1.

INTRODUCTION

The role of nanotechnology in conceiving of innovative infrastructure systems

has potential to revolutionize the civil engineering practice. Carbon nano fibres are
one of the important nano materials which have numerous applications in the civil
engineering field. These fibres are linear filaments with a diameter in the range of 50-
200nm that are characterized by high flexibility and a high average aspect ratio above
100. It possesses high specific area, flexibility and mechanical strength. It finds
applications in making high strength concrete, anti-corrosion coatings, fire protective
glasses and cement composites. This seminar introduces the application of carbon
nano fibres in energy harvesting from roads.

In the present era of increasing energy demand there is a greater emphasis on

energy conservation and development of alternative energy sources and systems
ensuring cost-effective and environment friendlier solutions. The principal objective
of this seminar is to demonstrate that these goals can be achieved by harvesting
energy from roads.

This technology utilizes the pyroelectric behaviour of a smart material

synthesized by the addition of carbon nanofibres to the Ordinary Portland Cement.
This cement composite material captures ambient thermal energy available from
pavements. The pyroelectric effect converts the temperature change on these
pavements into electric current or voltage. Thermal energy in the environment is a
potential energy source for low-power electronics. The waste thermal energy can be
converted into electrical energy and it can be stored and used as an alternative power
source or send back into the electric grid for use when required.

If thermal energy from roads is harvested, it can be another green alternate

energy source like wind turbines, solar panels etc. For instance, harvesting thermal
energy from roads can be done not only in hot climates but also in cold climates since
pyroelectric effect refers to converting thermal energy change into electrical energy.
Another benefit is that the cement composite material reinforces the pavement
structure which increases pavement strength and gives good resistance to rutting and
fatigue cracking. Moreover, this is an ongoing and forthcoming research area.

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2
2. CARBON NANO FIBRES
Carbon nanofibres (CNFs) refer to high strength hollow carbon tubes
produced from gasified coal. They are sp2-based linear, non-continuous filaments with
a diameter ranging from 70-200nm and 10μm-100μm in length. Carbon nano fibres
are a unique form of nano filaments that bridges the gap in physical properties
between larger, conventional carbon fibers (diameter: 5 –10μm) and smaller single-

wall and multi-wall carbon nanotubes (diameter: 1 – 10nm). They are characterized
by a high average aspect ratio (ratio of length to diameter) which is above 100. It has
a unique stacked-cup structure.

Figure 1: carbon nano fibres

(Source: http://www.httcanada.com/images/nanotubes1.jpg)

Figure 2: Stacked-cup structure of carbon nano fibres

(Source: http://www.nanodic.com/carbon/Cup-stacked/4_resize.jpg)

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3. HISTORIC REVIEW OF PYROELECTRIC EFFECT

The first reference to the pyroelectric effect is in writings by Theophrastus in

314 BC, who noted that tourmaline could attract sawdust or bits of straw.
Tourmaline's properties were rediscovered in 1707 by Johann Georg Schmidt, who
noted that the stone attracted only hot ashes, not cold ones. Later in 1747 Linnaeus
first related the phenomenon to electricity although this was not proven until 1756 by
Franz Ulrich Theodor Aepinus. Research in pyroelectricity became more
sophisticated in the 19th century. In 1824 Sir David Brewster gave the effect the name
it has today. Both William Thomson in 1878 and Woldemar Voigt in 1897 helped
develop a theory for the processes behind pyroelectricity. Pierre Curie and his brother,
Jacques Curie, studied pyroelectricity in the 1880s, leading to their discovery of some
of the mechanisms behind piezoelectricity.

Pyroelectricity gained its name from the Greek word “pyr” which means fire.
Pyroelectricity is the ability of certain materials to generate a temporary voltage when
they are heated or cooled. The change in temperature modifies the positions of the
atoms slightly within the crystal structure, such that the polarization of the material
changes. This polarization change gives rise to a voltage across the crystal. If the
temperature stays constant at its new value, the pyroelectric voltage gradually
disappears due to leakage current which is due to electrons moving through the
crystal, ions moving through the air, current leaking through a voltmeter attached
across the crystal, etc.

