1.

INTRODUCTION

Groundwater is actually under strong human pressures in many countries. Such pressures
include changes in land use, urbanization, intensive agriculture and water demand
increase. These effects can cause severe degradation of the quality and quantity of
groundwater resources. The degradation of groundwater resource can be quantitative and
qualitative, if the abstraction exceeds the natural recharge rate. The use of groundwater
resources has become particularly intensive in coastal areas during the last decades with intense
urbanization, touristic development and irrigated land expansion. As a result, a negative water
balance is established in the aquifers. In coastal aquifer systems, excessive groundwater usage
triggers sea water intrusion which has negative consequences in the socioeconomic development
of these areas. Hence, this water imbalance has to be negotiated.

Artificial recharge is a valuable solution available for increasing ground water reserves. It
is a process of reclamation of ground water with the help of external sources. The source and the
methods involved in the process may change according to the needs and conditions available.
There are several methods like: Artificial recharge via boreholes, Bank filtration, Dune filtration,
Infiltration ponds, Rainwater harvesting etc. Sources are also of different types, river water, rain
water, treated waste water etc. Among these the best method is Artificial recharge using tertiary
treated wastewater via boreholes. There are many advantages for this method. A major
advantage is that, the source of water is waste water, it does not require river or rainfall for
recharge. So this type of recharge can be done in arid areas where neither rivers are located nor
rainfall is available. In such areas people depends more on ground water. So it is necessary that
ground water has to be kept balanced. Artificial recharge using tertiary treated wastewater via
boreholes is much useful in keeping groundwater balanced in such areas. Usage of less surface of
land for recharging is another advantage of the process. Boreholes require only minimum land
area compared to other means of recharge. Therefore artificial groundwater recharge using
treated waste water via boreholes is better than other techniques.

Waste water from a locality is collected and is recycled in a water treatment plant. This
treated waste water is then infiltrated through boreholes. After artificial recharge and natural
treatment, water could be extracted through same or different borehole. This method of ground
water recharging will be of great use in semi-arid countries. Artificial recharge using treated
wastewater in depleted aquifers, via boreholes, is an internationally acceptable practice, and
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may contribute to cover a part of irrigation needs, as well as the sustainable water
resources management in many areas. The clogging effect of boreholes caused by suspended
solids, in recharge water is a phenomenon that limits the viability of artificial recharge. This
report illustrates the processes involved in aquifer recharge via boreholes using treated
wastewater.

2. ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE
Artificial recharge to groundwater is a process by which the groundwater reservoir is
augmented at a rate exceeding that obtained under natural conditions of replenishment. Any
man-made scheme or facility that adds water to an aquifer may be considered to be an artificial
recharge system. It is also described as a method by which water which has been put to prior
beneficial use is returned to aquifers for purposes of replacing water that has been removed.

Artificial recharge (AR) is the process whereby surface water is transferred underground
to be stored in an aquifer. The most common methods used involve injecting water into
boreholes and transferring water into spreading basins where it infiltrates the subsurface.
Underground water storage is an efficient way to store water because it is not vulnerable to
evaporation losses and it is relatively safe from contamination. Internationally, artificial recharge
is becoming an increasingly recognised form of water storage and conservation. However, this
technology is underutilised and together with proper groundwater management, artificial
recharge can contribute significantly towards maximising the use and sustainability of available
water resources. The main purpose of a good artificial recharge plan is usage of natural sub-
surface storage as part of Integrated Water Resource Management wherever technologically,
economically, environmentally and socially feasible.

Artificial recharge has many other purposes also. The most common is to store water in
the subsurface for later use, this usually being achieved by allowing water to infiltrate the
subsurface via infiltration basins or by injecting water via boreholes into the aquifer. In this
context, it is a form of water conservation, in that water that would otherwise be lost through
evaporation and evapo-transpiration from dams and rivers, or from outflows to the sea, would be
captured and made available for later use. Other common uses are to prevent sea water intruding
into coastal aquifers by creating hydraulic barriers at the coastline, and to use aquifer media for
water treatment, like a large-scale sand filter. A potential use may also be to maintain the

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Reserve, whereby surplus water would feed areas where the Reserve is considered to be under
threat due to large-scale groundwater or surface water abstraction.

3. BASIC STEPS FOR ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE

The basic steps for recharging the ground water reservoir are:

1. Identification of area suitable for recharging.

2. Treatment of waste water for recharge.
3. Aquifer recharging.

3.1. IDENTIFICATION OF AREA SUITABLE FOR RECHARGING

The artificial recharge projects are site specific and even the replication of the techniques
from similar areas are to be based on the local hydro geological and hydrological environments.
The first step in planning the project is to demarcate the area of recharge. The Project can be
implemented systematically if a watershed is taken for implementation. The term Watershed
refers to a geographic area of land, water and biota within the confines of a drainage divide.
Watershed boundaries define the aerial extent of surface water drainage to a point. However,
localized schemes are also taken to augment ground water reservoir. The artificial recharge of
ground water is normally taken in following areas:

 Areas where ground water levels are declining on regular basis: where usage of water is
so high that water level declines below 30 m
 Areas where substantial amount of aquifer has already been desaturated: where
industries has been depleting ground water
 Areas where availability of ground water is inadequate in lean months: where rain is
available but is not sufficient to meet the requirement of that area, all round the year
 Areas where salinity ingress is taking place i.e. in coastal areas where water from water
table is lost due to osmosis.

