1

PLANT

u(t) y(t)
G

θ (rad) → CAR → v (m/s)

u=θ
y=v

u
OPEN LOOP SYSTEM WITH COMPENSATOR

yd (t) u(t) y(t)

−1
G G
 2

yd

u
DISTURBANCE EFFECT
d(t)

+
yd (t) u(t) y(t)
G−1 G

FEEDBACK
n(t) d(t)

yd (t) + +
e(t) y(t)
K A G
+ −

S
+

n(t)
 3

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF PLANT

PLANT → GOVERNING LAWS → DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

F = kx

F = bẋ

x
k
m f

b
 4

FREE BODY DIAGRAM

kx

m f
bẋ

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION (MATHEMATICAL MODEL)

f (t) − kx(t) − bẋ(t) = mẍ(t)

mẍ(t) + bẋ(t) + kx(t) = f (t)

EXAMPLE

x2 x1

k2 k1
m2 m1 f

b
 5

FREE BODY DIAGRAM

k1 (x1 − x2 )
m1 f
b(x˙1 − x˙2 )

k1 (x1 − x2 )
k2 x2 m2
b(x˙1 − x˙2 )

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
R
v = iR

C
dv
i=C
dt

L
di
v=L
dt

∑
Kirchhoff's current law: i=0
 6

i1 i3
i2
+
vs − C R v

i1 = i2 + i3
vs − v
i1 =
R
d
i2 = C (v − 0) = C v̇
dt
v−0 v
i3 = =
R R
vs − v v
= C v̇ +
R R
vs − v = RC v̇ + v
vs = 2v + RC v̇
RC v̇ + 2v = vs
 7

VOLTAGE DIVIDER
vin

R1 i1

vout

R2 i2

i1 = i2
vin − vout vout − 0
=
R1 R2
vout R2
=
vin R1 + R2
IMPEDANCE
ZR
ZR = R

ZC
1
ZC =
jωC

ZL
ZL = jωL
 8

Z1 Z2 ZT = Z1 + Z2

Z1
1 1 1
ZT
= Z1
+ Z2
Z2

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

v− −
vout
v+ +

vout = k(v+ − v− )
k=∞
v+ = v−

i2 Rout

i1 Rin
vin −
+ vout
+ +
(Virtual ground)

− −
 9

i1 = i2

vin − 0 0 − vout
=
Rin Rout

vout Rout
=−
vin Rin
CONSTANT COEFFICIENT ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS:
Constant coefficient ordinary differential equations have following parts of
solutions:

ÿ(t) + a1 ẏ(t) + a2 y = b1 u̇(t) + b2 u(t)

Natural Forced
(Homogeneous) (Particular)

Initial Conditions Zero Initial Conditions

No External Force External Force
 10

EXAMPLE:

b
m F0

FREE BODY DIAGRAM:

bẋ=bv m F0

CONSTANT COEFFICIENT ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS:

F0 − bẋ(t) = mẍ(t)
F0 − bv(t) = mv̇(t)
mv̇(t) + bv(t) = F0

SOLUTIONS:
 11

NATURAL (HOMOGENEOUS) SOLUTION (RESPONSE):

F0 = 0
v(0) = v0
mv̇h (t) + bvh (t) = 0

Solution assumption:

vh (t) = Aest
v̇h (t) = Asest

If the assumption is correct then the assumed solution should satisfy the equa-
tion, therefore

mv̇h (t) + bvh (t) = 0

mAsest + bAest = 0
ms + b = 0
b
s=−
m


vh (t) = Aes·0 = A · 1
t=0

A = vh (0) = v(0) = v0

So the natural (homogeneous) solution (response) of the system (CCODE) is

vh (t) = v0 e− m t
b
 12

TIME CONSTANT
v(t)

v0 e− m t
b

m
t
τ =t= b

FORCED (PARTICULAR) SOLUTION (RESPONSE):

The forced (particular) solution (response) has two parts with the assumption
that initial conditions are zero i.e. system starts from rest.

FORCED RESPONSE

TRANSIENT RESPONSE STEADY STATE RESPONSE

The transient response will be of the form Ae−st for a stable system and the
steady state response will be the part which exists after the transient decay
 13

completely. The aforesaid system has the steady state response i.e.
:0
mv̇(t)
 + bvss (t) = F0
F0
vss (t) =
b
v(t) = 0, at t = 0

The complete forced response vf (t) for the system above becomes

F0
vf (t) = Ae− m t +
b

| {z } b
|{z}
TRANSIENT STEADY STATE

F0
vf (0) = 0 = A +
b
F0
A=−
b
 
F0 −m
b
vf (t) = 1−e t
b

vf (t)

1(t)
F0
F0 vf (t) b
F0
mv̇ + bv
t
0

 
−m
b F0 −m
b
vT OT (t) = vh (t) + vf (t) = v0 e t
+ 1−e t
b
 14

TYPES OF INPUT:

u(t) y(t)
G

IMPULSE:
The Dirac delta function, often referred to as the unit impulse or delta func-
tion, is the function that defines the idea of a unit impulse in continuous-time.
Informally, this function is one that is infinitesimally narrow, infinitely tall, yet
integrates to one.
ˆ
+∞

δ(t)dt = 1
−∞

When input to a LTI system is an impulse the response is called the impulse
response h(t).
h(t)

δ(t)

u(t) h(t)
LTI
0 t

UNIT STEP:


0, t < 0
1(t) =

1, t ≥ 0

When input to a LTI system is unit step the response is called the step response.
 15

y(t)
1(t)

1
u(t) y(t)
0
t LTI
t

d
δ(t) = 1(t)
dt
SINUSOID:

u(t) = sin (ωt)

u(t) = sin (ωt) y(t)

1
0.01
u(t) y(t)
0
6
t LTI 0
6
t

−0.01
−1

In previous example the forced response is the step response with step having
an amplitude of F0 .

 
F0 −m
b
vf (t) = 1−e t
b
Using the relation of impulse and step if we take the derivative of the above
 16

equation with F0 = 1 we obtain the impulse response of the system i.e.

d
h(t) = vf (t)
dt

 
1d −m
b
= 1−e t
b dt

  !
1 −m
b b
= −e t
−
b m

! 
1 b
 −m
b
t
= (e
b
 m

1
e− m t
b
h(t) =
m
It is a crude approach considering its limitations. Next we discuss a better
approach in time domain.
 17

F0 F0
F0 m m
F0
m

´ v
1
m + v̇
−

b
m

This is an alternative method for finding impulse response of the aforesaid

example system. At time instant t = 0, assuming initial conditions are zero,
the output v(t) is 0. At same instant, applying the input u(t) = δ(t) will
result
F0
v(0+ ) =
m
Now solving system just like initial condition response knowing it is not initial
condition response will result in impulse response for the system i.e.

mv̇ + bv = 0
v(t) = Aest
mAsest + bAest = 0
ms + b = 0
 18

b
s=−
m
F0
v(0+ ) = v(0) =
m
F0
v(0) = =A
m
F0
A=
m
F0
e− m t
b
v(t) =
m
Now if the input is step i.e. F0 = 1, then
1
e− m t
b
h(t) = v(t) =
m
The same approach is valid for any higher order system.

...
y + a1 ÿ + a2 ẏ + a3 y = bu

Figure below is the integral block diagram. Using the same approach in the
above example.
 19

bt2
1 b b bt

...
y
´ ÿ
´ ẏ
´ y
u b
+
−

a1

a2

a3

y(0+ ) = 0, , ẏ(0+ ) = 0, ÿ(0+ ) = b

Solution assumption is
y(t) = Aest

It should satisfy the differential equation. Furthermore, solving system just

like initial condition response (u(t) = 0) knowing it is not initial condition
response will result in impulse response for the system i.e.

s3 Aest + a1 s2 Aest + a2 sAsest + a3 Asest = 0

s3 + a1 s2 + a2 s + a3 = 0

Solving the third order polynomial will give the three values of s1 , s2 and s3 .
 20

so
y(t) = A1 es1 t + A2 es2 t + A3 es3 t

In order to find the values of A1 , A2 and A3 , we will use

y(0+ ) = 0, , ẏ(0+ ) = 0, ÿ(0+ ) = b

Therefore we obtain following set of linear equations from the above equation

y(0) = 0 = A1 + A2 + A3
ẏ(0) = 0 = A1 s1 + A2 s2 + A3 s3
ÿ(0+ ) = ÿ(0) = b = A1 s21 + A2 s22 + A3 s23

    
1 1 1 A1 0
 s1 s2 s3  
  A2  =  0 
s21 s22 s23 A3 b
A y x

Finding the values of A1 , A2 and A3 and substituting the values in

h(t) = y(t) = A1 es1 t + A2 es2 t + A3 es3 t

will provide the impulse response of the third order system.

 21

CONVOLUTION METHOD
Impulse response to describe all possible arbitrary inputs:CONVOLUTION IN-
TEGRAL

u(t)

∆t

u1
u2

u(t)
u0

t0 t1 t2
 22

h(t − t0)u0

u0

u(t) y(t)
LT I
t0 t

h(t − t1)u1

u1

u(t) y(t)
LT I
t1 t

h(t − t2)u2

u2

u(t) y(t)
LT I
t2 t

h(t − t0)u0 + h(t − t1)u1 + h(t − t2)u2

u0 u1 u2

u(t) y(t)
LT I
t0 t1 t2 t
 23

y(t) = h(t − t0 )u0 + h(t − t1 )u1 + h(t − t2 )u2 · · ·

X
= h(t − ti )ui
i

ˆt
y(t) = u(τ )h(t − τ )dτ
0

y(t) = u(t) ⊛ h(t)

b
m F0

Impulse Response:
1 −mb
t
h(t) = m
e
F0 1(t)

F0

t
0

Unit Step Function with amplitude of F0

 24



0, t<0
F0 1(t) =

F0 , t ≥ 0

Step Response using convolution integral:

u(t) = F0 1(t)

y(t) = u(t) ⊛ h(t)

ˆt
y(t) = u(τ )h(t − τ )dτ
ˆ
0
t !
1
e− m (t−τ ) dτ
b
= F0
m
0

η = t − τ, dη = −dτ

η = t, τ =0

η = 0, τ =t
ˆ 0 !
1
e− m η dη
b
=− F0
m
t
! ! 0
 
F0 m
 −m
b
η 
= − − (e )
m
 b 
t
 25

 
F0 −m
b
y(t) = 1−e t
b

yd e u y
− K G


y(t) = u(t) ⊛ g(t) 



u(t) = e(t) ⊛ k(t) SOLVE SIMULTANEOUSLY




e(t) = yd (t) − y(t) ⊛ h(t) 
 26

LAPLACE TRANSFORM
Im(s)
+4i
+3i
2 + 3i
3i
2i
13
√

3
i 56.3
Re(s)
−4 −2 2 4
−i 2
−2i
−3i
−4i
s-domain, s = σ + jω

 Single-sided Laplace transform will be considered because of causality.

s = σ + jω
ˆ∞
F (s) = L {f (t)} =
∆
f (t)e−st dt
0

 Laplace transform converts calculus to algebra.

 27

u(t) y(t)
h(t)

y(t) = u(t) ⊛ h(t)

U (s) Y (s)
H(s)

Y (s) = U (s)H(s)

 STEP FUNCTION: 

0, t<0
1(t) =

F0 , t ≥ 0

ˆ∞
L {1(t)} = 1(t)e−st dt
0
! ∞

1 −st 
= − (e )
s 
! 0
1 1
= − (0 − 1) =
s s

1
L {1(t)} =
s
 EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION:

u(t) = e−at , 0≤t<∞

 28

ˆ∞
L {u(t)} = L {e−at } = e−at e−st dt
0
ˆ∞
= e−(s+a)t dt
0
! ∞

1 −(s+a)t 
= − (e )
s+a 
! 0
1 1
= − (0 − 1) =
s+a s+a

1
L {e−at } =
s+a
 IMPULSE FUNCTION:


u(t) =
∆
1
∆
, 0≤t≤∆
δ(t) = lim
∆→0 
 0, otherwise
ˆ∞
f (t)δ(t)dt = f (0)
−∞

ˆ∞
L {u(t)} = L {δ(t)} = δ(t)e−st dt
0
ˆ∞
= e−s(0) δ(t)dt
0

=1×1=1

L {δ(t)} = 1
 29

1
→ INTEGRATOR
s
s → DIFFERENTIATION

y ′ (t) 1 y(t)
s

y(t) y ′ (t)
s

 LINEARITY:

L {α1 f1 (t) + α2 f2 (t)} = α1 F1 (s) + α2 F2 (s)

ˆ∞
L {α1 f1 (t) + α2 f2 (t)} = {α1 f1 (t) + α2 f2 (t)}e−st dt
0
ˆ∞ ˆ∞
= α1 f1 (t)e−st dt + α2 f2 (t)e−st dt
0 0

= α1 F (s) + α2 F (s) ■

 EXAMPLE
1 2
y(t) = t + t2 ←→ Y (s) = +
s2 s3
 DIFFERENTIATION:
( )
d
L (f (t)) = L {f ′ (t)} = sF (s) − f (0)
dt
 30

ˆ∞
L {f ′ (t)} = f ′ (t)e−st dt
0
ˆB B ˆB

udv = uv  − vdu
A
A A

u = e−st , du = −se−st dt
dv = f ′ (t), v = f (t)
∞ ˆ∞

= e−st f (t) − f (t)(−se−st )dt
0
0
ˆ∞
= (0 − 1 × f (0)) + s f (t)e−st dt
0

= sF (s) − f (0) ■

L {f ′′ (t)} = s2 F (s) − sf (0) − f ′ (0)

L {f (n) (t)} = sn F (s) − sn−1 f (0) − sn−2 f ′ (0) − · · ·

− sf (n−2) (0) − f (n−1) (0)
 31

EXAMPLE:

f (t) = 3 cos (6t)

