K ( E / f yf ) Aw / A fc
≤
tw  dE 
1 + 
 3rf yf 
(4.12b)

Where r is the radius of curvature of the compression flange

3. When the girder has transverse web stiffeners, the limiting value of
d/tw may be increased accordingly.

Deflection Criterion

Deflection is a serviceability consideration. As a result service loads (not

factored loads) are used in calculating beam deflections. Since most beams
are fabricated with a camber, which somewhat offsets the dead load
deflection, consideration is often given to deflection due to live load only. For
beams supporting plastered ceilings, the service live load deflection

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 Chapter Four: Flexural Members

preferably should not exceed L/360, where L is the beam span. A larger
deflection limit can be used if due considerations are given to ensure the
proper functioning of the structure

Refer Art 5.2 of EBCS 3, 1995

Fig. 5.15 Effective breadth for web buckling resistance

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