3.2. TREATMENT OF WASTE WATER

Four water quality factors are particularly significant in groundwater recharge with
reclaimed wastewater: (a) biological quality, (b) total mineral content, (c) presence of heavy

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metal toxicants, and (d) the concentrations of stable and potentially harmful organic substances.
Thus, groundwater recharge with reclaimed wastewater presents a wide spectrum of technical
and health challenges that must be carefully evaluated. Some basic factors that affect
pretreatment choices include:

 treatment processes available for producing water suitable for groundwater recharge
 performance of these processes in practice at specific sites
 change in water quality during infiltration–percolation and in the groundwater zone
 contribution of infiltration–percolation and groundwater passage to the overall treatment
system performance and reliability
 important health issues to be resolved
 influence of these issues in groundwater recharge regulations at the points of recharge
and extraction
 benefits, problems, and successes

Pretreatment requirements for groundwater recharge vary considerably depending upon

the purpose of groundwater recharge, sources of reclaimed wastewater, recharge methods,
location, and, more importantly, public acceptance. Although the surface spreading method of
groundwater recharge is in itself an effective form of wastewater treatment, some level of
pretreatment must be provided to municipal wastewater before it can be used for groundwater
recharge. For direct injection of reclaimed municipal wastewater to groundwater aquifer where
domestic water supply may be affected, an extensive treatment consisting of microfiltration and
reverse osmosis and ultraviolet disinfection has been installed in several California groundwater
recharge projects

Treatment technology for water recycling encompasses a vast number of options. Some
of them are:

 Conventional waste water treatment.

 Reverse osmosis process
 Membrane bio reactor process
 Electro dialysis
 Distillation etc.

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 Since water is recharged through boreholes there are chances of clogging. To avoid this
we prefer treatment processes consisting of membrane treatment. Membrane techniques are
successful in producing wastewater with low values of TDS and nutrient content. First three
treatment processes involves usage of membrane. They are described below.

3.2.1 Conventional wastewater treatment

Conventional treatment or conventional mechanical wastewater treatment is the term
used to describe the standard method of treatment designed to remove organic matter and solid
from solution. It comprises four stages of treatment.

1. Preliminary treatment:
In this step, impurities of larger size are removed. This step involves processes
like influent flow measurement, screening (Bar racks), Shredders, comminutors
(maceratours), pumping, grit removal etc.
During Preliminary Treatment, the incoming raw sewage, or influent, is strained
to removed all large objects that make their way into the sewer system. These objects
can be anything from rags and sticks to toys, cans and even snakes. Generally bar
screens, which come in a variety of shapes and sizes, are used to remove the items. The
influent flows across these screens, objects catch on the screens, are raised out of the
water and are then raked (either mechanically or manually) off the screens.
Another component of Preliminary Treatment is the grit channel where the
velocity of the incoming wastewater is carefully controlled to allow sand, grit, and stones
to settle to the bottom of the channel while keeping the majority of the suspended organic
material in the water column. The grit is removed from the channel, added to the larger
objects removed by the bar screens, and taken to the landfill for disposal. Preliminary
Treatment is vital for preventing damage to pumps and other equipment in the remaining
treatment stages.

2. Primary treatment:
Suspended particles in the wastewater are removed in this step. It involves
sedimentation of waste water, in sedimentation tanks.
Many plants have a sedimentation stage where the sewage is allowed to pass
slowly through large tanks, commonly called primary clarifiers or primary sedimentation
tanks. The tanks are large enough that sludge can settle and floating material such as
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 grease and oils can rise to the surface and be skimmed off. The main purpose of primary
treatment is to produce both a generally homogeneous liquid capable of being treated
biologically and a sludge that can be separately treated or processed. Primary clarifiers
are usually equipped with mechanically driven scrapers that continually drive the
collected sludge towards a hopper in the base of the tank from where it can be pumped to
further sludge treatment stages. The clarified water flows on to the next step of
treatment.
3. Secondary treatment:
In this step a charge is given to the remaining waste particles in the water. Water
is then passed through membranes having opposite charge. It also involves  biofiltration
of activated sludge.
Secondary treatment processes can remove up to 90% of the organic matter in
wastewater by using biological treatment processes. The two most common conventional
methods used to achieve secondary treatment are attached growth processes and
suspended growth processes. In attached growth (or fixed film) processes, bacteria, algae,
fungi and other microorganisms grow and multiply on the surface of stone or plastic
media, forming a microbial growth or slime layer (biomass) on the media. Wastewater
passes over the media along with air to provide oxygen, and the bacteria consume most of
the organic matter in the wastewater as food. Attached growth process units include
trickling filters, biotowers, and rotating biological contactors. In suspended growth
processes, the microbial growth is suspended in an aerated water mixture where the air is
pumped in, or the water is agitated sufficiently to allow oxygen transfer. The suspended
growth process speeds up the work of aerobic bacteria and other microorganisms that
break down the organic matter in the sewage by providing a rich aerobic environment
where the micro organisms suspended in the wastewater can work more efficiently. In
the aeration tank, wastewater is vigorously mixed with air and microorganisms
acclimated to the wastewater in a suspension for several hours. This allows the bacteria
and other microorganisms to break down the organic matter in the wastewater.
Suspended growth process units include variations of activated sludge, oxidation ditches
and sequencing batch reactors.