L {f (t)} = L {3 cos (6t)}
ˆ∞
= 3 cos (6t)e−st dt
0
ˆ∞
=3 cos (6t)e−st dt
0
ˆB B ˆB

udv = uv  − vdu
A
A A

u = e−st , du = −se−st dt
1
dv = cos (6t), v = sin (6t)
6
! 0∞ ˆ∞ !
 : 


1   1
= 3  e−st
 sin (6t)  −3 sin (6t) (−se−st )dt
  6  6
0 0
ˆ∞
s
= sin (6t)e−st dt
2
0

u = e−st , du = −se−st dt
1
dv = sin (6t), v = − cos (6t)
6
!∞ ˆ∞ !

s 1  s 1
= − e−st cos (6t)  − − cos (6t) (−se−st )dt
2 6  2 6
0 0
!! ˆ∞
s 1 s2
= − 0− − cos (6t)e−st dt
2 6 12
0
 32

ˆ∞ ˆ∞
s s2
3 cos (6t)e−st dt = − cos (6t)e−st dt
12 12
0 0
ˆ∞ ˆ∞
−st s s2
cos (6t)e dt = − cos (6t)e−st dt
36 36
0 0
! ˆ∞
s2 s
1+ cos (6t)e−st dt =
36 36
0
ˆ∞ 
−st s 36

cos (6t)e dt = 
×
36
 s2 + 36
0
ˆ∞
L {3 cos (6t) = 3 cos (6t)e−st dt
0
3s
=
s2 + 36
 33

SECOND METHOD:
ˆ∞
L {3 cos (6t) = 3 cos (6t)e−st dt
0
ˆ∞ !
6ti −6ti
e +e
=3 e−st dt
2
0

ˆ∞ ˆ∞
3 3
= e(−s+6i)t dt + e(−s−6i)t dt
2 2
0 0

∞ ∞ !
3 e(−s+6i)t  e(−s−6i)t 
=  + 
2 −s + 6i  −s − 6i 
0 0

∞ ∞ !
3 e−(s−6i)t  e−(s+6i)t 
=  + 
2 −s + 6i  −s − 6i 
0 0

!
3 1 1
= (0 − 1) + (0 − 1)
2 −s + 6i −s − 6i

!
3 −1 −1
= +
2 −s + 6i −s − 6i
 34

!
3 −1(−s − 6i) − 1(−s + 6i)
=
2 (−s − 6i)(−s + 6i)

!
3 s++s−
6i 
6i
=
2 (−s)2 − (6i)2

!
3 2
s
= , ∵ i2 = −1
2
 s2 + 36

3s
L {3 cos (6t) =
s2 + 36
 35

 EXAMPLE: Find the Laplace transform of the following constant coefficient

ordinary differential equation with zero initial conditions

y ′′ (t) + a1 y ′ (t) + a2 y(t) = bu(t)

L {y ′′ (t) + a1 y ′ (t) + a2 y(t)} = L {bu(t)}

s2 Y (s) − sy(0) − y ′ (0) + a1 (sY (s) − y(0)) + a2 Y (s) = bU (s)

:0

 0
2   ′ *
(s + a1 s + a2 )Y (s) = bU (s) + (a1+
 s)y(0) y
+ (0)


1
Y (s) = U (s)
s2 + a1 s + a2

Y (s) 1
H(s) = =
U (s) s2 + a1 s + a2

U (s) Y (s)
H(s)

Y (s) = U (s)H(s)
 36

LAPLACE TRANSFORM METHOD:

b
m f

FORCED RESPONSE:

mv ′ (t) + bv(t) = f (t), v(0) = 0

msV (s) + bV (s) = F (s)
1
V (s) = F (s)
ms + b
Applying an input f (t) = F0 1(t) i.e.
F0 1(t)

F0

t
0

Unit Step Function with amplitude of F0



0, t<0
F0 1(t) =

F0 , t ≥ 0
 37

STEP RESPONSE:

f (t) = F0 1(t)
F0
F (s) =
s
1 F0
V (s) = ×
ms + b s
a
L {1 − e−at } =
s(s + a)
 b
F0 m
 1
V (s) = × ×( m )×
m
 b b s
s+ m
b
F0
= ( m )
b b
s s+ m

F0 ( )
1 − e− m t
b
v(t) =
b
IMPULSE RESPONSE:

f (t) = δ(t)
F (s) = 1
1
V (s) = ×1
ms + b
1 1
V (s) = × b
m s+ m
1
L {e−at } =
(s + a)
1 −bt
v(t) = h(t) = e m
m
 38

h(t)

δ(t)

1
ms+b
0 t

v(t)
F0 1(t)

F0

1
t ms+b
0 t

INITIAL CONDITION RESPONSE:

f (t) = 0
V (0) = v0
m(sV (s) − v(0)) + bV (s) = 0
mv(0) v0
V (s) = = b
ms + b s+ m
1
L {e−at } =
s+a
( b )
v(t) = v0 e− m t

TOTAL RESPONSE = FORCED + INITIAL CONDITION

1 m
VT (s) = F (s) + v(0)
ms + b ms + b
 39

INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

ˆ
σ+j∞
1
L −1 {Y (s)} =
∆
y(t) = Y (s)est ds
2πj
σ−j∞

Using tables
1
→ 1(t)
s
1
→ e−at
s+a
s
→ cos(at)
s2 + a2

COMPARING COEFFICIENTS METHOD

9s2 + 16 A Bs + C
Y (s) = = +
s(s2 + 4) s s2 + 4
= 9s2 + 16 = A(s2 + 4) + (Bs + C)(s)
= 9s2 + 16 = (A + B)s2 + Cs + 4A
A + B = 9, C = 0, 4A = 16
A = 4, B = 5, C=0
9s2 + 16 4 5s
= = +
s(s2 + 4) s s2 + 4
y(t) = 4 · 1(t) + 5 cos(2t)
 40

y(t)
9

1
t
−1 3 6

EXAMPLE

τf
θ
m

T
g
sin
θ

mg cos θ l
θ
mg

GOVERNING LAW:

Total Applied Force → Motion of the body

Rotational Force → Rotational Motion
 41

τ = I θ̈
where τ is the torque, θ̈ is the angular acceleration and I is moment of inertia
which measures the extent to which an object resists rotational acceleration
about a particular axis, and is the rotational analogue to mass I = mL2 .

τf − mgl sin θ = I θ̈
τf − mgl sin θ = ml2 θ̈

sin θ

θ
− π2 π
2

−1

SMALL-ANGLE APPROXIMATION: The angle is small and is measured in ra-

dians then
sin θ ≈ θ

( )
g
ml2 θ̈ + θ = τf
l
g τf
θ̈ + θ=
l ml2
 42

g Tf (s)
s2 Θ(s) − sθ(0) − θ̇(0) + Θ(s) =
( l
) ml2
g Tf (s)
s2 + Θ(s) = + sθ(0) + θ̇(0)
l ml2
Tf (s) sθ(0) + θ̇(0)
Θ(s) = ( ) + ( )
ml2 s2 + gl s2 + gl
INITIAL CONDITION RESPONSE WITH ZERO VELOCITY:

θ̇(0) = 0
θ(0) = θ0
Tf (s) = 0
sθ(0)
Θ(s) = ( g
)
s2 + l
s
= (√ )2 θ 0
g
s2 + l
s
L {cos at} =
s2 + a2
(√ )
g
θ(t) = θ0 cos t
l

Θ(s) s
= g
θ(0) s2 +
l

ZERO: s = 0
√
g
POLES: s = ± i
l
 43

jω
√
g
l

σ
−2 2
√
g
−
l

POLES AND ZEROS VISUALIZATION:

6s2 + 18s + 12
H(s) =
2s3 + 10s2 + 16s + 12

(s + 1)(s + 2)
=3
(s + 3)(s + 1 − j)(s + 1 + j)
 Roots of the numerator polynomial of the LTI system transfer function are
the zeros i.e.
s = −1, s = −2

 Roots of the denominator polynomial (Characteristic Polynomial) of the

LTI system transfer function are the poles i.e.

s = −3, s = −1 + j, s = −1 − j
 44

|H(s)|

−3 jω
−2
−1 1
0 σ
−1
 45

GENERAL LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF LTI SYSTEM RESPONSE

b1 sm + b2 sm−1 + · · · + bm s + bm+1
Y (s) =
sn + a1 sn−1 + · · · + an−1 s + an

 m ≤ n, this condition is mandatory for causal systems.

 Y (s) = s is a pure derivative which in real system rolls off i.e. it’s value
goes to ∞ as ω increases rapidly.

 m=n, in this case long division is adapted.

EXAMPLE

3s2 + 4s + 5
Y (s) =
s2 + 6s + 7

3
s2 + 6s + 7 3s2 + 4s + 5
− 3s2 − 18s − 21
− 14s − 16

−14s − 16
Y (s) = 3 +
s2 + 6s + 7

The quotient 3 is the direct link from input to output.

u(t) = δ(t) y(t) = h(t)
LT I
U (s) = 1 Y (s) = H(s)

 In the next section, we consider Y (s) as LTI system transfer function as-
suming that an impulse was applied to the system.
 46

PARTIAL FRACTIONS
GENERAL POLE ZERO FORM

Y
m
(s − zi )
Y (s) = K i=1
Yn
(s − pi )
i=1

where (s − zi ), i = 1, 2, · · · , m are the zeros and (s − pi ), i =

1, 2, · · · , n are the poles of the LTI system (m ≤ n).
 REAL AND DISTINCT ROOTS: pi ̸= pj , p i , pj ∈ R

(s − z1 )(s − z2 )(s − z3 )
Y (s) =
(s − p1 )(s − p2 )(s − p3 )

c1 c2 c3
= + +
(s − p1 ) (s − p2 ) (s − p3 )

c1 (s − p1 ) c2 (s − p1 ) c3 (s − p1 )
(s − p1 )Y (s) = + +
(s − p1 ) (s − p2 ) (s − p3 )

 *0 *0
 p
(s−

p1)
c2 (s −

p1)
c3 (s −

 c1  1)
(s − p1 )Y (s) =   +  + 
 (s−  
(s − p2 ) (s − p3 )
 p1 )
s=p1
 47




(s − p1 )Y (s) = c1

s=p1




∴ ci = (s − pi )Y (s)

s=pi

where ci s are the residues.

EXAMPLE:
(s + 2)(s + 4)
Y (s) =
s(s + 1)(s + 3)

jω

σ
−4 −3 −2 −1

−1
 48

(s + 2)(s + 4)
Y (s) =
s(s + 1)(s + 3)

c1 c2 c3
= + +
s s+1 s+3

 
 (s + 2)(s + 4) 
 8
c1 = sY (s) =  =
 (s + 1)(s + 3)  3
s=0 s=0

 
 (s + 2)(s + 4) 
 3
c2 = (s + 1)Y (s) =  =−
 s(s + 3)  2
s=−1 s=−1

 
 (s + 2)(s + 4) 
 1
c3 = (s + 3)Y (s) =  =−
 s(s + 1)  6
s=−3 s=−3

8 1 3 1 1 1
= · − · − ·
3 s 2 s+1 6 s+3

8 3 1
y(t) = 1(t) − e−t − e−3t
3 2 6
 49

8 1 3 1 1 1
Y (s) = · − · − ·
3 s 2 s+1 6 s+3

8 3 1
y(t) = 1(t) − e−t − e−3t
3 2 6

3 1
e−t e−3t
2 6

8
1(t)
3

8
3

t
0 t t

y(t)

2.67

1 t
0 3.81 6
 50

 COMPLEX ROOTS: pj = pi , p i , pj ∈ C

p1 = −σ + jω

p2 = p1 = −σ − jω

(s − p1 )(s − p2 ) = (s + σ − jω)(s + σ + jω)

= s2 + 2σs + (σ 2 + ω 2 )

σ
= s2 + 2σs + σ 2 +  2
σ
− 2
+ ω2

= (s + σ)2 + ω 2

jω

√ σ ω
σ2
ω +
ω2
σ
−σ 2
ω
ω 2 +
√ σ
σ −ω
 51

1 1
Y (s) = =
s2 + 2σs + (σ 2 + ω 2 ) (s + σ)2 + ω 2
c1 c2 = c1
= +
s + σ − jω s + σ + jω
c1 = a + jb, c2 = c1 = a − jb
a + jb a − jb
= +
s + σ − jω s + σ + jω
(a + jb)(s + σ + jω) + (a − jb)(s + σ − jω)
=
(s + σ − jω)(s + σ + jω)
+ −bω+aσ+as− jbσ −bω
= aσ+as+
jbσ +
jbs 
jaω −−
jbs 
jaω
(s+σ)2 +ω 2

2as + 2aσ − 2bω

=
(s + σ)2 + ω 2
2a(s + σ) − 2bω
=
(s + σ)2 + ω 2
(s + σ) ω
Y (s) = 2a × − 2b ×
(s + σ)2 + ω 2 (s + σ)2 + ω 2

Item Functions (t domain) Laplace Transforms (s domain)

s+a
1 e−σt cos bt
(s + a)2 + b2

b
2 e−σt sin bt
(s + a)2 + b2

using the Laplace transform pairs in the above table we obtain

y(t) = 2ae−σt cos ωt − 2be−σt sin ωt

 52

EQUIVALENT FORM:

y(t) = 2 · e−σt · (a cos ωt − b sin ωt)

p a b
= 2 · e−σt · a2 + b 2 · ( √ cos ωt − √ sin ωt)
a2 + b 2 a2 + b2

Things to observe, let

a
x= √
a2 + b2

b
y= √
a2 + b2
then as we know the equation of unit circle

x2 + y 2 = 1

!2 !2
a b
√ + √ =1
a2 + b2 a2 + b 2

This means the point (x, y) = ( √a2a+b2 , √a2b+b2 ) lines on unit circle.
 53

1
(x, y) = (cos α, sin α)

a2 + b2 sin α
b2
1

+
2

a2
√

√
b=
α

√
x
−1 − 21 a= a2 + b2 cos α 1

− 12

−1

It can be observed from the figure above

a
cos α = √
a2 + b2
b
sin α = √
a2 + b2
Therefore
p
y(t) = 2 · e−σt · a2 + b2 · (cos α cos ωt − sin α sin ωt)
 54

From cosine sum formula

cos (A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B

Hence

cos (ωt − α) = cos (ωt) cos (−α) + sin (ωt) sin (−α)
cos (−α) = cos (α), cos is an even function
sin (−α) = − sin (α), sin is an odd function
tan (−α) = − tan (α), tan is an odd function
cos (ωt − α) = cos (ωt) cos (α) − sin (ωt) sin (α)

Finally,
√
−σt
y(t) = 2 · e · a2 + b2 · cos (ωt − α)
where
( )
−1 b sin (−α) − sin (α)
α = − tan +θ ∵ = = − tan (α)
a cos (−α) cos (α)
The inverse of an odd function is odd (e.g. tan−1 (−x) = − tan−1 (x) is odd
as tan (x) is odd). Therefore − tan (α) = ab gives tan (α) = − ab then α
( ) ( )
= tan−1 − ab = − tan−1 ab . θ is required for principal value, otherwise
can be ignored for response calculation.