Figure 3: Change in electric polarization due to change in temperature

(Source:
http://www.school-for-champions.com/science/images/static_causes_pyroelectric.gif)

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 Pyroelectric behaviour refers to the change in electric polarization in a
material due to a change in temperature. The change in polarization gives rise to a
change in voltage across the material in the direction of the polarization. In this way,
thermal energy is converted to electrical energy.

Pyroelectric property of a material should not be confused with

thermoelectricity which is the creation of voltage across a material due to temperature
differences on extreme ends of it. Thermo electric effect is the direct conversion of
heat into electricity or electricity into heat through two related mechanisms, the
Seebeck effect and the Peltier effect. The Seebeck effect is a phenomenon in which a
temperature difference between two dissimilar electrical conductors or
semiconductors produces a voltage difference between the two substances. The Peltier
effect is a temperature difference created by applying a voltage between two
electrodes connected to a sample of semiconductor material. In a typical
demonstration of pyroelectricity, the whole crystal is changed from one temperature
to another, and the result is a temporary voltage across the crystal. In a typical
demonstration of thermoelectricity, one side of the material is kept at one temperature
and the other side at a different temperature and the result is a permanent voltage
across the crystal.

4. PYROELECTRIC MATERIALS

Pyroelectric materials can be divided in 2 main groups: crystals and ceramics.

All crystal structures can be divided into 32 crystal classes, according to the number
of rotational axes and reflection planes they exhibit that leave the crystal structure
unchanged. Of the thirty-two crystal classes, twenty-one are non-centrosymmetric
(not having a centre of symmetry). Of these twenty-one, twenty exhibit
direct piezoelectricity, the remaining one being the cubic class 432. Ten of these
twenty piezoelectric classes are polar, i.e., they possess a spontaneous polarization,
having a dipole in their unit cell, and exhibit pyroelectricity.

Any dielectric material develops a dielectric polarization when an electric field

is applied, but a substance which has such a natural charge separation even in the
absence of a field is called a polar material. Whether or not a material is polar is
determined solely by its crystal structure. Only 10 of the 32 point groups are polar.

5
All polar crystals are pyroelectric, so the 10 polar crystal classes are sometimes
referred to as the pyroelectric classes. The most well-known pyroelectric ceramics are
perovskite ceramics such as BaTiO3 (Barium titanate) and PZT (Lead zirconate
titanate) and some polymers PVDF (Polyvinylidene difluoride).

4.1 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

Progress has been made in creating artificial pyroelectric materials, usually in

the form of a thin film, out of gallium nitride (GaN), caesium
nitrate (CsNO3), polyvinyl fluorides, derivatives of phenylpyridine,
cobalt phthalocyanine and lithium tantalate (LiTaO3).

5. PYROELECTRIC CONSTANTS

Pyroelectric materials have certain characteristics to define their behaviour

under different situations. Since pyroelectric effect is a very complicated process, the
following characteristics have to be studied before full understanding of it can be
possible:

 Pyroelectric coefficient
 Static dielectric constant
 Dipole moment
 Polarization

Pyroelectric coefficient (p): It is defined as the change in polarization per unit

change in temperature. It is a vector. Quantitatively, the pyroelectric effect can be
described by the equation:

∆Pi = pi∆T ……... (5.1)

where ∆T denotes the change in temperature , ∆Pi (i=1,2,3) are the changes in
the components of polarization P in the three dimensional space and p i are the
corresponding pyroelectric coefficients.

Static dielectric constant (ε): It is defined as the product of the permittivity of

free space (εo) and the relative dielectric constant (κ). It is a material property that
relates to the electric dipole moment per unit volume.

6
 Dipole moment: It is defined as the product of magnitude of charge and the
disance of separation between the charges.

Polarization (P): It is dipole moment per unit volume.

6. PYROELECTRIC BEHAVIOUR OF CEMENT COMPOSITE

Specimens of Portland cement with and without carbon nanofibres have been
prepared in the laboratory and tested for various properties, such as, pyroelectric
coefficient and dielectric constant. It has been found that Ordinary Portland Cement
acts as pyroelectric material. Addition of carbon nanofibres increases the pyroelectric
behaviour of cement. Both dielectric constant and pyroelectric coefficient increase
with increase in temperature.