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 After biological treatment, the water is pumped to secondary clarifiers where any
leftover solids and the microorganisms sink to the bottom. These solids are handled
separately from the supernatant which continues on to disinfection.

4. Tertiary treatment or Sludge treatment:

It consists of anaerobic digestion of the sludge produced in primary and biological
treatment.
The purpose of tertiary treatment is to provide a final treatment stage to raise the
effluent quality to the desired level. This advanced treatment can be accomplished by a
variety of methods such as coagulation sedimentation, filtration, reverse osmosis, and
extending secondary biological treatment to further stabilize oxygen-demanding
substances or remove nutrients. In various combinations, these processes can achieve
any degree of pollution control desired. As wastewater is purified to higher and higher
degrees by such advanced treatment processes, the treated effluent can then be reused for
urban, landscape, and agricultural irrigation, industrial cooling and processing,
recreational uses and water recharge, and even indirect and direct augmentation of
drinking water supplies.

Fig:1. Conventional Waste Water Treatment – Flow Diagram.

(Source: http://www.aboutcivil.org/imajes/basic-flow-diagram-for-conventional-wastewater-
treatment-plant.png)

3.2.2. Reverse Osmosis

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 In the reverse osmosis process, pressure is used to force effluent through a membrane that
retains contaminants on one side and allows the clean water to pass to the other side. Reverse
osmosis is actually a type of membrane filtration called microfiltration because it is capable of
removing much smaller particles including dissolved solids such as salt. This process is also
effective at removing biological contaminants, metals, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and
endocrine disruptors.

In this method, water is treated by passing it through poly vinyl alcohol or cellulose
acetate membrane. The water is passed under 30 to50 atmospheric pressure above osmotic
pressure. The pressure to pass the water through the membrane directly depends on the
impurities present in the water. More the impurities more will be pressure required. Efficiency on
the water treatment capacity is very low. Due to this problem it is not used commonly.

Fig.2. Reverse Osmosis

(Source: http://www.wqa.org/sitelogic.cfm?ID=872)

3.2.3. Membrane Bio Reactor Technology (MBR)

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 Fig.3. Water treatment using MBR- Flow Diagram

(Source: http://www.wioa.org.au/conference_papers/paper.htm)

Membrane bioreactor (MBR) is the combination of a membrane process like

microfiltration or ultra filtration with a suspended growth bioreactor, and is now widely used for
municipal and industrial wastewater treatment. Bioreactors are reactors that convert or produce
materials using functions naturally endowed to living creatures. Reactors using immobilized
enzymes, microorganisms, animal, or plant cells and those applying new methodologies such as
genetic manipulation or cell fusion are typical bioreactors. Membrane processes are regarded as
key elements of advanced wastewater reclamation and reuse schemes and are included in a
number of prominent schemes world-wide, for artificial groundwater recharge, indirect potable
reuse as well as for industrial process water production. Membrane bioreactors (MBRs) are a
promising process combination of activated sludge treatment and membrane filtration for
biomass retention.

A membrane bioreactor (MBR) combines the activated sludge process with a membrane
separation process. The reactor is operated similar to a conventional activated sludge process but
without the need for secondary clarification and tertiary steps like sand filtration. Low-pressure
membrane filtration, either micro filtration (MF) or ultra filtration (UF), is used to separate
effluent from activated sludge. The two main MBR configurations involve either submerged
membranes or external circulation (side-stream configuration). Submerged MBR is the
configuration more often applied in municipal wastewater treatment. Membranes applied in
submerged MBRs can be either hollow fibre membranes or plate membrane module design.
Sufficient pre-treatment has to be done to prevent clogging of the membranes by fibres, hairs, or
other extreme contents. Pre-filtration with a grid distance of maximum 3 mm has been advised.
As in most membrane filtration processes the flux declines during filtration. This is mainly
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caused by membrane fouling. Controlling membrane fouling is the key issue in the operation of
an MBR. Membrane fouling is significantly influenced by the hydrodynamic conditions, by
membrane type and module configuration and by the presence of higher molecular weight
compounds.