 0◦ ,

 (a, b) is in I or IV quadrants

θ = 180◦ , (a, b) is in II quadrant




−180◦ , (a, b) is in III quadrant

This is because the function θ = tan−1 (x) has principal values lies in between
(− π2 , π2 ).
 55

1
x
−2π− 7π − 3π −π − 3π − π
2
π
4
π
2
π 5π 3π 2π
4 2 4 4 2

−2

π
2

x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8

− π2
 56

EXAMPLE

1 1
Y (s) = =
s2 + s + 100.25 (s + 0.5 − j10)(s + 0.5 + j10)

c1 c1
= +
(s + 0.5 − j10) (s + 0.5 + j10)




c1 = (s + 0.5 − j10)Y (s)

s=−0.5+j10

1 1
=  
=
−
0.5 + j10 +  
0.5 + j10 j20

1ej0
= 0.05ej(0− 2 ) = 0.05e−j 2 = 0 − j0.05
π π
= j π2
20e

c1 = 0 − j0.05, c2 = c1 = 0 + j0.05

c1 = a + jb = 0 + j0.05

p
a = 0, b = 0.05, a2 + b2 = 0.05
 57

!
b
α = tan−1 +θ
a

π
= tan−1 (∞) + 0◦ =
2

p1 = −σ + ωj = −0.5 + 10j

σ = −0.5, ω = 10

p
y(t) = 2 · e−σt · a2 + b2 · cos (ωt − α)

!
π
y(t) = 2 · e−0.5t · 0.05 · cos 10t −
2
 58

0.08

0.04
y(t)

−0.04

−0.08

0 2 4 6 8 10 12
t
 59

 REPEATED REAL ROOTS: pi with multiplicity n

if n is equal to 3 then
N (s)
Y (s) =
(s + pi )3

jω

σ
pi

N (s)
Y (s) =
(s + pi )3
c1 c2 c3
= + +
(s + pi ) (s + pi )2 (s + pi )3


3 
c3 = (s + pi ) Y (s)

s=−pi
d
c2 = [(s + pi )3 Y (s)]s=−pi
ds
1 d2
c1 = · 2 [(s + pi )3 Y (s)]s=−pi
2 ds
 60

In general
" #
1 di
ck−i = [(s + p)k Y (s)] , i = 0, 1, · · · , k − 1
i! dsi
s=−p

Item Functions (t domain) Laplace Transforms (s domain)

1 1
1 tn−1 e−at 1(t)
(n − 1)! (s + a)n
(n = 1, 2, · · · )

N (s)
Y (s) =
(s + pi )3
c1 c2 c3
= + +
(s + pi ) (s + pi )2 (s + pi )3
−pi t −pi t t2 −pi t
y(t) = c1 e + c2 te + c3 e
2!
where c1 , c2 and c3 are calculated by partial fractions.
EXAMPLE
s+2
Y (s) =
(s + 1)3
c1 c2 c3
= + +
(s + 1) (s + 1)2 (s + 1)3
k = 3, i = 0, 1, 2
" !#
1 d0  s + 2
i = 0, c3 = 
(s+ 1)3
0 
 3
0! ds (s+
 1)
s=−1

= −1 + 2 = 1
 61

" !#
1
1 d  s+2
i = 1, c2 = 
(s+ 1)3
 
1! ds1 
(s+
 1) 3
s=−1
d
= (s + 2) = 1
ds" !#
2
1 d 3 s+2
i = 2, c1 = (s 
+ 1)
 
2! ds2 
(s+
 1) 3
s=−1
2
1 d
= · (s + 2) = 0
2 ds2
−t −t t2
y(t) = 0 · e + 1 · te +1· e−t
2!
−t t2
y(t) = te + e−t
2!

t2
e−t
te−t 2!

t t

y(t)
0.6

0.4

0.2

t
0 4 8 12
 62

Item Functions (t domain) Laplace Transforms (s domain)

" #
2|c|tn−1 c c
1 e−σt cos (ωt − α) 1(t) +
(n − 1)! (s + σ − jω)n (s + σ + jω)n
(n = 1, 2, · · · )

A REPEATED COMPLEX ROOTS:

1 1
Y (s) = =
(s2 + 4s + 5)2 (s + 2 − i)2 (s + 2 + i)2

c1 c2
= +
(s + 2 − i)2 (s + 2 − i)

c1 c2
+ +
(s + 2 + i)2 (s + 2 + i)

 
 
 1 
c1 = (s + 2 − i) Y (s)
2
= 
 (s + 2 + i)2 
s=−2+i s=−2+i

1 1 1
= = = − , ∵ i2 = −1
(−2
+i+2
+ i)2 (2i)2 4

1
c1 = c1 = −
4
 63

" #
d
c2 = (s + 2 − i)2 Y (s)
ds
s=−2+i

" !#
d 1
=
ds (s + 2 + i)2
s=−2+i

!

 2
= − 
(s + 2 + i)3 
s=−2+i

2 2
=− = , ∵ i3 = −i
(−
2+i+
2+ i)3 8i

2ej0 1 1
e−j 2
π π
= j π2
= ej(0− 2 ) =
8e 4 4

1 1
e−j 2 ,
π π
c2 = c2 = ej 2
4 4

c1 c1
Y (s) = +
(s + 2 − i)2 (s + 2 + i)2

c2 c2
+ +
(s + 2 − i) (s + 2 + i)
 64

1 jπ 1 jπ
4
e 4
e
Y (s) = +
(s + 2 − i)2 (s + 2 + i)2

1 −j π2 1 j π2
4
e 4
e
+ +
(s + 2 − i) (s + 2 + i)

1 !
2· · t2−1 1 π
y(t) = 4 e−2t cos (t − π) + 2 · e−2t · · cos t −
(2 − 1)! 4 2

cos (t − π) = cos (t) cos (−π) + sin (t) sin (−π) = − cos t,

∵ cos (−π) = −1, sin (−π) = 0

!
1 1 π
y(t) = − te−2t cos (t) + e−2t cos t −
2 2 2
 65

y(t)

0.025

0.02

0.015

0.01

0.005

0 t
2 4 6
−0.005

* Applying u(t) as an impulse function δ(t) having a Laplace transform of

1, the output y(t) of any particular LTI system will be considered as an impulse
response h(t). In order to get the response of the system in s-domain we try
to break the Y (s) in largest chunks that are available in Laplace transform
tables. Break up Y (s) using partial fractions expansions on the basis of the
roots (poles) of the characteristic equation of the transfer function H(s) i.e.
 Distinct Real Roots
 Complex Conjugate Pairs
 Repeated Roots
In general the location of poles gives an idea of the response constituent parts.
Partial fractions provides the portion of each part in construction of the re-
sponse of the LTI system.
 66

Im(s)

t t

t
Re(s)

t t

FINAL VALUE THEOREM:

lim y(t) = lim sY (s)

t→∞ s→0

 This is only applicable if the LTI system is stable and stability criteria is
ALL THE POLES OF THE SYSTEM SHOULD BE IN THE LEFT HALF PLANE OF
COMPLEX DOMAIN. i.e.

Re(pi ) < 0, ∀ pi
 67

DC GAIN OF A STABLE LTI SYSTEM: This is the gain of the system when fre-
quency is zero therefore called as zero frequency gain.
METHOD 1: Using time constant form i.e.
K(1 + sτ1 )(1 + sτ1 ) · · · (1 + sτm )
H(s) =
sn (1 + sτ1′ )(1 + sτ2′ ) · · · (1 + sτn′ )
EXAMPLE:
s2 + 3s + 16
H(s) =
s3 + 7s2 + 9s + 32

(s+1.5−j3.7081)(s+1.5+j3.7081)
=
(s+6.3756)(s+0.3122−j2.2185)(s+0.3122+j2.2185)

! !
s s
(1.5 − j3.7081)(1.5 + j3.7081) +1 +1
1.5 − j3.7081 1.5 + j3.7081
= s
!
s
!
s
!
(6.3756)(0.3122 − j2.2185)(0.3122 + j2.2185) +1 +1 +1
6.3756 0.3122 − j2.2185 0.3122 + j2.2185

! !
s s
16 +1 +1
1.5 − j3.7081 1.5 + j3.7081
= ! ! !
s s s
32 +1 +1 +1
6.3756 0.3122 − j2.2185 0.3122 + j2.2185

16 1
K= =
32 2
 68

METHOD 2: Using final value theorem

Y (s) = H(s)U (s)

1
U (s) = , ∵ u(t) = 1(t)
s
H(s)
Y (s) =
s
lim y(t) = lim sY (s), FVT
t→∞ s→0
H(s)
lim y(t) = lim 
s
t→∞ s→0 s


lim y(t) = lim H(s)

t→∞ s→0

EXAMPLE:
s2 + 3s + 16
H(s) =
s3 + 7s2 + 9s + 32 !
s2 + 3s + 16
K = lim H(s) = lim
s→0 s→0 s3 + 7s2 + 9s + 32
16 1
= =
32 2
DC GAIN IN COMPLEX DOMAIN:
s2 + 3s + 16
H(s) =
s3 + 7s2 + 9s + 32

(s+1.5−j3.7081)(s+1.5+j3.7081)
= (s+6.3756)(s+0.3122−j2.2185)(s+0.3122+j2.2185)

s = σ + jω
 69

(σ+jω+1.5−j3.7081)(σ+jω+1.5+j3.7081)
H(σ + jω) = (σ+jω+6.3756)(σ+jω+0.3122−j2.2185)(σ+jω+0.3122+j2.2185)


 (1.5 − j3.7081)(1.5 + j3.7081)

H(σ + jω) =
 (6.3756)(0.3122 − j2.2185)(0.3122 + j2.2185)
0+j0

|16| 1
|H(0 + j0)| = =
|32| 2

−68◦

2.2185
−82◦
4

2.2403
jω

0
6.3756

82◦
−2.2185

68◦
−3.7081
−6.3756

−1.5

−0.3122
0

σ
 70

DC GAIN SYSTEM REALIZATION:

y(t)

0.8
1(t)

u(t) y(t) 0.5

1 s2 +3s+16
s3 +7s2 +9s+32
t
0

t
4 8 12 16
 71

SINUSOIDS TUTORIAL
y

Q(cos (θ), sin (θ))

Q(x, y)

1
y = sin (θ)
ωt
θ=
x
O x = cos (θ)

x
cos (θ) = =x
1
y
sin (θ) = =y
1
Q(x, y) = Q(cos (θ), sin (θ))
θ = ωt
radians
θ is in radians. ω is angular frequency which is seconds
. 1 cycle is equal to
2π radians. If we have ω = 2π then it means we will have 1 cycle in one
 72

second which is equivalent to 2π . Let us fixed ω = 2π and trace the height

of the point Q(x, y) (red color in above figure) for one second and then plot
it on time t axis.
Q(cos ( π2 ), sin ( π2 ))
2
Q(0, 1) (ω : 2π, t : )
Q(cos ( 3π
4
), sin ( 3π
4
)) 8 Q(cos ( π4 ), sin ( π4 ))
√ √ √ √
2 2 3 2 2 1
Q(− 2
, 2
) (ω : 2π, t : 8
) Q( 2
, 2
) (ω : 2π, t : 8
)

1
√ √
2 2
2 2
Q(cos (π), sin (π)) Q(cos (0), sin (0))
4
Q(−1, 0) (ω : 2π, t : 8
) Q(1, 0) (ω : 2π, t : 0)
√ √
− 2
2
− 2
2

−1
Q(cos ( 5π
4
), sin ( 5π
4
)) Q(cos ( 7π
4
), sin ( 7π
4
))
√ √ √ √
Q(− 2
2
, − 22 ) (ω : 2π, t : 5
8
) Q( 2
2
, − 22 ) (ω : 2π, t : 7
8
)

Q(cos ( 3π
2
), sin ( 3π
2
))
Q(0, −1) (ω : 2π, t : 6
8
)

sin (2πt)

1
√
2
2

0 t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1
8 8 8 8 8 8 8

√
− 22
−1
 73

Now if we make ω = 2(2π) = 4π and trace the red height for one second
we will have two cycles.

sin (2(2π)t)

1
√
2
2

0 t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1
8 8 8 8 8 8 8

√
− 22
−1

Similarly, for ω = 3(2π) = 6π , we will have three cycles in a second.

sin (3(2π)t)

1
√
2
2

0 t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1
8 8 8 8 8 8 8

√
− 22
−1
 74

Figure below shows the concept of phase, we are advancing the signal by
1 π
time unit of 4
which gives a phase of 2
so obtain the orange curve which is
cos (2πt) i.e.
1 π
sin (2π(t + )) = sin (2πt + ) = cos (2πt)
4 2

sin (2π(t + 41 ))

1
√
2
2

0 t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1
8 8 8 8 8 8 8

√
− 22
−1

rad
The following two plots are with respect to θ . Since θ = ωt, ω is in sec
and
rad
time is in sec. Therefore θ is 
sec
×  = rad.In this case we can observe
sec
from the following plots i.e.
!
π
sin θ + = cos (θ)
2
 75

sin (θ)

1
√
2
2

0 θ = ωt
π π 3π π 5π 3π 7π 2π
4 2 4 4 2 4

√
− 22
−1

sin (θ + π2 )

1
√
2
2

0 θ = ωt
π π 3π π 5π 3π 7π 2π
4 2 4 4 2 4

√
− 22
−1
 76

FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF LTI SYSTEM:

 An important fact about LTI system is that it cannot alter, add or extract
any frequency from a sinusoidal input. It can only change the amplitude or
phase of the input sinusoid. Consider a general LTI system having an impulse
response h(t) with a following applied input.
JUSTIFICATION:
A
u(t) = A cos (ωt) = (ejωt + e−jωt )
2
A A
= ejωt + e−jωt
2 2
Since the said system is LTI, so we can use the property of scaling and addi-
tivity. Let us find the output for

u(t) = est

then use s = ±jω and amplitude of A

2
, finally summing the corresponding
outputs will give the response. Using the convolutional integral
ˆ∞
y(t) = h(τ )u(t − τ )dτ
0
ˆ∞
= h(τ )es(t−τ ) dτ
0
ˆ∞
= est h(τ )e−sτ dτ
0
 77

ˆ∞
∵ H(s) = h(τ )e−sτ dτ
0

y(t) = est H(s)

using the above result with s = ±jω , adding the scaled factors, where the
A
scaling factor is 2
.
 