Cement was chosen as the matrix for incorporating carbon nano fibres to it,
since it is the most important building material and has low cost compared to other
pyroelectric materials. It is also readily available than any of the other pyroelectric
materials. Electric dipoles are present in cement due to the presence of ionic bonding
and moisture in it. Thus it gets easily polarized when a temperature change occurs. It
is reported that the pyroelectric effect is observed in cement-based materials at
temperatures from -4 to 350C and at frequencies from 10 kHz to 1MHz. It is attributed
to the increase in the mobility of ions as the temperature increases. The pyroelectric
coefficient is higher for carbon fibre cement paste than plain cement paste, but carbon
fibre cement paste and plain cement paste are comparable in the pyroelectric voltage.
Although the values of the pyroelectric coefficient of cement-based materials are
lower than those of barium titanate and polyvinylidene fluoride by three or four orders
of magnitude, the effect in cement-based materials is sufficient for detecting very
small temperature changes (even 10-3 K).

7. PYROELECTRIC ENERGY HARVESTING

The “pyroelectric effect” converts temperature changes into electrical voltage

or current. Pyroelectricity is the capability of certain materials to generate an
electrical potential when they are either heated or cooled. As a result of the
temperature change, positive and negative charges move to opposite ends through
migration (polarized) and thus, an electrical potential is established. Pyroelectric

7
energy-harvesting applications require inputs with time variances which results in
small power outputs in energy-scavenging applications. One of the main advantages
that pyroelectric energy harvesting has over thermoelectric energy harvesting is that
most of the pyroelectric materials or elements are stable up to 1200 °C or more.
Stability allows energy harvesting even from high temperature sources with
increasing thermodynamic efficiency.

7.1. CONCRETE PAVEMENTS FOR PYROELECTRIC ENERGY

HARVESTING

7.1.1. Advantages of concrete pavements over asphalt pavements for

pyroelectric energy harvesting

 Cement in concrete pavements is a pyroelectric material

Cement is a pyroelectric material while bitumen in asphalt has no pyroelectric
property. Pyroelectric coefficient (p) for Ordinary Portland Cement paste at room
temperature is 1.3 x 10-9 C/m2K at 10 kHz frequency. This property can be
enhanced by the addition of carbon fibres in cement composites.

 Concrete pavements are a more greener option than asphalt pavements

Concrete is a mixture of rock (mined out of quarries), sand (from river
beds and Quarries), cement and water while asphalt is a petroleum material
derived from the refining of crude oil. The cementing medium for asphalt is a
petroleum derivative while for concrete it is Portland cement which is a much
greener material. The production of asphalt mixtures for paving requires a great
deal of Petroleum which is less eco-friendlier than cement concrete.

 Concrete pavements have greater strength than asphalt pavements

Asphalt will require a more rigid sub-grade due to its flexibility. Asphalt is
applied one layer at a time and needs several layers to reach it’s optimal load
capacity while Concrete paving is applied in one layer with the mix design
meeting load capacity instead of number of layers. When concrete is applied in a
single layer with mix design satisfying load capacity, asphalt may require several
layers to attain the same strength of concrete mix.

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  Concrete pavements have longer life than asphalt pavements
Concrete normally serves 20–30 years without needing major repair,
while asphalt typically lasts only 8–12 years before resurfacing or significant
repair is required. Thus, Concrete pavements on average outlast asphalt
pavements by 10-15 years before needing rehabilitation.

 Concrete pavements distribute loads to a wider area of pavement

Due to the stiffness and rigidity of concrete, it distributes the load over
a relatively wide area of subgrade. The concrete slab itself supplies a major
portion of a rigid pavement's structural capacity. While Asphalt pavement,
inherently built with weaker and less stiff material, does not spread loads as
well as concrete.

 Concrete pavements can be given any colour as required

Asphalt comes only in black colour. Concrete’s original colour is very
light grey, but, with the use of colour additives, concrete can be turned into
any colour as required.