Fig:4. Configuration of MBR systems: (a) submerged MBR, (b) side-stream MBR
(Source: http://www.wioa.org.au/conference_papers/paper.htm)
The main advantages of MBR compared to conventional activated sludge systems are:
 Smaller footprint and smaller reactor volume as a consequence of higher mixed liquor
suspended solids (MLSS) concentration and loading rate (option for low to mode-rate
sludge age)
 Decreased sludge production (option for high sludge age)
 Higher and more consistent effluent quality as a result of membrane filtration
 Lower sensitivity to contaminant peaks.
The main disadvantages of MBRs are:
 Relatively expensive to install and operate
 Frequent membrane monitoring and maintenance
 Limitations imposed by pressure, temperature, and ph requirements to meet
membrane tolerances
 Membranes may be sensitive to some chemicals
 Less efficient oxygen transfer caused by high mlss concentrations
 Treatability of surplus sludge is questionable.

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4. AQUIFER RECHARGING

Anthropogenic process of groundwater recharge or deep drainage or deep percolation is

called artificial ground water recharging. It is a hydrologic process where water moves
downward from surface water to groundwater. This process usually occurs in the vadose zone
below plant roots and is often expressed as a flux to the water table surface. Recharge occurs
when rainwater, river water or reclaimed water is routed to the subsurface. It is a useful tool for
groundwater resources management in order to guarantee their sustainability. It could be a
solution for declining groundwater levels, depletion of aquifers, saline intrusion, land subsidence
and for water harvesting and reuse.

Fig.5. Artificial Recharge through Borehole

(source: http://www.ngwa.org/Fundamentals/hydrology/Pages/Principles-of-induced-infiltration-
and-artificial-recharge.aspx)

4.1. AQUIFER RECHARGE TECHNIQUES

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 The types of aquifer recharge are Artificial recharge via boreholes, Bank filtration, Dune
filtration, Infiltration ponds, Rainwater harvesting, Soil aquifer treatment, Underground dams,
Sand dams, and Recharge releases.
Artificial recharge via boreholes: This method of artificial recharge involves, injecting surplus
surface water into boreholes. This method of AR is more preferred as it requires only little land
surface for the process of recharging.
Bank filtration: Bank filtration is a type of filtration that works by passing water to be purified
for use as drinking water through the banks of a river or lake. It is then drawn off by extraction
wells some distance away from the water body. The process may directly yield drinkable water,
or be a relatively uncomplicated way of pre-treating water for further purification.
Dune filtration: dams on ephemeral streams are used to detain flood water and uses may include
slow release of water into the streambed downstream to match the capacity for infiltration into
underlying aquifers, thereby significantly enhancing recharge.
Infiltration ponds: Infiltration ponds (also called infiltration basins or percolation ponds) are
large open water ponds that are either excavated or in an area of land surrounded by a bank, and
normally will not exceed 15,000 m3. They store rainwater but with the main aim of infiltrating
the water to aquifers where it can be extracted using boreholes, hand-dug wells, or nearby
springs. They are constructed in areas where the base of the pond is permeable and where the
aquifer to be recharged is at or near the surface.
Rainwater harvesting: It is the accumulation and deposition of rainwater for reuse before it
reaches the aquifer. Uses include water for garden, water for livestock, water for irrigation, etc.
In many places the water collected is just redirected to a deep pit with percolation. The harvested
water can be used for drinking water as well if the storage is a tank that can be accessed and
cleaned when needed.
Soil aquifer treatment: Where soil and groundwater conditions are favourable for artificial
recharge of groundwater through infiltration basins, a high degree of upgrading can be achieved
by allowing partially-treated sewage effluent to infiltrate into the soil and move down to the
groundwater. The unsaturated or "vadose" zone then acts as a natural filter and can remove
essentially all suspended solids, biodegradable materials, bacteria, viruses, and other
microorganisms. Significant reductions in nitrogen, phosphorus, and heavy metals concentrations
can also be achieved. After the sewage, treated in passage through the vadose zone, has reached

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the groundwater it is usually allowed to flow some distance through the aquifer and it is
collected through a well or borehole.
Underground dams: Underground dams are used to trap groundwater and store all or most of it
below the surface for extended use in a localized area. Dam is built across an aquifer or drainage
route from an impervious layer (such as solid bedrock) up to just below the surface. Once built,
the water stored behind the dam raises the water table and is then extracted with wells.
Sand dams: A sand dam is a weir built in stages across a stream. It must be strong as floods will
wash over its crest. Over time sand accumulates in layers behind the dam which helps store
water and most importantly, prevent evaporation. The stored water can be extracted with a well,
through the dam body, or by means of a drain pipe.
Recharge releases: Dams on ephemeral streams are used to detain flood water and uses may
include slow release of water into the streambed downstream to match the capacity for
infiltration into underlying aquifers, thereby significantly enhancing recharge.
Above mentioned recharge techniques are illustrated in the following figure.