 
 A  A
y(t) = H(s) jωt
e + H(s) e−jωt
 2  2
s=jω s=−jω

since H(s) is a complex number for a specific value of s = σ +jω , therefore

it has a magnitude and phase parts for particular value of s. For example a
transfer function H(s) having two zeros and poles
(s + a)(s + b)
H(s) =
(s + c)(s + d)
(σ + jω + a)(σ + jω + b)
H(σ + jω) =
(σ + jω + c)(σ + jω + d)


 (a + jω)(b + jω)
H(jω) =
 (c + jω)(d + jω)
σ=0
√ √
a2 + ω 2 · b2 + ω 2
|H(jω)| = √ √
c2 + ω 2 · d 2 + ω 2
|H(jω)| = |H(−jω)|
! !
ω ω
H(jω) = tan−1 + tan−1
a b
! !
ω ω
− tan−1 − tan−1
c d
 78

Using the polar form, assume

H(jω) = M ejϕ
H(−jω) = M e−jϕ
M = |H(jω)|, ϕ = H(jω)

jω
c
|c
∠−c◦ |

|a|
a ∠−a ◦

ω
d b
σ
|d|

∠a◦
a |b|

∠c◦

c
|a|2 ·|b|
|H(jω)| = |c|2 ·d
, H(jω) = a + a + b − c − c − d

Figure above shows the complex domain view of |H(jω)| and H(jω) at
specific frequency ω .
 79

Therefore
A A
y(t) = H(jω) ejωt + H(−jω) e−jωt
2 2
A A
= M ejϕ ejωt + M e−jϕ e−jωt
2 2 !
j(ωt+ϕ) −j(ωt+ϕ)
e +e
= MA
2
y(t) = M A cos (ωt + ϕ)

Hence it can be seen that applying the input u(t) = cos (ωt) to a LTI sys-
tem having an impulse response h(t) and transfer function H(s) gives out-
put y(t) with same frequency ω having new amplitude and phase M =
|H(jω)|, ϕ = H(jω) respectively. Figure below gives a pictorial rep-
resentation of the idea. The figure is neglecting the transient response of the
system and only explicating the steady state portion where the same frequency
of the input with amplitude and phase change can be observed.

u(t) = sin (2πt) y(t) = 32 sin (2π(t − 41 ))

1 1.5

u(t) y(t)
0
0.5 1
t LT I 0 t
0.5 1

−1 −1.5
 80

EXAMPLE: Consider the transfer function of an LTI System

1
H(s) =
s2 + 6s + 18

Bode Diagram

−20
Magnitude (dB)

−40

−60

−80
0

−45
Phase (deg)

−90

−135

−180
10−1 100 101 102

Frequency (rad/s)

The bode plot shows that this system will attenuate −34.3537 db the 7 rad/sec
frequency and gives a phase shift of −126.34◦ . Converting db to magnitude
value and degree to radians values.

|H(j7)| = 10−
34.3537
= 0.0192
20

π
H(j7) = −126.34◦ × = −2.2066
180◦
Figure below depicts the same information in graphical view in complex do-
 81

main.

ℑ{s}
 0◦ 1
H(s) = = −486.4◦ 10i H(s) =

LTI SYSTEM STEADY STATE RESPONSE TO SINUSOIDAL INPUT

s=0+7i 233.1◦ 253.3◦ ◦
s2 + 6s + 18
253.3
9i DC Gain in orange
−486.4◦ = −126.4◦
233.1◦ 8i |H(s)| & H(s) in Black
 1
H(s)s=0+7i = = 0.019 7i
5 × 10.44
 0◦
6i H(s)s=0+0i = = 0◦
135◦ −135◦
4
5
2◦
5i

7◦
.
20

.  1
H(s)s=0+0i = √
16
4i √ = 0.05̄
18 × 18
3 3i

2i
√ 18

◦
135
4
10 .

1i

−10 −9 −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ℜ{s}
−135◦
−1i 6
18
√

−2i

3 −3i

−4i

u(t) = sin(7t) −5i yss (t) = 0.019 × sin(7t − 126.4◦ )

−6i

−7i

−8i

−9i

GRAPHICAL VIEW
−10i

This analysis confirms that if we apply a sinusoid of 7 rad/sec on this par-

ticular system, the output should be a signal of 7 rad/sec with an amplitude
of 0.0192 and phase of −126.43◦ . This will be achieved after the transient
part is settled in the steady state portion.
 82

Let us calculate the total response y(t) for this system and verify the analysis.

Y (s) = H(s)U (s)

1
H(s) = 2
s + 6s + 18
u(t) = sin(7t)
7
U (s) = 2
s + 49
7
Y (s) =
(s2 + 49)(s2 + 6s + 18)
c1 c1
= +
s − j7 s + j7
c2 c2
+ +
s + 3 − j3 s + 3 + j3
−0.0077 + 0.0057j −0.0077 − 0.0057j
= +
s − j7 s + j7
0.0077 − 0.0210i 0.0077 + 0.0210i
+ +
s + 3 − j3 s + 3 + j3
y(t) = 0.0192 cos (7t + 2.5058) + 0.0447e−3t cos (3t − 1.2188)
| {z } | {z }
STEADY STATE TRANSIENT STATE

It is verfied from the response that the steady state response has a frequency
of 7 rad/sec with amplitude of 0.0192 and phase shift of 2.5058 rad. Notice

cos (7t + 2.5058) = sin (7t − 2.2066)

u(t) = sin (7t) y(t) = 0.0192 sin (7t − 2.2066)

1
0.01
u(t) 1
y(t)
0 t=θ s2 +6s+18 0 t=θ
6 6
−0.01
−1
 83

PRELUDE: Figure below shows the general form of a stable LTI system output
response consisting of two parts transient state and steady state respectively.

y(t)

0.02 TRANSIENT SS

0.015

0.01

0.005

0 t
1 2 3 4 5 6
−0.005

−0.01

−0.015

Generally speaking root locus design is used to achieve an appropriate tran-

sient response by moving the poles of the plant to a suitable location and
frequency design is used to obtain desired steady state response.
 84

Till now with perspective of plant.

U (s) H(s) Y (s)

Now picture as a whole

Yd (s) + E(s) U (s) Y (s)
K(s) G(s)
−

H(s)

Y (s) = G(s)U (s)

U (s) = K(s)E(s)
E(s) = Yd (s) − H(s)Y (s)
U (s) = K(s)[Yd (s) − H(s)Y (s)]
Y (s) = G(s)K(s)[Yd (s) − H(s)Y (s)]
= G(s)K(s)Yd (s) − G(s)K(s)H(s)Y (s)
Y (s) + G(s)K(s)H(s)Y (s) = G(s)K(s)Yd (s)
Y (s) G(s)K(s)
=
Yd (s) 1 + G(s)K(s)H(s)
 85

BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA:

G1 G2 G1 G2

G1
+

2
G
+
1
G
+
G2

+ +
G1 G1
− −

G1

G1 G2 G1 G2
 86

+ E Y
U G1
−

G2

Y = G1 E
E = U − G2 Y
Y = G1 U − G1 G2 Y
Y + G1 G2 Y = G1 U
Y G1
=
U 1 + G 1 G2

G3

−
U + E + Y
G1
+

G2
+
V
 87

V =0
E = U − G3 Y
Y = G 1 E + G2 U
Y = G1 (U − G3 Y ) + G2 U
Y = G 1 U + G 2 U − G1 G3 Y
Y + G1 G3 Y = G1 U + G2 U
Y G1 + G2
=
U 1 + G1 G3

G1 −G3

+
V + Y
G2

Y = G 2 V − G1 G3 Y
Y (1 + G1 G3 ) = G2 V
Y G2
=
V 1 + G1 G3
PLANT INVERSION:

s+a ···
··· s+a
 88

FIRST ORDER SYSTEM:

1
H(s) =
s+a
IMPULSE RESPONSE:

h(t) = e−at

1
a=1
0.9 a=5
0.8
a = 10

0.7

0.6
h(t)

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
t

STEP RESPONSE:

1 1
y(t) = − e−at
a a
 89

1
a=1
0.9 a=5
0.8
a = 10

0.7

0.6
y(t)

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
t

PROPORTIONAL COMPENSATOR:

U + 1 Y
K
s+a
−

K
Y s+a K
= K
=
U 1 + s+a s + (a + K)
 90

jω

a > 0, K > 0

jω

a > 0, K < 0

U + 1 Y
s+a
−

K
 91

1
Y s+a 1
= 1 =
U 1+ s+a
s + (a + k)
SECOND ORDER SYSTEM:
A stable LTI second order system has a characteristic equation which has two
roots (poles) in the left half s-plane.

(s + σ − jωd )(s + σ + jωd )

s2 + 2σs + σ 2 + ωd2
(s + σ)2 + ωd2

jω

ω ωd
n
θ
σ

The figure above is showing the polar representation of σ and ωd i.e. ωn

 92

and θ . It can be observed from the figure

ωn2 = σ 2 + ωd2
σ
sin (θ) =
ωn
where θ is measured counterclockwise with respect to positive jω axis.
σ
sin (θ) = =ζ
ωn
σ = ζωn
ωd2 = ωn2 − σ 2 = ωn2 − ζ 2 ωn2
√
ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2

So the characteristic equation of the second order system

s2 + 2σs + σ 2 + ωd2

in polar form becomes

s2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2

When finding the transfer function from second order differential equation
we typically write the result in the polynomial form
ωn2
H(s) =
s2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2
σ
The characteristic equation with the value of damping ratio ζ = ωn
= sin (θ)
classify the LTI system into four categories i.e.

1. Undamped System: θ = 0, ζ = 0 the roots of the characteristic equa-

√
tion are imaginary i.e. s1,2 = ±j ωn2 .
 93

π
2. Underdamped System: 0 < θ < 0 < ζ < 1 the roots of the char-
,
2
p
acteristic equation are complex i.e. s1,2 = −ζωn ± j(ωn 1 − ζ 2 ).
π
3. Critically damped System: θ = 2
, ζ = 1 the roots of the characteristic
equation are repeated and real i.e. s1,2 = −ωn .

4. Overdamped System: ζ > 1 the roots of the characteristic equation are

distinct and real.

Figure below explains the four classifications.

jω
UNDAMPED
θ=0
UNDERDAMPED
ζ=0
0 < θ < π2
0<ζ<1

σ
CRITICALLY DAMPED ω ωn
θ = π2 n ωd
ζ=1 θ
σ

ζ>1
OVERDAMPED
 94

IMPULSE RESPONSE:

Y (s) = H(s)U (s)

u(t) = δ(t)
U (s) = 1
ωn2
Y (s) = H(s) =
s2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2

Item Functions (t domain) Laplace Transforms (s domain)

ω
1 e−at sin ωt
(s + a)2 + ω 2

ωn2
H(s) =
s2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2
ωn2
=
s2 + 2ζωn s + ζ 2 ωn2 − ζ 2 ωn2 + ωn2
ωn2
=
(s + ζωn )2 + ωn2 (1 − ζ 2 )
ωd2
1−ζ 2
=
(s + σ)2 + ωd2
ωd ωd
= ×
1 − ζ2 (s + σ)2 + ωd2
ωd
h(t) = p p e−σt sin ωd t
1−ζ 1−ζ
2 2
ωn
= p e−σt sin ωd t
1−ζ 2
 95

p 
ωn −ζωn t
h(t) = p e sin 1 − ζ 2 ωn t
1 − ζ2

Figure below plots h(t) for several values of ζ such that time has been nor-
malized to the undamped natural frequency ωn . Note the actual frequency
ωd decreases slightly as the damping ratio increases.
 
p
h(t) = √ωn 2 e−ζωn t sin 1− ζ2ω nt
1−ζ

1
ζ =0
0.8 ζ = 0.1
ζ = 0.2
0.6 ζ = 0.3
ζ = 0.4
0.4 ζ = 0.5
ζ = 0.6
0.2 ζ = 0.7
ζ = 0.8
h(t)

0 ζ = 0.9

−0.2

−0.4

−0.6

−0.8

−1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
ωn t
 96

STEP RESPONSE:

Y (s) = H(s)U (s)

u(t) = 1(t)
1
U (s) =
s
ωn2
Y (s) = H(s)U (s) =
(s2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2 )s