On the basis of above criteria it is understood that concrete pavement provides

opportunities to reinforce, texture, colour and enhance pyroelectric property of
pavement which is not possible with asphalt. These opportunities allow concrete to be
made exceedingly strong, long lasting, efficient, safe, quiet, and architecturally
beautiful. These advantages have grabbed public attention and it is been discussed in
present context to convert asphalt pavements into cement concrete pavements.Some
major highways in the world have already been converted into concrete pavements.
For example, The national highway system, which includes the nearly 45,000 mile
interstate system, carries 40% of the nation's total traffic, including 70% of the
commercial traffic and 90% of the tourist traffic, according to the Federal Highway
Administration (FHWA). About 60% of the interstate system is concrete, especially in
urban areas where FHWA anticipates heavy traffic load. Hence it is possible that
future pavements will be concrete pavements instead of asphalt pavements. If so
pyroelectric energy harvesting from cement concrete pavements can be done on a
large scale because carbon nano fibres can be added only to these pavements.

9
8. MATERIAL AND TEST METHOD

Ordinary Portland Cement, PVA (Poly Vinyl Alcohol) and carbon nanofibres
form the constituents for the preparation of nano composite specimen. These
constituents are mixed thoroughly. The PVA acts as a binder within the cement. No
aggregate is added. The carbon nanofibres (PR-19-XT-LHT) with following
characteristic should be used:

 Fibre diameter, nm (average): 150

 No CVD (Chemical Vapour Deposition) carbon overcoat present on fibre
 Surface area, m2/gm: 20-30
 Dispersive surface energy, mJ/m2: 120-140
 Moisture, wt%: <5
 Iron, ppm: <14,000

The weighted mixture is mixed in water to make a paste of suitable viscosity.

The paste is compressed in a steel mound to form discs of diameter 10 mm and
thickness 2 mm approximately. The discs are then cured at 25°C under 100%
humidity for 24 hours to speed up the hydration process of cement matrix. After
drying the samples, silver electrodes are coated on both sides of the discs to form full-
face electrodes. Finally, to make the samples functional, the electroded samples are
poled at 500oC with 75 kV/cm electric field for 1 hour and then cooled to room
temperature with applied field. After the poling process the samples are short-
circuited to remove any extrinsic charges on the sample. There is a limitation of
adding carbon nanofibres; too many nanofibres can make the material highly
conducting and thus invalidate the electrical measurements. The detailed descriptions
of samples’ composition are given in Table 1 as follows:

10
 Table 1: Composition of nanofibres fabricated

(Source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/41148(389)22)

SIMPLE NAME NANO CARBON PVA CEMENT

(% by mass) (% by mass) (% by mass)
SSS3 0.070 0.513 99.417
SSS5 0.246 0.500 99.254
SSS7 0.490 0.508 99.002
SSS8 0.629 0.508 98.863
SSS9 1.173 0.509 98.318

The electrical parameters which are relevant to the materials potential application of
charge storage capacity are the real (ε') and imaginary (ε'') parts of dielectric constant
and dielectric loss tangent (tan δ) and they are defined as:

Cpd
ε '= … … … … … …(8.1)
ε oA

Where Cp is the pyroelectric capacitance of the sample, A is the electrode area

(identical areas for the opposite electrodes are used in each sample), d is the thickness
of the sample, ω=2πf is the frequency of AC measurement, ε0 = 8.854x10-12 F/m is the
permittivity of vacuum and δ is the dielectric loss. To obtain a wider spectrum, a
series of AC frequency is selected from very low (10 Hz) to as high as 1 MHz. The
pyroelectric current Ip is measured at various temperatures and the pyroelectric
coefficients (p) are calculated using the relationship:
( Ip / A )
p= … … … … …( 8.2)
( dT /dt )

Where A is the electrode area and dT/dt is the rate of change of temperature which is
kept constant throughout the measurement. The additional charge generated via
heating or cooling within a temperature change dT can be calculated as:
dT
dQ=d Ipdt =pA d … … … …( 8.3)
dt

Where, the pyroelectric coefficient p could be constant or as a function of

temperature. The change in pyroelectric coefficient will indicate the change in dipole

11
orientation inside the material; higher the coefficient, better the material is for
converting temperature change in electrical charge.

9. ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT RESULTS

Graph 1 and Graph 2 show the frequency dependence of dielectric constant

(ε') and dielectric loss (ε'') respectively for cement composites reinforced with carbon
fibre. All of the composites show a sharp decrease in dielectric constants (ε' and ε'')
with increasing frequency increasing in the range from 100 Hz to 1 MHz. This is
mainly attributed to interfacial polarization of the composites and polarization in
cement matrix.

Graph 1: A typical dependence of dielectric constant (ε') of cement-carbon nano

composites on AC frequency (400 C)

(Source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/41148(389)22)

When AC frequency is larger than 10 kHz, the composites exhibit relatively

good frequency stability. The pyroelectric behaviour of the cement composite is very
similar to the ones observed in other materials like BaTiO3 (Barium titanate) , PZT
(Lead zirconate titanate) etc.

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 Graph 2: A typical dependence of dielectric loss (ε'') of cement-carbon nano
composites on AC frequency (400 C)
(Source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/41148(389)22)

From the graph above, it is evident that dielectric loss (ε'') of cement carbon nano
composite increases as the AC frequency decreases. As the carbon nano fibre content
increases, dielectric loss (ε'') also increases.

Graph 3: A typical dependence of dielectric constants (ε') of

Cement-carbon nano composites on temperature
(Source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/41148(389)22)
From Graph 3 it is understood that for a particular percentage of carbon fibre, as
temperature increases, dielectric constant initially decreases at 400C and then

13
increases. The observed increase in dielectric constant in Graph 3 can be attributed to
the increase in mobility of ions as the temperature increases.

Graph 4: A typical dependence of pyroelectric coefficient of

cement-carbon nanocomposites on temperature
(Source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/41148(389)22)
The above graph indicates that as carbon nano fibre content increases,
pyroelectric coefficient also increases. Also for a given percentage of carbon nano
fibre, as temperature increases, pyroelectric coefficient increases.

Graph 5: Dependence of the dielectric constants (ε') of cement-carbon nano-

composites on the carbon content (40 °C and 1 kHz frequency)
(Source: http://dx.doi.org/10.3141/2252-10)

The influence of carbon nano fibre content on the dielectric constant and
pyroelectric coefficient at 1 kHz frequency and 400C are plotted in Graph 5 and Graph

14
6 respectively. In Graph 5, it can be seen that the dielectric constant values increase
with the increase in nano carbon fibre content.

Graph 6: Dependence of the pyroelectric coefficients of cement-carbon nano-

composites on the carbon content (40 °C and 1 kHz frequency)
(Source: http://photonicsforenergy.spiedigitallibrary.org/data/Journals/
photoe/23506/014001_1_5.png)
The above graph shows that pyroelectric coefficient increases linearly with the
increase in carbon nano fibre content.

Graph 7: A typical dependence of AC conductivity of cement-carbon nano-

composites on frequency (400C)
(Source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/41148(389)22)
The enhancement of ε'' with carbon content is related to increase in the AC
conductivity of the composite as depicted in Graph 7, which involves electrons and

15
ions. From this graph it is evident that as AC frequency increases, AC conductivity
also increases gradually.

10. ENERGY STORAGE VIA PYROELECTRIC EFFECT

Pyroelectric sensors are the devices which convert thermal energy into
electrical energy. A large quantity of heat absorbed by the pavement is radiated to the
atmosphere. The remaining amount of heat stored in pavements is the source for
pyroelectric energy harvesting. For this, it was essential to study the feasibility of
capturing thermal energy from pavement via pyroelectric effect. This initial study led
to the modelling of pyroelectric sensor as proposed by Cuadras et al (2010). As per
this study, pyroelectric sensor is modelled as a capacitor and resistor in parallel with a
current source (Figure 4). The current is generated within the cell with the change in
temperature.