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 Fig.6.
Different types of aquifer recharge.
(source: http://geolib.geo.auth.gr/digeo/index.php/sasg/article/viewFile/8836/85890)

A)Aquifer storage and recovery, (B) Aquifer storage transfer and recovery, (C)Bank
filtration, (D) Dune filtration, (E) Infiltration ponds, (F) Percolation tanks, (G)Rainwater
harvesting, (H) Soil aquifer treatment, (I) Underground dams,(J) Sand dams, (K) Recharge
releases.

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4.2. ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE VIA BOREHOLES

Boreholes are suitable for recharge of groundwater and it’s withdrawal from greater
depths. There are various well drilling methods for construction of a borehole’ including auger
boring, well driving, well jetting, percussion (cable-tool) drilling, rotary drilling, and down-the-
hole hammer drilling. Artificial recharge via boreholes is classified into 2;

4.2.1Aquifer storage and recovery (ASR)

. Aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) is defined as the storage of water in a suitable
aquifer through a well during times when water is available, and the recovery of water from the
same well during times when it is needed. It is is a specific type of AR practiced with the
purpose of both augmenting ground water resources and recovering the water in the future for
various uses. In this method, water is injected into a borehole for storage and water is recovered
from the same borehole. ASR is a unique technology, comprising elements of geology,
hydraulics, hydrology, geochemistry, engineering design, water treatment, economics and other
disciplines to achieve a reliable, sustainable supply of water of acceptable quality.

ASR is a powerful technology for water resources management and environmental

protection, enabling storage deep underground, when water is available, and recovery when
needed to meet urban, agricultural, ecosystem, industrial, recreational, emergency and other
water uses. The same wells are used for both recharge and recovery. Water is stored in suitable
aquifers, or water-bearing formations, forming large subsurface reservoirs that are safe from
losses due to evaporation, transpiration, seepage or contamination. These water-bearing geologic
formations, or aquifers may be in sand, clayey sand, sandstone, gravel, limestone, dolomite,
glacial drift, basalt and other types of geologic settings. Stored water displaces the water
naturally present in the aquifer, creating a very large bubble around the well. The bubble is
usually confined by overlying and underlying geologic formations that do not produce water,
however at several sites the aquifer is unconfined. Storage volumes in these bubbles range from
as small as about 50 Ml (13 million gallons) in individual ASR wells, to as much as 10,000 Ml
(2.5 BG) or more in large ASR wellfields.

Water injected into the well is allowed to stay in the aquifer for quite few months. This
water is then recovered from the same borehole with the help of efficient pumping system. Most
ASR systems provide seasonal water storage, water is stored during the wet season and
recovered during the following dry season. After recovering from storage, this water usually
15
requires only disinfection before being sent out to the water distribution system, for domestic,
agricultural and industrial uses.

ASR allows to store large water volumes deep underground, reducing or eliminating the
need to construct large and expensive surface reservoirs. In many cases, the storage zones are
aquifers that have experienced long term declines in water levels due to heavy pumping to meet
increasing urban and agricultural water needs. Groundwater levels can then be restored if
adequate water is recharged. Thus, ASR provides a cost-effective solution to many of the world’s
water management needs, storing water during times of flood or when water quality is good, and
recovering it later during times of drought or when water quality from the source may be poor.

Fig.7: Typical ASR recharge, storage and recovery operation

(source: http://www.artificialrecharge.co.za/strategydocument/ARStrategySectB.pdf)

4.2.2. Aquifer storage transfer and recovery (ASTR)

The Aquifer Storage Transfer and Recovery (ASTR) technique is a process for
converting waste water into water of drinkable quality. The technique involves injecting waste
water, which was treated, into an aquifer. The water, stored in darkened conditions for a
prolonged period, becomes potable by natural processes. In this method, injection of water takes

16
place in a borehole for storage and is recovered from a different borehole, generally to provide
additional water treatment.

Aquifer storage transfer and recovery (ASTR) involves injection of water into a borehole
for storage, which is then transferred to different parts of the aquifer naturally and finally,
pumped from a different borehole. Treated waste water is first catered to the recharging borehole
either by means of pumping devices or directly without the assistance of any machines. Water is,
then stored in suitable aquifers, or water-bearing formations, forming large subsurface reservoirs
that are safe from losses due to evaporation, transpiration, seepage or contamination. Generally,
ASTR provides additional water treatment, as well as the longer the residence time in soil, the
more opportunity for interaction with biological, chemical, and physical processes that can
decrease pollution potential.