ωd2 + σ 2
=
s(s + σ − jωd )(s + σ + jωd )

c1 c2 c2
= + +
s s + σ − jωd s + σ + jωd


 ωd2 + σ 2 
 
c1 = sY (s) = 
s=0 (s + σ − jωd )(s + σ + jωd ) 
s=0

2 
ωd2 + σ 2 ω
 d +σ
2
= = 2 
=1
(σ − jωd )(σ + jωd ) σ
 + ωd2

c1 = 1
 97


 
ωd2 + σ 2
 
c2 = (s + σ − jωd )Y (s) = 
s=−σ+jωd s(s + σ + jωd ) 
s=−σ+jωd

ωd2 + σ 2
=
σ
(−σ + jωd )(− σ
 + jωd )
 + jωd + 

ωd2 + σ 2
=
(−σ + jωd )(j2ωd )

ωd2 + σ 2
=
−2ωd2 − j2σωd

1 ωd2 + σ 2 −ωd + σ
= × ×
2ωd −ωd − σ −ωd + σ

2 
2
1 ω
 d +σ
= × 2 
2
× (−ωd + σ)
2ωd ω
 d +σ

1 σ 1 σ
c2 = − + j , c2 = − − j
2 2ωd 2 2ωd

" #
1
1
2
− j 2ω
σ 1
2
σ
+ j 2ω
Y (s) = − d
+ d

s s + σ − jωd s + σ + jωd
 98

s
−σt 1 σ2
y(t) = 1 − 2 · e · + · cos (ωd t − θ)
4 4ωd2

s
−σt 1 σ2
=1−
2·e · 1+ · cos (ωd t − θ)
2
 ωd2

σ2 ζ 2 ωn2
1+ =1+
ωd2 ωn2 (1 − ζ 2 )

ζ2 1 − ζ2 + ζ2 1
1+ = =
1 − ζ2 1 − ζ2 1 − ζ2

! !
− 2σωd σ
θ = tan−1

1 = − tan−1
ωd


2

!
ω
ζ n
= − tan−1 p
ω
 n 1 − ζ2

!
ζ
θ = − tan−1 p
1 − ζ2

p 
1
y(t) = 1 − e−ζωn t p cos 1 − ζ 2 ωn t + θ
1 − ζ2
 99

 
p
y(t) = 1 − e−ζωn t √ 1 2 cos 1− ζ 2 ωn t +θ
1−ζ

2
ζ =0
1.8 ζ = 0.1
ζ = 0.2
1.6 ζ = 0.3
ζ = 0.4
1.4 ζ = 0.5
ζ = 0.6
1.2 ζ = 0.7
ζ = 0.8
y(t)

1 ζ = 0.9

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
ωn t
 100

TIME DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS

SECOND ORDER SYSTEM STEP RESPONSE:
ωn2
H(s) =
s2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2
Y (s) = H(s)U (s)
u(t) = 1(t)
1
U (s) =
s
ωd2 + σ 2
Y (s) =
s(s2 + 2σs + (ωd2 + σ 2 )
ωd2 + σ 2 A Bs + C
= +
s(s2 + 2σs + (ωd2 + σ 2 ) s s2 + 2σs + (ωd2 + σ 2 )
ωd2 + σ 2 = A(s2 + 2σs + (ωd2 + σ 2 )) + (Bs + C)s
ωd2 + σ 2 = (A + B)s2 + (2σA + C)s + A(ωd2 + σ 2 )
A = 1, B = −1, C = −2σ
1 s + 2σ
Y (s) = − 2
s s + 2σs + (ωd2 + σ 2 )
( )
1 s+σ σ ωd
= − + ·
s (s + σ)2 + ωd2 ωd (s + σ)2 + ωd2
( )
σ
y(t) = 1 − e−σt cos (ωd t) + · e−σt sin (ωd t)
ωd
σ ζ √
= √ , σ = ζωn , ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2
ωd 1 − ζ2
( ( √ ) ( √ ))
ζ
y(t) = 1 − e−ζωn t cos ωn 1 − ζ 2 t + √ · sin ωn 1 − ζ 2 t
1−ζ 2
 101

Item Functions (t domain) Laplace Transforms (s domain)

s+a
1 e−at cos ωt
(s + a)2 + ω 2

ω
2 e−at sin ωt
(s + a)2 + ω 2

y(t)

±1%
Mp

1
0.9

0.1

t
tr
tp
ts

STEP RESPONSE OF A STABLE SECOND ORDER LTI SYSTEM

 102

RISE TIME:
   !
p p
y(t) = 1 − e−ζωn t cos ωn 1 − ζ t + √
2 ζ
· sin ωn 1 − ζ 2 t
1−ζ 2

1.2
ζ = 0.5

0.8
y(t)

0.6

0.4

0.2

≈ 1.8
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
ωn t

If we consider the curve for ζ = 0.5 to be an average, the rise time from y
= 0.1 to y = 0.9 is approximately ωn tr = 1.8. Thus, we can say rise time
tr is equal to .
1.8
tr ≈
ωn
 103

jω

ωn = 4.5

ωn = 3

ωn = 1.5
ωn = 4.5

ω n=1.5
ωn = 3

Increasing value of ωn to decrease tr

OVERSHOOT:

!
ζ
y(t) = 1 − e−ζωn t cos (ωd t) + p · sin (ωd t)
1 − ζ2
!
dy ζ
= ζωn e−ζωn t cos (ωd t) + p · sin (ωd t)
dt 1 − ζ2
!
ζω d
+ e−ζωn t ωd sin (ωd t) − p · cos (ωd t)
1 − ζ2
 104

 

dy  ζωd    ζ 2 ωd
 = p e−ζω

n t
p
cos (ωd tp ) + e−ζωn tp sin (ωd tp )
dt  1−
ζ2 1− ζ2
t=tp 


ζωd  

+ e−ζωn tp ωd sin (ωd tp ) − p

e−ζω

n t
 cos (ωd tp )
p

1−
 ζ 2


 !
dy  ζ 2
 = e−ζωn tp ωd sin (ωd tp ) +1
dt  1 − ζ2
t=tp

!
ζ2 + 1 − ζ2
= e−ζωn tp ωd sin (ωd tp )
1 − ζ2

!
ωd
= e−ζωn tp sin (ωd tp ) p p
1 − ζ 1 − ζ2
2

ωn
= (sin (ωd tp )) p e−ζωn tp = 0
1− ζ2

sin (ωd tp ) = 0, ω d tp = π

π
tp =
ωd
 105

Mp = y(tp ) − 1
!
−ζωn ωπ ζ
= −e d cos (π) + p · sin (π)
1 − ζ2
ω
−ζ n √π
ω
 1−ζ 2
=e n

− √ ζπ
1−ζ 2
=e
− √ ζπ
The maximum percent overshoot is e 1−ζ 2
× 100%.

Mp × 100

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20
16%
10
5%
ζ
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
 106

jω

ζ = 0.1
ζ=
ζ

0.5
=
0.

ζ=
7

0.9

Increasing value of ζ to decrease Mp

SETTLING TIME:
The settling time as that value of ts when the decaying exponential reaches
1%.

e−ζωn ts = 0.01

ln
 e −ζωn ts = ln 0.01
−ζωn ts = −4.6
 107

4.6 4.6
ts = =
ζω σ

jω
|σ| = 1.75

|σ| = 0.5
|σ| = 3

Increasing value of |σ| to decrease ts

ωn = 4.5

|σ| = 3
ωn = 3

ζ=
ζ

0.9
=
|σ| = 1.75 0.
7 ζ=
ω n=1.5
0.5
ω
n
σ

|σ| = 0.5 ζ = 0.1

θ

jω
jω

ωd
σ

σ
108
 G
O
O
D

DOES NOT MEET SPECIFICATIONS

jω

B
A
D
σ
109
 110

jω

σ
ω ωd
n θ
σ

0.06

0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6

STEP RESPONSE OF STABLE SECOND ORDER LTI SYSTEM WITHOUT ANY RHP ZERO
 111

0.15

0.1

0.05

−0.05

−0.1

−0.15
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

STEP RESPONSE OF STABLE SECOND ORDER LTI SYSTEM WITH A RHP ZERO

EXAMPLE:
τ

θ
 112

The mathematical model along with zero initial conditions

τ (t) = J θ̈(t)
T (s) = Js2 Θ(s)

h(t)

δ(t)

1
0 Js2 t

jω

Θc + T Θ
1
sKv + Kp
J s2
−
 113

τ (t) = Kp (θc (t) − θ(t)) + Kv (θ˙c (t) − θ̇(t))

T (s) = Kp (Θc (s) − Θ(s)) + Kv (sΘ̇c (s) − sΘ̇(s))

sKv +Kp
Θ J s2
= sKv +Kp
Θc 1 + Js 2

sKv + Kp
=
Js2 + sKv + Kp

( ) Kp
Kv J Kp J
= s+ Kv Kp
J Kp KV s2 + J
s + J

( ) Kp
Kv Kp J
= s+ Kv Kp
Kp KV s2 + J
s + J

Kv Kp
s2 + 2σs + ωd2 + σ 2 = s2 + s+
J J
Kp
ωn2 = ωd2 + σ 2 =
√ J
Kp
ωn =
J
Kv
2σ =
J
Kv
σ = ζωn =
2J
 114

Kp
Kv = 0, s2 +
J
Kv Kp
Kp = fixed, s2 + s+
J J

Movement of poles with Kp and Kv

jω

Kv
2J √
Kp
√
√ Kp Kv2 J
K −
J 4J 2
J
p θ
σ

√
Kp
−
J

Blue Path Kp increasing Kv = 0, Red Path Kv increasing Kp fixed

 115

STABILITY:
The LTI system stability criterion is
ALL THE POLES OF THE SYSTEM SHOULD BE IN THE LEFT HALF PLANE OF
COMPLEX DOMAIN. i.e.

Re(pi ) < 0, ∀ pi

ROUTH–HURWITZ STABILITY CRITERION:

Consider the nth order characteristic equation.

∆(s) = sn + a1 sn−1 + a2 sn−2 + · · · + an−1 s + an

sn 1 a2 a4 ···

sn−1 a1 a3 a5 ···

sn−2 α β ···

sn−3 γ ···

 
 
 1 a2 
det  

a1 a3 
α=−
a1
 116

 
 
 1 a4 
det  

a1 a5 
β=−
a1

 
 
a1 a3 
det  

α β 
γ=−
α
After completing the pattern for the general characteristic equation, extract
the first column i.e.
 
1
 
a 
 1
 
α
 
 
γ 
 
..
.
The number of sign changes in this column is equal to the number of poles in
right half plane.
There is a necessary condition before applying this method, if all the co-
efficients of the characteristic equation are present with positive sign then
there may or may not be right half plane poles. But if there are some zero
coefficients or with negative values then it is sure that all the poles are not
in the left half plane.
 117

EXAMPLE:
∆(s) = s4 + s3 + 2s2 + 3s + 4

s4 1 2 4 0

s3 1 3 0 0

s2 α β

s γ

 
 
1 2 
det  

1 3 
α=− = −1
1

 
 
1 4 
det  

1 0 
β=− =4
1
 118

 
 
 1 3
det  

−1 4
γ=− =7
−1
 
1
 
 1
 
 
−1
 
7

There are two sign changes + to − from second row to third row and then
− to + from third to fourth row. So there are two right half plane poles. The
roots of the characteristic equation are

s1 = −1 + j0.83
s2,3 = 0.5 ± j1.94

The pattern is to check the stability of the second order system then check the
steady state value using final value theorem for the step response. The time
domain specifications are interpreted to Laplace domain pole locations for
desired step response. The design of the system is dictated by the dominant
poles which are close to the imaginary axis as they have major role in the
transient response. Zeros are considered for any specific lows in the desired
response.
 119

EXAMPLE:

U (s) Y (s)
1
s(s+2)

Pole-Zero Map
1 0.84 0.75 0.66 0.55 0.43 0.310.17
0.90 sys
0.90
0.8

0.6 0.95 0.60

0.4
0.98
0.30
Imaginary Axis

0.2

0 0 rad/s

−0.2
0.30
0.98
−0.4

−0.6 0.60
0.95

−0.8
0.90
0.90 0.84 0.75 0.66 0.55 0.43 0.310.17
−1
−2 −1.8 −1.6 −1.4 −1.2 −1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2
Real Axis
 120

Step Response

sys
1.2

0.8
y(t)

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3
t

Requirement: Mp = [0.1, 0.12], tr = [1, 1.1]

The target has to be achieved by using unity feedback with proportional gain
compensator.
1.8
tr ≈
ωn
ωn = 1.8 × 1 = 1.8
− √ πζ
1−ζ 2
Mp = e = 0.1
− √ πζ
ln e 1−ζ 2
= ln 0.1
πζ
−p = −2.3026
1 − ζ2
 121

π2ζ 2
= 5.3019
1 − ζ2
π 2 ζ 2 = 5.3019 − 5.3019ζ 2
ζ 2 (π 2 + 5.3019) = 5.3019
15.1715ζ 2 = 5.3019
ζ 2 = 0.3495
ζ = 0.5912 = 0.6, ∵ζ>0

U + 1 Y
K s(s+2)
−

K
Y s(s+2)
= K
U 1 + s(s+2)
K
=
s2 + 2s + K
∆(s) = s2 + 2s + K = s2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2
ωn2 = K
2ζωn = 2
ζ = 0.6
ωn = 1.6667 ≈ 1.7 ̸= 1.8
K = 2.89
 122

Y 2.89
=
U s2 + 2s + 2.89

Pole-Zero Map
2
sys

1.60
1.5 0.55 0.43 0.31 0.17 1.40
0.66 1.20
1 0.75 1.00
0.80
0.84
0.60
0.5 0.90
Imaginary Axis

0.95 0.40
0.98 0.20
0 0 rad/s
0.98 0.20
0.95 0.40
−0.5 0.90
0.60
0.84
0.80
−1 0.75 1.00
0.66 1.20
0.55 0.43 0.31 0.17 1.40
−1.5
1.60

−2
−2 −1.8 −1.6 −1.4 −1.2 −1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0
Real Axis
 123

Step Response

sys

0.8

0.6
y(t)

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
t

Mp = 0.102, tr = 1.07s

EXAMPLE:

U (s) Y (s)
s+1
s(s−1)(s+6)

The system is unstable as having a pole in right half plane.