Figure 4: Pyroelectric material model

(Source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/41148(389)22)

Figure 4 shows the pyroelectric sensor model propsed by Cuadras et al

(2010). In this figure, IP is the current generated, CP is the internal capacitance of the
cell and R is the internal resistance of the cell. Eq. 8.3 indicates that the pyroelectric
current is directly proportional to the rate of change of temperature. However, one
problem with this behaviour is that the current will flow in opposite direction when
the rate changes from positive to negative or from negative to positive. In other
words, a heating followed by cooling or cooling followed by heating will produce
charge accumulation in different direction. However, to charge an external capacitor it
is essential that the capacitor be charged continuously.
This problem was solved by using a full bridge diode rectifier circuit, as
shown in Figure 5. There are two pairs of diodes; one pair is used for each direction of

16
current flow. Diodes D1-D2 are used when current is flowing in one direction and D 3-
D4 are used when the current flows in other direction. At each time only the forward
biased diodes work, the other two pairs blocks current flow under reverse biased
condition. As it can be seen, in both cases, the external capacitor is charged via charge
flow in one direction and that causes the voltage to increase across the external
storage capacitor.

Figure 5: Pyroelectric cell with full bridge rectifier circuit for charge storage
D1-D2 are used in one direction of current flow,
D3-D4 are used in other direction of current flow
(Source: photonicsforenergy.spiedigitallibrary.org)

The voltage across the external capacitance at a given temperature data point is given
by the equation:

∆Q C E ±C p pA ∆ T C E ± C p
Vn= + Vn−1= + Vn−1 … … … … … (10.1)
C p+C E C E+C p C p+C E C E+C p

where,
Vn = voltage across the external capacitance at the nth temperature data point
ΔQ = additional charge generated for a given temperature data point
Cp = pyroelectric cell capacitance
CE = External charging capacitance
Vn-1 = voltage across the external capacitance at the n-1th data point
p = pyroelectric coefficient
A = Electrode area
ΔT = change in temperature

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 Once the voltage is determined, the energy stored at nth data point can be
calculated from the following equation:
En=0.5 C E Vn2 … … … … …(10.2)
Eq. 10.1 was used to simulate the voltage produced from a measured
temperature profile of actual pavement temperature (shown in Graph 8). Graph 8
shows the temperature profile between May-Oct at a station location in Huntsville,
Alabama. The temperature profile was obtained from the Environmental and Climatic
Database of Mechanistic Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) (NCHRP
2004). The simulated voltage is shown in Graph 9.

Graph 8: Temperature profile at Huntsville, AL, May-Oct, Station ID = 03856

(Source: http://photonicsforenergy.spiedigitallibrary.org/data/Journals
/PHOTOE/23506/014001_1_6.png)

The circuit is simulated with the following values: CP = 3.761x10-12 F, CE =

10x10-6F, p = 1.5x10-9 C/cm2 / oC, A = 0.907 cm2. When CE >> CP, Eq. 10.1 becomes:
Vn ≈ (pAΔT)/ CE + Vn-1. This is the simplified version of Eq. 10.1; when storing
energy from temperature fluctuations, the values of CP and CE should be optimized for
highest energy storage. Graph 9 shows that the accumulated voltage increases as the
summer months go by. The maximum voltage accumulated at the end of October is
around 0.55 V at Huntsville, Alabama. It should be noted that this maximum voltage
can be controlled by choosing suitable value for external storage capacitor, CE.

18
 Graph 9: Generated voltage across the external storage capacitor
(Source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/41148(389)22)

The above graph indicates that as time elapses, voltage increases. Assuming that one
single device will produce 10 μW/cm2 of energy, this comes to around 10 mW/ft 2 ≈
110 mW/m2. Most of the wireless devices use energy in the range of several mW,
therefore, even one single device will be sufficient to produce power for the wireless
sensors. The area of lane to be covered by sensors to produce a power of 10 W, which
is typical for a street intersection LED signal is computed as follows:

The area required = 10/(10 × 10-3) ft2 = 1000 ft2, i.e., for a 10 ft wide lane, 100
ft length of the lane is to be covered by the sensors. Converting this in terms of
metres, for a 3m wide lane, 30m length of the lane is to be covered by pyroelectric
sensors to produce a power of 10W.

It is possible to increase the voltage by placing several of the pyroelectric cells

in parallel. The current would increase and hence charge accumulation will be
algebraically added. Currently, the experiments are conducted using several of these
sensors in real pavements and monitoring the voltage generated. The experimental
results are in agreement with the predicted results.