When injected freshwater migrates upward because of density differences or laterally in

response to regional hydraulic gradients, better system performance (i.e., greater recovery
efficiencies) might be obtained using separate injection and recovery wells. Using separate
injection and recovery wells may also be desirable to improve stored water quality by providing
additional residence time and to take advantage of aquifer filtration. It is referred to using
separate injection and recovery wells i.e. ASTR, for the purpose of chemical and microbial
contaminant attenuation, as it may prove cost-effective for improving reclaimed water quality.

Field experiments has also proved that the wastewater quality could be improved by
ASTR. The processes responsible for the improvement of quality are biological and chemical
reactions, absorption and filtration in unsaturated zone. But there will be a slight increase in
Total Dissolved Salts (TDS). This can be attributed to the leaching of salts from the vadose zone
of the aquifer.

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 Fig.8: Typical ASTR recharge, storage, transfer and recovery operation
(source: http://www.water-technology.net/projects/aquiferstoragetransp/)

Broadly, artificial recharge via boreholes is carried out in the following steps:
1. Site investigations in order to determine the hydrogeological conditions, including
depth to groundwater level, type of aquifer, direction of groundwater flow,
hydraulic parameters of aquifer, etc.
2. Determination of groundwater and injected (treated wastewater) water quality and
treatment processes to meet required standards.
3. Water injection via boreholes: Water is injected into the aquifer through boreholes. The
optimum rate must range between the 1/3 and 1/2 of the maximum pumping rate.
4. Monitoring: Detailed groundwater levels could be measured in the piezometers of the
recharge boreholes, as well as in other observation piezometers. In addition,
measurements and automatic recording of the groundwater level should be
undertaken to determine the recharge cone, based on a monitoring net of neighbouring
piezometers and boreholes. For the observation of the possible alteration of the
chemical characteristics of the groundwater, chemical analyses should be carried out
before and after the recharge application.
5. Management of clogging effect:
Clogging of aquifer material or the borehole screen can be managed by mechanical or
chemical treatment of recharge water, introduction of water through a valve and regular
recovery using surging and pumping.

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 Fig. 9. Recycled water recharge via deep borehole.
(source: http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/4/964)

4.3. BENEFITS OF ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE

4.3.1. Maximize natural storage
 Seasonal storage: Water is stored during wet months when it is available and recovered
during dry months.
 Long-term storage (water banking): Water is stored during wet years, or during years
when new supply, treatment and distribution facilities have spare capacity, and is
recovered during dry years, or when the capacity of existing treatment facilities is

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 inadequate to meet the demand. Water banking not only provides security against
droughts, but it also provides security against uncertainty in future assurances of supply
due to climate change.
 Emergency storage: Water is stored locally to provide an emergency supply or strategic
reserve when the primary source of supply is unavailable. This is appropriate for systems
that rely on a single source and a long transmission pipeline.
 Diurnal storage: Where daytime demands exceed supply capacity, night-time local
storage is an option (similar to the operation of some hydroelectric plants).
ARTIFICIALRECHARGESTRATEGY
4.3.2. Improves water quality management
 Improve water quality: Certain artificial recharge schemes are designed specifically to
improve water quality (e.g. soil aquifer treatment schemes and bank filtration schemes).
In such cases and in schemes where the primary goal is storage, improvements in water
quality can be significant. Examples include the reduction of nitrate, iron, manganese,
hydrogen sulphide, pH stabilization and softening.
 Disinfection by-products reduction: A drawback of chlorinating water prior to recharge is
the formation of carcinogenic disinfection by-products (DBPs) such as trihalomethanes
(THMs) and halo acetic acids (HAAs). Recent research, however, has shown that DBPs
do attenuate during aquifer storage.
 Nutrient reduction in agricultural runoff: Sub-surface storage of agricultural runoff
(causing eutrophication of lakes and reservoirs) can reduce nitrogen concentrations
through bacterial denitrification. Some aquifers can reduce phosphorus concentrations
through physical-chemical and bacteriological mechanisms.
 Stabilize aggressive water: Aggressive water is frequently treated with calcium
carbonate. This can be done naturally by storage in suitable limestone aquifers.

4.3.3. Helps in physical management of the aquifer

 Restore groundwater levels: Continuing trends in water level decline can be reversed.
 Reduce subsidence: Restoring groundwater levels can reduce land subsidence.
 Prevent saltwater intrusion: Placing recharge facilities between wellfields and the coast
or saline aquifers can restrict the movement of the saltwater intrusion front.

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  Enhance well field production: By enhancing recharge, it is possible to abstract water at
higher rates during peak demand months than the long-term sustainable yield of the
aquifer.
 Hydraulic control of contaminant plumes: Optimal placing of recharge facilities can
create the necessary hydraulic conditions to prevent the migration of contaminant plumes.