 124

Pole-Zero Map
2
sys

1.5

1 0.90 0.70 0.30

0.5 0.50
Imaginary Axis

0 0

−0.5 0.50

−1 0.90 0.70 0.30

−1.5

−2
−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2
Real Axis

The target is to make the system stable using proportional compensator with
unity feedback.

U + s+1 Y
K s(s−1)(s+6)
−
 125

K(s+1)
Y s(s−1)(s+6)
= K(s+1)
U 1 + s(s−1)(s+6)

K(s + 1)
=
s(s − 1)(s + 6) + K(s + 1)

∆(s) = s3 + 5s2 + (K − 6)s + K

Using Routh-Hurwitz method to find the value of K

s3 1 K−6 0 0

s2 5 K 0 0

s1 α β

s0 γ
 126

 
 
1 K − 6
det  

5 K  4K − 30
α=− =
5 5

β=0

 
 
 5 K 
det  

 5
4K−30
0
γ=− 4K−30
=K
5
 
1
 
 5 
 
 4K−30 
 
 5 
K

K>0
4K − 30
>0
5
K > 7.5
K=8

∆(s) = s3 + 5s2 + (K − 6)s + K

= s3 + 5s2 + 2s + 8
 127

The closed loop transfer function with K = 8 is

Y 8(s + 1)
=
U s3 + 5s2 + 2s + 8
Pole-Zero Map
1.5
0.95 0.90 0.84 0.75 0.66 0.55 0.430.310.17
sys
1.20
1
0.98

0.60
0.5
Imaginary Axis

0 0 rad/s

−0.5
0.60

0.98
−1

1.20

−1.5 0.95 0.90 0.84 0.75 0.66 0.55 0.430.310.17

−5 −4.5 −4 −3.5 −3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5
Real Axis

SYSTEM TYPE:
OPEN LOOP SYSTEM:
Defining G(s) as
K(Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) · · · (Tm s + 1)
G(s) =
sN (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) · · · (Tp s + 1)

U Y
K PLANT
 128

where K is the open loop gain

U (s) Y (s)
G(s)

G(s) is open loop transfer function of a unity feedback system. It involves the
term sN in the denominator, representing a pole of multiplicity N at the ori-
gin. The present classification scheme is based on the number of integrations
indicated by the open-loop transfer function. A system is called type 0, type
1, type 2, · · · , if N = 0, N = 1, N = 2, · · · , respectively. Note that this
classification is different from that of the order of a system. As the type num-
ber is increased, accuracy is improved; however, increasing the type number
aggravates the stability problem. A compromise between steady-state accu-
racy and relative stability is always necessary. If G(s) is written so that each
term in the numerator and denominator, except the term sN , approaches
unity as s approaches zero, then the open loop gain K is directly related to
the steady-state error.

+ E Y
U G(s)
−
 129

Y =E×G
E =U −Y
E =U −E×G
E(1 + G) = U
E 1
=
U 1+G

U + E

G(s)

E 1
=
U 1+G

1
E(s) = U (s)
1 + G(s)

1
lim e(t) = ess (t) = lim sE(s) = lim s U (s)
t→∞ s→0 s→0 1 + G(s)
 130

Next the analysis depends on the input U (s) for the steady state error of the
unity feedback system corresponding to the open loop transfer function G(s).
STATIC POSITION ERROR CONSTANT: Considering the steady state error of
the unity feedback system for unit step input i.e.

u(t) = 1(t)
1
U (s) =
s
1 1
ess (t) = lim 
s
s→0 1 + G(s) 
s
1
=
1 + G(0)
The static position error constant Kp is defined as

Kp = lim G(s) = G(0)

s→0
1
ess (t) =
1 + Kp
Now let us find the value of Kp and steady state error for types 0, 1 and 2
systems.
Type 0:
K(Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) · · · (Tm s + 1)
G(s) =
s0 (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) · · · (Tp s + 1)
Kp = G(0) = K
1
ess (t) =
1+K
 131

Type 1:
K(Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) · · · (Tm s + 1)
G(s) =
s1 (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) · · · (Tp s + 1)
Kp = G(0) = ∞
ess (t) = 0

Type 2:
K(Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) · · · (Tm s + 1)
G(s) =
s2 (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) · · · (Tp s + 1)
Kp = G(0) = ∞
ess (t) = 0

EXAMPLE:
1
G(s) = , Type 0
(s + 2)(s + 3)
1
Kp = K = G(0) =
6
1 6
ess (t) = =
1+K 7
6 1
yss (t) = 1 − = = 0.143, u(t) = 1(t)
7 7
Note: The steady state error and output response value is for the unity feed-
back system.
 132

Step Response
0.2
syscl
0.18

0.16

0.14

0.12
y(t)

0.1

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
t

1
G(s) = , Type 1
s(s + 2)(s + 3)
Kp = K = G(0) = ∞
ess (t) = 0
yss (t) = 1, u(t) = 1(t)
 133

Step Response
1

0.8

0.6
y(t)

0.4

0.2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
t

STATIC VELOCITY ERROR CONSTANT: Considering the steady state error of

the unity feedback system for unit ramp input i.e.

u(t) = t, t≥0
= 0, t<0
1
U (s) = 2
s
1 1
ess (t) = lim 
s
s→0 1 + G(s) s2

1
= lim
s→0 sG(s)
 134

The static velocity error constant Kv is defined as

Kv = lim sG(s)
s→0
1
ess (t) =
Kv
Now let us find the value of Kv and steady state error for types 0, 1 and 2
systems.
Type 0:
K(Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) · · · (Tm s + 1)
G(s) =
s0 (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) · · · (Tp s + 1)
Kv = lim sG(s) = 0
s→0

ess (t) = ∞

Type 1:
K(Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) · · · (Tm s + 1)
G(s) =
s1 (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) · · · (Tp s + 1)
Kv = lim sG(s) = K
s→0
1
ess (t) =
K
Type 2:
K(Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) · · · (Tm s + 1)
G(s) =
s2 (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) · · · (Tp s + 1)
Kv = lim sG(s) = ∞
s→0

ess (t) = 0
 135

EXAMPLE:

1
G(s) = , Type 1
s(s + 2)(s + 3)
1
Kv = K = lim sG(s) =
s→0 6
1
ess (t) = = 6, u(t) = t
K

Linear Simulation Results

100

80

60
y(t)

40

20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
t

STATIC ACCELERATION ERROR CONSTANT: Considering the steady state er-

 136

ror of the unity feedback system for unit parabolic input i.e.
t2
u(t) = , t≥0
2
= 0, t<0
1
U (s) = 3
s
1 1
ess (t) = lim 
s 2
s→0 1 + G(s) s3
7
1
= lim
s→0 s2 G(s)
The static acceleration error constant Ka is defined as

Ka = lim s2 G(s)
s→0
1
ess (t) =
Ka
Now let us find the value of Ka and steady state error for types 0, 1 and 2
systems.
Type 0:
K(Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) · · · (Tm s + 1)
G(s) =
s0 (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) · · · (Tp s + 1)
Ka = lim s2 G(s) = 0
s→0

ess (t) = ∞
 137

Type 1:
K(Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) · · · (Tm s + 1)
G(s) =
s1 (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) · · · (Tp s + 1)
Ka = lim s2 G(s) = 0
s→0

ess (t) = ∞

Type 2:
K(Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) · · · (Tm s + 1)
G(s) =
s2 (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) · · · (Tp s + 1)
Ka = lim s2 G(s) = K
s→0
1
ess (t) =
K
EXAMPLE:

(s + 1)(s + 3)
G(s) = , Type 2
s2 (s + 2)(s + 3)
3 1
Ka = K = lim s2 G(s) = =
s→0 6 2
2
1 t
ess (t) = = 2, u(t) =
K 2
 138

Linear Simulation Results

200

180

160

140

120
y(t)

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
t

Linear Simulation Results

100

90

80

70
y(t)

60

50

40

30

20

10 10.5 11 11.5 12 12.5 13 13.5 14

t
 139

PROPORTIONAL-INTEGRAL-DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER

 Stabilizes any second order system.

 Effective in absence of system dynamics.
Proportional: Kp
Derivative: sKd
Ki
Integral:
s
Ki
K(s) = Kp + sKd +
s

+
Xc + E U X
K G
−

Assume K(s) = Kp i.e. only proportional controller

u(t) = Kp (xc (t) − x(t))

= −Kp (x(t) − xc (t))
 140

 Increased oscillations
 No energy absorbing mechanism
 Correction after the error is injected in the system.
Assume K(s) = Kp + sKd i.e. proportional and derivative controller

u(t) = Kp (xc (t) − x(t)) + Kd (ẋc (t) − ẋ(t)

= −Kp (x(t) − xc (t)) − Kd (ẋ(t) − ẋc (t))
 141

 Absorbs energy.
 Preempt the error.

f
m
d

mẍ = f + d
f = −Kp x − Kd ẋ
mẍ = −Kp x − Kd ẋ + d
ms2 X(s) = −Kp X(s) − Kd sX(s) + D(s)
ms2 X(s) = −X(s)(sKd + Kp ) + D(s)
X(s) D(s)
X(s) = − 2
(sKd + Kp ) +
ms[ ms2 ]
1
= − X(s)(sKd + Kp ) + D(s)
ms2
 142

+
X
1
sKd + Kp
ms2

−1

Using a unity feedback along with Xc = 0.

+
Xc = 0 X
1
sKd + Kp
ms2
+
−
 143

Transfer function X to Xc with D = 0 is given by

sKd +Kp
X ms2
Kd s + Kp
= sKd +Kp
=
Xc 1 + ms 2
ms2 + Kd s + Kp

1 Kd s + Kp
= × Kd Kp
m s2 + m
s + m

Kd K
m
s + mp
= K
s2 + Km
d
s + mp
Kd Kp
∆(s) = s2 + s+
m m
The closed loop system is second order, comparing the characteristic polyno-
mial with the general form of second order system we obtain
Kd Kp
s2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2 = s2 + s+
m m
Kp
ωn2 =
m
√
Kp
ωn =
m
Kd
2ζωn =
m
Kd
ζ=
2mωn
 144

Movement of poles with Kp and Kd

jω

√
Kp
√ m
K
m p θ
σ

√
Kp
−
m

Blue Path Kp increasing Kd = 0, Red Path Kd increasing Kp fixed

 Using the values of Kp and Kd , the poles can be placed anywhere in the
left half plane.
Next is the error analysis with respect to desired output and disturbance in
order to see the role of Integral part of the controller.
 145

+
Xc = 0 E X
1
sKd + Kp
ms2
+
−

Assuming D = 0 then the transfer function from E to Xc is given by

E 1
=
Xc 1 + G(s)

1
= sKd +Kp
1+ ms2

ms2
=
ms2 + Kd s + Kp
From the G(s)
sKd + Kp
G(s) =
ms2
It can be observed that it is a system type 2, so the closed loop system can
track step, ramp without any error and parabola with a constant error in
absence of disturbance D .
 146

Finding the transfer function from E to D

E =0−X
E = −X
1
X= [E(sKd + Kp ) + D]
ms2
1
−E = [E(sKd + Kp ) + D]
ms2
−ms2 E = E(sKd + Kp ) + D
−E(ms2 + Kd s + Kp ) = D
E 1
=−
D ms2 + Kd s + Kp
It can be observed from the transfer function, it is a type 0 with reference
to disturbance input, so for step disturbance there will be a constant error in
steady state output value of X , so the steady state output of the closed loop
system x(t) for step disturbance d(t) = 1(t) with no reference input xc (t)
= 0 will be
xss (t) = −ess (t)

The steady state error can be decreased by increasing the value of Kp be-
cause for step disturbance with amplitude D
D
ess (t) = E =
Kp
For example if we want the absolute error for step disturbance is less than 0.1,
it requires the value of Kp greater than 10. But increasing Kp will induce
oscillations.
 147

In order to eradicate this error we need to increase the type by using integral
part of the controller.

Ki
s
D

+ +
Xc = 0 U X
1
sKd + Kp
E ms2
+
−

Ki Kd s2 + Kp s + Ki
K(s) = + Kd s + Kp =
s s

+
Xc = 0 E X
Kd s2 + Kp s + Ki 1
s ms2
+
−
 148

The transfer function from E to D becomes

E =0−X
E = −X
[ ( ) ]
2
1 Kd s + Kp s + Ki
X= E +D
ms2 s

[ ( ) ]
2
1 Kd s + Kp s + Ki
−E = E +D
ms2 s

( )
Kd s2 + Kp s + Ki
−ms2 E = E +D
s

( )
Kd s2 + Kp s + Ki
−E ms2 + =D
s

E s
=−
D ms3 + Kd s2 + Kp s + Ki
The type has increased from 0 to 1 so the steady state error will be 0 for this
case. Therefore the goal of rejecting the step disturbance is achieved.
Normally in designing process Kp is used to achieve the steady state value
or be in the proximity of the value with a realistic value then integral part is
used to remove any error. Integral gain is one hundredth of the proportional
gain in order to tackle the issues of stability.
 149

ANALYSIS:

1. Closed loop transfer function (Given G(s), Find K(s))

2. Inputs (Step, Ramp and Parabola)

3. Anticipate Response (Messy beyond 2nd order)

Analysis → Design → Matching coefficients (Horizon 2nd order systems)

NEED: Better tool for design

 150

ROOT LOCUS ANALYSIS

PRELUDE:

U + E K Y
s+2
−

1
G(s) =
s+2
K(s) = K
K
Y GK s+2
= = K
U 1 + GK 1 + s+2
K
=
s + (2 + K)
∆(s) = 1 + GK = s + (2 + K) = 0
s = −5, K = 3
s = −10, K = 8
 151

jω

σ
−5 −2

 Any input (u(t), d(t), etc) for a particular closed loop LTI system

∆(s) = 1 + G(s)K(s)

will remain same. Closed loop poles are the roots of ∆(s). Therefore the
location of closed loop poles always satisfies the following equation for
specific values of s = σ + jω

G(s)K(s) = −1

The path generated by changing the parameter value K for the closed loop
 152

system is the root locus. So we are generating root locus from open loop
transfer function for the closed loop transfer function.