11. STUDIES CONDUCTED WORLD WIDE

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 Wen and Chung (2003) investigated the pyroelectric behaviour of cement-
based materials. They showed that the steel/carbon-nanofibres increase the dielectric
properties of cement composites. However, there are limited studies on the
pyroelectric and dielectric properties of cement-based nano-composites for energy
harvesting, infra red sensing and other civil engineering applications. Therefore,
further electrical and pyroelectric investigations in cement-based composites,
including nano-composites, are warranted for the purpose of fundamental
understanding of their behaviour. These studies reveal that if the pavement
temperature can be converted into electrical current, it would be ideal choice for using
alternative sustained power source to wireless sensors and other devices which require
low but sustaining power. This would ensure sustained and uninterrupted power
supply to pavement management system hardware and will contribute to the energy
conservation.

12. ADVANTAGES
 Pure energy harvesting
 Technology is ecofriendly
 Power can be generated constantly by this concept
 No need for special and long transmission lines
 Reinforce the pavement structure
 Technology can be utilized both in hot and cold climates
 Gives good resistance to rutting and fatigue cracking

13. DISADVANTAGES
 High initial cost
 Need for demonstration plants
 Needs a critical implementation and management plan at the laying
stage to avoid traffic congestion

14. CONCLUSION

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 This study presents an adaptive approach for harvesting electrical energy from
temperature changes in pavements. It ensures that cement-carbon nano-composites
can be fabricated using normal mixing and compaction method. Experiments
conducted reveal that the dielectric constants of composites increase as the carbon
fibre content increases. The pyroelectric coefficients of composites also increase as
carbon fibre content increases. Higher content of carbon fibre in the cement nano-
composites is beneficial for pyroelectric energy conversion devices. The simulation
result with the real time pavement temperature data indicates that the methodology is
a sound one and should be explored further with real time pavement experimentation.

This study indicates that simple material such as Ordinary Portland Cement
can be used to capture heat energy from pavements which can be stored in capacitor
for the use as a power source to other sensor electronics. Also, the electrical energy
produced from these pavements can be stored in battery grids or directly be supplied
to light up the street lights, stop lights, speed sensors etc. This technology was tested
initially at Alabama and has proved to be successful. If implemented in India, it could
be a wise energy generating solution and could serve as an efficient means to meet the
increasing demand for electricity. We can see better dimensions of this technology in
the futuristic world.

REFERENCES

21
 Larisa Nasibulina I. ; Ilya Anoshkin V. ; Sergey Shandakov D. ; Albert
Nasibulin G. ; Andrzej Cwirzen, Prasantha Mudimela R. ; Karin Habermehl-
Cwirzen ; Jari Malm E.M. ; Tatiana Koltsova S. ; Ying Tian, Ekaterina
Vasilieva S. ; Vesa Penttala ; Oleg Tolochko V. ; Maarit Karppinen J. ; and
Esko Kauppinen I. (2010), “Direct Synthesis of Carbon Nanofibers on Cement
Particles”, Journal of Transportation Research Board, vol.2142, pp. 96-101
 Sihai Wen ; Chung D.D.L. (2003), “Pyroelectric behaviour of cement-based
materials”, Cement and Concrete Research, vol.33, pp.1675-1679
 Sudip Bhattacharjee ; Batra, A.K. ; and Jacob Cain (2010), “Carbon Nano
Fibre Reinforced Cement Composites for Energy Harvesting Road”, Green
Streets and Highways 2010, pp. 258-271

 Sudip Bhattacharjee ; Ashok Batra K. ; Sima Meseret ; and Jacob Cain (2011),
“High-Performance Single and Polycrystal-Based Pyroelectric Smart
Materials for Energy Harvesting from Pavements”, Journal of
Transportation Research Board, vol.2252, pp. 75-82
 Zoi Metaxa S. ; Maria Konsta-Gdoutos S. ; and Surendra Shah P.(2010),
“Carbon Nanofiber–Reinforced Cement-Based Materials”, Journal of the
Transportation Research Board, vol.2142, pp. 114-118

WEBSITES
 http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/9780784411483
 http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Pyroelectric effect
 http://www.gdp.if.pwr.wroc.pl/pliki/pyroelectric-effect.pdf
 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pssa.2210700202/pdf
 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pssa.2210
 http://www.pavement.com › concrete pavement › technical › fundamentals

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