4.3.4. Ecological benefits

 Reduce abstractions from rivers: Surface water stored in aquifers during wet months
would lead to lower stream diversions during the dry months.
 Maintain the Reserve: The Reserve could be supported by maintaining groundwater
levels and in-stream, low-flow requirements. For example, river water could be
transferred to infiltration trenches parallel to rivers during wet months. The water would
slowly return to the rivers thereby enhancing flow during the dry months.
 Minor environmental imprint: Artificial recharge offers a means to store and abstract
water with minimal environmental impact. Where confined aquifers are used (as is the
case with many ASR schemes), there is minimal impact on surface water courses.
 Minimal land use: Artificial recharge schemes, and in particular those that employ
borehole injection, require relatively small surface areas. For borehole injection schemes,
the land use is measured in square metres, whilst the size of equivalent reservoirs would
be tens of hectares. For example, a borehole injection scheme extending over a few
square metres that stores 1Mm3 is equivalent to a surface reservoir of 4 m depth x 500m x
500 m. The cost, planning, engineering and environmental issues associated with the
latter development are of a far greater scale than borehole injection schemes.
 Temperature control: The relatively stable temperatures of the subsurface can be used to
maintain water temperatures for industry (e.g. for fish hatcheries).

4.3.5. Management of water distribution systems

 Maintenance of distribution system flow and pressure: Optimally located artificial
recharge schemes can be used to meet seasonal peak demands and maintain adequate
pressures in the supply pipelines. They can also be used to maintain a disinfection-
residual.

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  Storage of treated water: Storing treated water allows for the supply of water at a rate
greater than the capacity of the treatment plant. This allows for the sizing of water
treatment works closer to the average needs rather than the peak requirements.

4.3.6. Other benefits

 Defer expansion of water facilities: By optimizing conjunctive use of surface and
groundwater, and by using artificial recharge principles, expansion of surface water
facilities can be deferred, with substantial cost savings. It may be possible to make more
efficient use of existing investment in treatment and conveyance capacity by operating
these facilities at full capacity throughout the year, and throughout the life of the facility
(by incorporating artificial recharge into systems management).
 Storage of reclaimed water: High quality reclaimed water can be stored in fresh or
brackish aquifers for reuse. The stored water can be used for a variety of purposes,
depending on its quality and post-treatment facilities.
 Utilize saline aquifers: Many ASR schemes utilise saline aquifers that were previously
not considered an asset. A fresh water bubble is created around the point of injection, and
water quality is managed according to specific targets. The Marathon scheme in Florida,
USA, is an example of an ASR scheme where drinking water is stored in a seawater
aquifer.
 Storage of huge quantities of water: Aquifers can store huge quantities of water.

4.4. PROBLEMS RELATED TO ARTIFICIAL RECHARGING

The drawbacks of implementing artificial recharge usually fall within the following
concerns:

1) Clogging: Artificial recharge of groundwater generally results in an increased resistance

to flow near the point of recharge. This is a result of clogging or plugging, which results
in a decreasing rate of recharge or the need to continually increase the recharge head to
maintain a constant recharge rate. Clogging can be caused by physical factors (such as air
entrapment and suspended matter), bacteriological factors and chemical factors. Clogging
also has a negative impact on the recovery of artificially recharged water, since it
increases drawdown during pumping (if the recovery borehole is clogged).

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2) Uncertainty in aquifer hydraulics: In the case of new artificial recharge schemes that
involve deep-seated aquifers or saline aquifers, little will be known about the aquifers’
hydraulic properties. This will either mean that intensive research should be conducted on
the aquifer prior to implementation, or that an extensive monitoring system is installed,
and that the project be commissioned with an acceptable level of risk.
3) Controlled recovery by different users: The concept of whoever stores the water has
the right to recover it is generally accepted throughout the world. It would be highly
problematic if there was uncontrolled usage of the stored water.
4) Regulatory constraints: Storage of water in the sub-surface needs to comply with the
country’s water and environmental legislation. In certain circumstances, Departmental
approval of a scheme may take a long time, or even be prevented, since implementation
of new legislation is untested in relation to artificial recharge.
5) Damage to aquifers: This concern refers to the negative effects of recharge such as the
precipitation of solids, the dissolution of aquifer material and of contaminants such as
arsenic. Precipitation has been observed near ASR boreholes, evident as clogging, but has
not been observed as widespread aquifer clogging. The dissolution of arsenic has been
observed in a number of instances, and needs to be assessed in the feasibility stage of
most projects. Aquifer collapse, due to large-scale dewatering during the recovery stage
of the artificial recharge cycle, may be a concern for specific aquifer types (such as
unconsolidated, unconfined aquifers). Most artificial recharge schemes around the world
are in these types of aquifer, but this problem has not been widely observed.
6) High outlay before feasibility of ASR can be established. In certain circumstances (e.g.
where there is a poor understanding of the hydraulic properties of the aquifer), it may
require a high financial outlay in order to establish the feasibility of the scheme. This will
need to be compared with the feasibility studies required for other options.
7) Environmental concerns relating fluctuating groundwater. Artificial recharge could
result in groundwater levels being raised above and below the norm, and this can have
negative environmental consequences such as affecting groundwater level dependant
ecosystems, increased aquifer vulnerability to contamination and sinkhole formation in
dolomitic aquifers.