U + Y
K G(s)
−

ANALOGY: FREQUENCY RESPONSE

u(t) = A sin (ωt)

y(t) = u(t) ⊛ h(t)
= M A sin (ωt + ϕ)

N (s) 
G(s) = 
D(s) 
 s=jω

M = G(s) = |G(jω)|
s=jω


ϕ = G(s) = G(jω)
s=jω

u(t) = A sin (ωt) y(t) = M A sin (ωt + ϕ)

1
0.01
u(t) y(t)
0
6
t=θ LTI 0
6
t=θ

−0.01
−1
 153

jω

ω
σ + jω σ

G(s), s = jω, s = σ + jω

CONGENERIC: Assuming K as a constant value, what values of s = σ + jω

will satisfy the condition
KG(s) = −1

Since G(s) is a complex rational polynomial function of parameter s there-

fore 
N (s) 
G(s) =  = M ejϕ
D(s) 
s=σ+jω
 154

the condition of being equivalent to −1 means

 
 
KG(s) = |KM ejϕ | = 1
 
s=σ+jω

KM = 1, ∵ |ejϕ | = 1
1
K=
M 

ϕ = G(s) = ±180◦ , ∵ K =0
s=σ+jω

jω

s
M

ϕ
σ
 155

1. if K=Positive, negative feedback → 180◦ root locus

2. if K=negative, positive feedback → 0◦ root locus

(∆(s) = 1 − K(s)G(s))

For more complex compensator:

N (s)
K(s) = K0
D(s)
N (s)NG (s)
K(s)G(s) = K0
D(s)DG (s)
Here the parameter will be K0 instead of K .
EXAMPLE:

1
G(s) =
  s+2
 
  1 ◦ ◦
KG(s) = K ej0 ̸= 1ej(±180 )
  2
s=0+j0
 
 
  K
KG(s) =
  2 + j2
s=0+j2
1 ◦ ◦
= K √ e−j45 ̸= 1ej(±180 )
  8
 
  K K
KG(s) = =
  −3 + j3 + 2 −1 + j3
s=−3+j3
◦ ◦
= K0.32e−j108.4 ̸= 1ej(±180 )
 156

 
 
  K K
KG(s) = =
  −5 + j0 + 2 −3 + j0
s=−5+j0
1 ◦ ◦ 1 1
= K e−j180 = 1ej(±180 ) , when K = = 1 =3
3 M 3

COMPLEX NUMBERS REVIEW:

Im(s)

a + jb
c + jd
b2
+

M
a2

√
b
1
√

2
ϕ2
d

c2
+ ϕ1
d2
Re(s)
c a

s-domain, s = σ + jω
s1 = a + jb = M1 ejϕ1
s2 = c + jd = M2 ejϕ2
p p
M1 = a2 + b2 , M2 = c2 + d2
! !
b d
ϕ1 = tan−1 , ϕ2 = tan−1
a c
 157

s1 M1 ejϕ1 M1
= = ej(ϕ1 −ϕ2 )
s2 M2 ejϕ2 M2
s1 × s2 = (M1 ejϕ1 )(M2 ejϕ2 ) = (M1 M2 )ej(ϕ1 +ϕ2 )
1 1 jϕ1 −1 1 −jϕ1
= = (M 1 e ) = e
s1 M1 ejϕ1 M1

BRUTE FORCE SEARCH:

1. Guess s

2. Evaluate G(s) at the surmised value

3. | · | → abs(·)

4. ϕ → angle(·)

5. if ϕ = ±180◦ then K = 1
|·|
 158

ZERO:

jω

ω2
+
a2

ω
√

 
−1 ω
tan
a
σ
a
−a

G(s) = s + a



G(s) = G(jω) = a + jω

s=jω
p
|G(jω)| = a2 + ω 2
!
ω
G(jω) = tan−1
a
 159

jω

ω2
+
)2
σ

ω
−
(a
p

ϕ
σ
a−σ
−a

G(s) = s + a



G(s) = G(−σ + jω) = a − σ + jω

s=−σ+jω
q
|G(−σ + jω)| = (a − σ)2 + ω 2
!
ω
ϕ = G(−σ + jω) = tan−1
a−σ
 160

POLE:

jω

ω2
+
)2
σ

ω
−
(a
p

ϕ
σ
a−σ
−a

1
G(s) =
 s+a

 1
G(s) = G(−σ + jω) =
 a − σ + jω
s=−σ+jω
1
|G(−σ + jω)| = p
(a − σ)2 + ω 2
!
ω
ϕ = G(−σ + jω) = − tan−1
a−σ
 161

ZERO AND POLE:

jω

lp
lz

ϕp ϕz
σ




Gz (s) = lz ejϕz

s=−σ+jω


Gp (s) = lp ejϕp

s=−σ+jω

 lz
G(s) = ej(ϕz −ϕp )
 lp
s=−σ+jω
 162

jω

l4
l3 l2 l1

ϕ4 ϕ2 ϕ1
ϕ3
σ



 l1 l2
G(s) = ej(ϕ1 +ϕ2 )−(ϕ3 +ϕ4 )
 l3 l4
s=−σ+jω
l1 l2
|G(−σ + jω)| =
l3 l4
G(−σ + jω) = ϕ1 + ϕ2 − ϕ3 − ϕ4
 163

jω

l
−a + jb ω−b
ϕ
a−σ

l
ω+b

−a − jb ϕ
a−σ



 1
G(s) = e−j(ϕ+ϕ)
 ll
s=−σ+jω
1
|G(−σ + jω)| =
ll
1
G(−σ + jω) =
ej(ϕ+ϕ)
 164

∆(s) = 1 + K0 K(s)G(s)H(s) = 0
K0 K(s)G(s)H(s) = −1
N (s)
K(s)G(s)H(s) =
D(s)
N (s)
K0 = −1, Evan's Form
D(s)

U Y
K0 K(s) G(s)

H(s)

Evaluate at all values of s = −σ + jω and check where the phase of the

open loop system N (s)
D(s)
is equal to ±180◦ along with the magnitude is equal
1
to 1 using K0 = |.|
, generates the root locus of the closed loop system.
 165

Root locus starts at open loop poles and ends at open loop zeros

jω

N (s)
∆(s) = 1 + K0 =0
D(s)
D(s) + K0 N (s) = 0
K0 = 0 → D(s) = 0, Open loop poles
K0 = ∞ → N (s) = 0, Open loop zeros
 166

Points on the real axis to the left of an odd number of poles and zeros are
on the locus

jω

The phases of Conjugate pair poles do not contribute in the phase calcula-
tion of a point on the real axis
 167

jω

−ϕ

Number of asymptotes = n − m where n = order of D(s) m = order of

N (s)
radiating out from the point s = α on the real axis where
P P
pi − zi
α=
n−m
at angles
180◦ + 360◦ (l − 1)
ϕl = , l = 1, 2, · · · , n − m
n−m
 168

The asymptotes divide a circle into equal sectors along with symmetric
around real axis.
s+6
G(s) =
(s + 2)(s + 4)(s + 8)

Root Locus of sys

asymptotes
locus
10
open loop poles
open loop zero

5
Imaginary Axis

−5

−10

−8 −7.5 −7 −6.5 −6 −5.5 −5 −4.5 −4 −3.5 −3 −2.5 −2

Real Axis gain = [0, 151.784]
 169

1
G(s) =
(s + 1)4

Root Locus of sys

1 asymptotes
locus
0.8 open loop poles

0.6

0.4
Imaginary Axis

0.2

−0.2

−0.4

−0.6

−0.8

−1
−2 −1.8 −1.6 −1.4 −1.2 −1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0
Real Axis gain = [0, 3.86207]
 170

Angle of Departure and Arrival

jω

ϕd

ϕp ϕz
σ

ϕc

ϕz − ϕd − ϕp − ϕc = ±180◦
ϕc = 90◦

The angle of arrival can be found using the same method.

 171

EXAMPLE:

1
G(s) =
(s + 1)3
−3ϕd = −180◦
ϕd = 60◦

Root Locus of sys

2
asymptotes
locus
1.5 open loop poles

0.5
Imaginary Axis

−0.5

−1

−1.5

−2
−3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0
Real Axis gain = [0, 9.31034]
 172

EXAMPLE:
Draw an approximate root locus for the following open loop transfer function
using the aforementioned rules.

s2 + 16
G(s) =
s3 (s + 3)

Pole-Zero Map
5
sys

2
Imaginary Axis

−1

−2

−3

−4

−5
−4 −3.5 −3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1
Real Axis
 173

Real Axis

Pole-Zero Map
5
sys

2
Imaginary Axis

−1

−2

−3

−4

−5
−4 −3.5 −3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1
Real Axis
 174

Number of Asymptotes = 4 − 2 = 2

−3 − 0
α= = −1.5
2
180◦
ϕ1 = = 90◦
2
540◦
ϕ2 = = 270◦ = −90◦
2

Pole-Zero Map
5
sys

2
Imaginary Axis

−1

−2

−3

−4

−5
−4 −3.5 −3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1
Real Axis
 175

Pole-Zero Map
5
sys
ϕa1
4

2
Imaginary Axis

1
ϕd1 ϕd2,3,4
0

−1

−2

−3
ϕa2
−4

−5
−4 −3.5 −3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1
Real Axis

Angle of Departures
!!


!!

4 
  
4
◦
−ϕd1 + 180+ 
tan

−1
− 180◦+
 tan
−1
− (3 × 180◦ )
   3  3
◦
= −180

ϕd1 = −360◦ = 0◦

 
−(3 × ϕd2 ) −0◦ − 
90◦
+
90◦
= −180◦ + 360◦ (l − 1), l=1

ϕd2 = 60◦
 176

 
−(3 × ϕd3 ) −0◦ − 
90◦
+
90◦
= −180◦ + 360◦ (l − 1), l=2

ϕd3 = −60◦

 
−(3 × ϕd4 ) −0◦ − 
90◦
+
90◦
= −180◦ + 360◦ (l − 1), l=3

ϕd4 = −180◦

Angle of Arrivals
!
4
ϕa1 + 90◦ − (3 × 90◦ ) − tan−1 = −180◦
3

ϕa1 = 53.1◦

ϕa2 = −53.1◦
 177

Root Locus of sys

asymptotes
locus
open loop poles
10
open loop zeros

5
Imaginary Axis

−5

−10

−3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

Real Axis gain = [0, 183.563]

BREAKAWAY OR BREAK-IN POINTS:

N (s)
1+K =0
D(s)
f (s) = D(s) + KN (s) = 0

df (s) 
 = D ′ (s) + KN ′ (s) = 0
d(s) 
s=sr
dD(s) dN (s)
D ′ (s) = , N ′ (s) =
ds ds
D ′ (s)
K=−
N ′ (s)
D ′ (s)
D(s) − N (s) = 0
N ′ (s)
 178

D(s)N ′ (s) − D ′ (s)N (s) = 0

The roots of the above equation gives the potential breakaway or break-in
points.
D(s)
K=−
N (s)
dK D ′ (s)N (s) − D(s)N ′ (s)
=−
ds N 2 (s)
dK
=0
ds
= D(s)N ′ (s) − D ′ (s)N (s) = 0

Therefore solving the constraint dK

ds
= 0 will also give the potential breakaway
or break-in points, provided those s values give positive gain K .