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4.5. Clogging effect
Hindrance offered to the recharge of water through boreholes by physical, biological and
chemical factors. Some components in Artificial recharge source water can be obstructed by the
clogging layer, leading to a change in water quality. The accumulation of total suspended solids
(TSS) at the clogging layer can cause physical clogging and worsen the degree of chemical
clogging. Although clogging and the related change in water quality were the dominant issues
that affect the infiltration rate and health risks during the AR process, the dissolution of the
aquifer matrix should also be taken into account. This dissolution contributed to not only the
hydraulic conductivity of the infiltration medium but also the potential change in water quality
during the aquifer recharge, storage and recovery processes. Chemical clogging problems can
still be caused by certain chemical components, especially Fe and Al, and a lower concentration
of these elements can cause a notable decrease in hydraulic conductivity at the top layer of the
infiltration medium. Factors leading to clogging of boreholes are described briefly here,

(1) Recharge Water: The high concentration of recharge water in gas bubbles is an important
factor to reduce the yield of artificial recharge via boreholes or wells. Clogging with gas bubbles
can be avoided by keeping the pressure in the system above the total dissolved gas pressure and
by refraining from throttling the flow.

(2) Bacteria: Clogging due to bacteria takes place when the amount of Assimilable Organic
Carbon (AOC) in the recharge water is high enough to facilitate bacterial growth around the
borehole. Pretreatment of water recharge should be applied to reduce the content of AOC. It is
pointed out that one major concern with using recycled water is that active/infective human
enteric viruses might be delivered with the recycled water in the subsurface environment .
Recent investigations suggested that a 40-log removal of viruses would occur within 150 m of
passage through a fine to coarse, moderately sorted sand aquifer, on the other hand, in a fractured
aquifer the required most conservative set back distance for drinking wells should be over 8 Km .

(3) Chemical Reactions: Chemical clogging can be caused by different chemical actions within
an aquifer system and depends on hydrogeological conditions and water quality, e.g., the calcite
dissolution is an important geochemical process occurring around the borehole and might limit
the life of boreholes. The precipitation of iron hydroxides is one possible cause of well clogging
in the case of mixing water containing oxygen without Fe2+ with water containing Fe2+ and no
O2 nor NO3. When pH ranges are between 7 and 8, the following fast reaction takes place
around the borehole screen:
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 O2 + 4Fe2+ + 8HCO3− + 2H2O → 4Fe(OH)3 + 8CO2
A similar reaction takes place with the presence of nitrate, at a slower rate:
2NO3− + Fe2+ + 8HCO3− + 6H2O → Fe(OH)3 + 1N2 +8CO2

Recovery boreholes close to injection boreholes may clog due to iron(hydr)oxides, which
are produced by mixing of waters. This problem can be avoided by increasing the distance
between recovery and recharge boreholes. During the movement of water, oxidation of organic
matter and CO2 production occurs with simultaneous consumption of O2 according to the
reaction:

CH2O + O2 ↔ CO2 + H2O

After the depletion of O2, denitrification is the next process:
4NO3− + 5CH2O + 4H+ ↔ 2N2 + 5CO2 + 7H2O

Usually during the movement of groundwater the concentration of ions Ca 2+ and HCO3−
increases, due to the dissolution of calcium carbonate (CaCO3):

CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O ↔ Ca2+ + 2HCO3

Clogging of aquifer material or the borehole screen can be managed by:

 Mechanical and/or chemical treatment of recharge water
 Introduction of water through a valve to ensure a continuous column to the surface
 Regular recovery using surging and pumping

5. CONCLUSION

Criteria for the safe use of treated wastewater should be established in order to maximize
public health protection, to ensure that the recovered water meets the guidelines for quality
chemical and microbiological analyses. Based on preliminary results, artificial recharge using
tertiary treated wastewater via boreholes is one of the best options available for increasing the
groundwater reserves. Artificial recharge using treated wastewater, via deep boreholes, is also an
internationally acceptable practice and may contribute to cover a large part of irrigation needs, as
well as sustainable water resources management in many countries. Thus, it could be a solution
25
for regions with low water availability and deteriorating water quality due to saline water
intrusion.

Thus, artificial recharge using treated waste water in depleted aquifers, via
boreholes, is carried out by collecting waste water from a locality and recycling it in a water
treatment plant. This treated waste water is then infiltrated through boreholes. After artificial
recharge and natural treatment, water could be extracted through same or different borehole.
Former method is called ASR and latter is ASTR. These methods of ground water recharging
will be of great use in semi-arid countries, where water scarcity is a major problem. This report
illustrated the processes involved in aquifer recharge via boreholes using treated wastewater.

26
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http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0043135404000466

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