POINTS WHERE THE ROOT LOCI MAY CROSS THE IMAGINARY AXIS: Let s
= jω in the closed loop characteristic equation, equate both the real part
and the imaginary part to zero, and then solve for possible ω and K .
 179

APPLIED EXAMPLE:

f b k

AM P LOGIC

M ẍ = −bẋ − kx + f
M ẍ + bẋ + kx = f
M s2 X(s) + bsX(s) + kX(s) = F (s)
X 1
=
F M s2 + bs + k
1
M
= b k
s2 + M
s + M

b = SMALL, k = Large
b k
s2 + s+ = s2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2
M M s
k
ωn = , ζ→0
M

REQUIREMENT: 5 PERCENT OVERSHOOT, ζ ≥ 0.707

 180

jω

45◦

Xc = 0 + E F X
K(s) G(s)
−
 181

X GK
=
Xc 1 + GK
1 + GK = 0
GK = −1
|GK| = 1
GK = ±180◦
K(s) 1
K(s)G(s) = · b k
M s2 + M s+ M

PROPORTIONAL GAIN WILL NOT WORK

f = Kp e(t) + Kd ė(t)

F (s) = Kp E(s) + Kd sE(s)

!
Kp
= Kd s + E(s)
Kd

!
F Kp
= K(s) = Kd s +
E Kd

Kp
Kd s+ Kd
K(s)G(s) = · b k
M s2 + M
s + M
 182

Root Locus of sys

locus
open loop poles
open loop zero
Imaginary Axis

Real Axis

jω

l1

l3 45◦

l2
 183

|KG| = 1

l3
|K(s)G(s)| =
l1 l2

Kd l1 l2
=
M l3
MATHEMATICAL MODELLING ERROR

x2

x k2

f b k

AM P LOGIC
 184

mẍ2 = k2 (x − x2 )
M ẍ = k2 (x − x2 ) − bẋ − kx + f
ms2 X2 = k2 (X − X2 )
M s2 X = k2 (X − X2 ) − bsX − kX + F
ms2 X2 + k2 X2 − k2 X = 0
−k2 X + (ms2 + k2 )X2 = 0
M s2 X = k2 X − k2 X2 − bsX − kX + F
M s2 X − k2 X + bsX + kX + k2 X2 = F
(M s2 + bs + k − k2 )X + k2 X2 = F

−k2 X + (ms2 + k2 )X2 = 0

(M s2 + bs + k − k2 )X + k2 X2 = F

" #   
−k2 2
ms + k2 X 0
=
M s2 + bs + k − k2 k2 X2 F
A y x
 185

 
 
 0 ms + k2 
2
 
 
F k2 
X(s) =  

 −k ms2
+ k 2
 2

 
M s + bs + k − k2
2
k2 

X ms2 + k2
=
F M ms4 + bms3 + (M k2 + km − k2 m)s2 + bk2 s + kk2
!
Kp
Kd s + (ms2 + k2 )
Kd
K(s)G(s) =
M ms4 + bms3 + (M k2 + km − k2 m)s2 + bk2 s + kk2

Root Locus of sys

locus
open loop poles
open loop zeros
Imaginary Axis

Real Axis
 186

x2

f b k

AM P LOGIC

Root Locus

asymptotes
locus
open loop poles
zero
Imaginary Axis

Real Axis
 187

LEAD/LAG COMPENSATION

X(s) + E(s) Y (s)

K(s) G(s)
−

PROPORTIONAL:

K(s) = K, GAIN STABILIZATION

DERIVATIVE:
K(s) = sKd

jω

INTEGRAL:
Ki
K(s) =
s
 188

jω

PROPORTIONAL-DERIVATIVE:

K(s) = Kp + sKd
!
Kp
= Kd s +
Kd

jω

σ
 189

CONSTRAINT: Generally, the sensor directly gives the derivative for practical
purposes otherwise calculating derivative numerically from sensor values is
not feasible especially for higher frequencies.
 Pure derivative is difficult to implement for higher frequencies in real time
and it rolls off.
 Every signal has noise which is generally of high frequency so derivative
is tracking a noise rather the original signal.

d
sin (ωt) → sin (ωt) = ω cos (ωt)
dt
LOW PASS FILTER:
 !

a a ω
ϕ=∠  =∠ = − tan−1
s + a a + jω a
s=jω

a
A sin (ωt) A M sin (ωt + ϕ )
s+a
   
 a   a 
    a
M =  = = √ 2
s + a  jω + a  a + ω2
s=jω
jω

a
M ω
ϕ
σ
−a
 190

LEAD:
 Proportional-Derivative with low pass filter on the derivative.
 Practically implementable

!
a
K(s) = Kp + Kd s
s+a

Kp (s + a) + Kd sa
=
s+a

s(Kp + aKd ) + aKp

=
s+a

aKp
s+ Kp +aKd
= (Kp + aKd ) ·
s+a

aKp
b= , K = Kp + aKd
Kp + aKd

s+b
=K , where |b| < |a| or b > a
s+a
 191

jω

σ
−a −b

PROPORTIONAL-INTEGRAL:
Ki
K(s) = Kp +
s

sKp + Ki
=
s

!
Ki
Kp s +
Kp
=
s
 192

jω

CONSTRAINT:
 Integral keep on generating the control input ignoring actuator saturation.
 Integral windup and unwound issues.
 Stability concerns

v(t)

EXAMPLE:
1
G(s) =
s2 + s + 9.25
 193

Pole-Zero Map
4

1
Imaginary Axis

−1

−2

−3

−4
−3.5 −3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1
Real Axis

The steady state value of the step output is given by

yss (t) = lim y(t) = lim sY (s)

t→∞ s→0

1 1
= lim sG(s)U (s) = lim 
s
s→0 s→0 s2 + s + 9.25 
s

1
= = 0.1081
9.25
 194

Step Response
0.18

0.16

0.14

0.12

0.1
y(t)

8 · 10−2

6 · 10−2

4 · 10−2

2 · 10−2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
t

The target is to remove steady state error for step input. Deploying integral
controller with unity feedback to achieve the task.

K(s + 3)
K(s) =
s
Using the gain K = 1, the open loop transfer function is given by

s+3
K(s)G(s) =
s3 + s2 + 9.25s
The relation is the confirmation of system type 1. Figure below shows the pole
zero plot of the open loop system
 195

Pole-Zero Map
4

1
Imaginary Axis

−1

−2

−3

−4
−3.5 −3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1
Real Axis

U + E K(s+3) 1 Y
s s2 +s+9.25
−

The closed loop transfer function is equal to

K(s)G(s) s+3
Tcl (s) = =
1 + K(s)G(s) s3 + s2 + 10.25s + 3
The step response for the closed loop system is shown in the figure below
 196

Step Response

0.8

0.6
y(t)

0.4

0.2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
t

The characteristic equation of the closed system with gain K is

K(s+3)
s(s2 +s+9.25)
Tcl (s) =
1 + s(s2K(s 3)
+s+9.25)

K(s + 3)
=
s3 + s2 + 9.25s + sK + 3K

∆(s) = s3 + s2 + 9.25s + sK + 3K

Substituting s = jw in the characteristic equation to find the values of ω and

K when the poles are on the imaginary axis.

∆(jω) = (jω)3 + (jω)2 + 9.25(jω) + sK + 3K

 197

∆(jω) = −ω 2 + 3K + j(−ω 3 + 9.25ω + Kω) = 0

−ω 2 + 3K = 0
−ω 3 + 9.25ω + Kω = 0
ω = ±3.7249, K = 4.625

Root locus in figure below validate the results.

Root Locus

10

5
Imaginary Axis

−5

−10

−3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1

Real Axis gain = [0, 130.894]

Hence PI controller has the stability issue, since K > 4.625 makes the system
unstable.
 198

LAG:
 Practically implementable

s+b
K(s) = K , where |b| > |a| or b < a
s+a

jω

σ
−b −a

U + E s+b Y
K s+a G(s)
−
 199

E(s) 1
=
R(s) 1 + K(s)G(s)
1
= !
s+b
1+ K G(s)
s+a
1
R(s) =
s
ess (t) = lim e(t) = lim sE(s)
t→∞ s→0
1 1
= lim 
s !
s→0 s+b s

1+ K G(s)
s+a
s+a
= lim
s→0 s + a + K(s + b)G(s)
a
=
a + KG(0)b
The parameter b can be increased to reduce the value of steady state error.
 200

LEAD COMPENSATOR APPLICATION:

Assuming having a system with following root locus.
Root Locus
Imaginary Axis

Real Axis

The requirement is to pass the root locus from a point in order to achieve
specific time specifications. So system poles phase angles from the desired
point and the phase angles of the lead zero and pole should sum to ±180◦
to make the root locus pass through the desired point with some gain value
K . Figure below gives the interpretation of the requirement.
 201

jω

ϕ2 = 110◦ ϕ1 = 135◦
ϕp ϕz
σ

−ϕ1 − ϕ2 − ϕp + ϕz = −180◦
−135◦ − 110◦ − ϕp + ϕz = −180◦
ϕz − ϕp = 65◦
 202

ϕz
−ϕ jω
p

ϕz
−ϕ
p

ϕp ϕz
σ
 203

jω

ϕp
z
−
ϕ
ϕz
ϕp

−ϕ
ϕz −

ϕp ϕz
σ
 204

DOMINANT POLES:
Root Locus
Imaginary Axis

Real Axis

Referring above figure, the fast response requirement compel to place the
poles on the green triangle spots, so lead (orange zero and pole) compensator
is deployed after location calculation using phase relation. The root locus
confirms that it passes through the target spot. The higher gain K value
ensure the place with the dominant real pole is still not far from the imaginary
axis. The transients of the desired spot poles will die rapidly but the decay of
the real dominant pole will be really slow. Thus the response will have major
effect by the dominant pole.
A Pole-zero cancellation for the poles in right half plane can be catas-
trophic.
 205

 Pole-zero cancellation for the poles in left half plane may be used ac-
cording to specification requirements.

NOTCH FILTER:

f b k

AM P LOGIC

Previously, proportional-derivative controller was used to induce dampness in

the above low damped system. This approach is not pragmatic, so now can
replace the compensator with lead and get the desired results as shown in
figure.
 206

Root Locus
Imaginary Axis

Real Axis

The placement of lead pole and zero will provide the desired specification
with practical implementation. Considering the model where sensor is on the
spring resulting two unstable poles with varying K . Analyzing the behaviour
of the system in presence of the lead compensator.
 207

x2

f b k

AM P LOGIC

Root Locus
Imaginary Axis

Real Axis

The root locus clarifies that the system will become unstable with increasing
 208

K in presence of lead controller. The next step is to add notch filter in the
present controller and observe the root locus.
Pole-Zero Map

ωz
Imaginary Axis

0 rad/s

Real Axis

The notch filter transfer function is given by

s2 + 2ζωz s + ωz2
T (s) =
s2 + 2ωz s + ωz2
The notch filter poles and zeros (orange) are placed such that the zeros are in
the proximity of unwanted poles which creates 180◦ angle of departure for
the unwanted pole.
 209

EXAMPLE:
1 1
G(s) = =
s2 + s − 2 (s + 2)(s − 1)

Root Locus
3
2.83
0.
71
2

1
Imaginary Axis

−1

−2

7 1
0.
2.83
−3
−3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Real Axis gain = [0, 22.5]

In order to pass the root locus from the desired point, finding the compensation
angles i.e.

−ϕ(+1) − ϕ(−2) + ϕzl − ϕpl = −180◦

ϕzl − ϕpl = 146.3◦ + 90◦ − 180◦
ϕzl − ϕpl = 56.3◦

Since it comes out to be positive so lead compensator is required. Placing

the zero of the lead at s = −1 and finding the location of the lead pole with
 210

angle restriction of 56.3◦ . The location of the lead pole comes out to be s =
−3.1424
Pole-Zero Map
3

1 29.7◦ 26.6◦
146.3◦
Imaginary Axis

−1

−2

−3
−4 −3.5 −3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Real Axis

Therefore the open loop transfer function with lead controller is

s+1 1
K(s)G(s) = K · ·
s + 3.1424 (s + 2)(s − 1)
s+1
=K
s3 + 4.1424s2 + 1.1424s − 6.2848
Finding the value of gain K for which the poles will at the desired point i.e.
 
 
K(s)G(s) = |K| × 0.1346 = 1
 
s=−2+j2

K = 7.4278
 211

Now finding the location of closed loop poles at the aforesaid K value. The
closed loop transfer function with unity feedback
K(s)G(s)
Tcl (s) =
1 + K(s)G(s)

K(s + 1)
=
s3 + 4.1424s2 + (K + 1.1424)s + K − 6.2848

∆(s) = s3 + 4.1424s2 + (K + 1.1424)s + K − 6.2848

K = 7.4278
∆(s) = s3 + 4.1424s2 + 8.5702s + 1.1430
s1,2 = −2 ± j2
s3 = −0.1429

U + E Y
K(s) G(s)
−
 212

Root Locus

2
Imaginary Axis

K = 7.4278
K = 7.4278
0

−2 K = 7.4278

−4

−6

−8
−3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1
Real Axis gain = [0, 63.9274]

The root locus confirms the locus passing through the desired point but the
dominant pole is in the proximity of imaginary axis. The dominant pole can
be distant from imaginary axis by moving the lead pole in the right direction.
Generally, K > 2pl works for the design of controller. The following pl
location gives the corresponding open loop transfer function and gain values.
s + 1.8976 1
K(s)G(s) = K · ·
s + 4.69 (s + 2)(s − 1)
 
 
K(s)G(s) = |K| × 0.0777 = 1
 
s=−2+j2

K = 12.07

After finding the closed transfer function and substituting the above K value
 213

in the characteristic equation will make the dominant root at s = −1.68. The
dominant pole can further be distant from imaginary axis by moving the lead
pole in right direction keeping the constraint of 56.3◦ between the desired
point and lead pole-zero.
 214

TUTORIAL:

10x = y log10 (y) = x

100 100.3 100.48 100.6 100.7 100.78 100.85 100.9 100.95 101 101.3 101.48
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0 0
10 101 102
 215

Y = m · log10 (x) + b

(x0 , y0 ) = (2, 0)
(x1 , y1 ) = (50, 90)

y1 − y0
m=
log10 (x1 ) − log10 (x2 )

90 − 0
=
log10 (50) − log10 (2)

m = 64.3804

0 = 64.3804 · log10 (2) + b

b = −19.3804

Y = 64.3804 · log10 (x) − 19.3804

Y = 64.3804 · log10 (10) − 19.3804

= 45
 216

MATLAB SCRIPT:

x = logspace(log10(2),log10(50));
m = 90/(log10(50)-log10(2));
b = 0-m*log10(2);
y = m*log10(x)+b;
semilogx(x,y)
grid on
 217

Frequency Response Analysis

MOTIVATION: The second order system shown in the figure below requires to
move the poles on the locations marked with green squares in order to have
damping ratio of ζ = 0.5 and ωn = 4.
Pole-Zero Map
6

2
0.50
Imaginary Axis

0 0 rad/s

0.50
−2

−4

−6
−5 −4.5 −4 −3.5 −3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1
Real Axis

The deployment of Lead compensator confirms the said locations movement

as shown in figure below with the gain value of K = 26. The success is
ascribed to the lead controller with unity feedback which enables the system to
achieve desired time specifications for the transient part of the step response.
However, the system needs to perform tracking of the step with the desired
time specifications.
 218

Root Locus of sys

0.50

10

5 K = 26
4
Imaginary Axis

0 0 rad/s

4
−5 K = 26

−10

0.50
−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1
Real Axis gain = [0, 176.061]

The step response of the closed loop system shown in figure is the antithesis
of the tracking perception. The steady state response has a value of 0.464
contrary to 1.
Step Response
1

0.8

0.6
y(t)

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
t
 219

The reason of this anomaly is ignoring the steady state part of the response.
Generally, the root locus has the capability to alter the transient response by
the placement of poles with parameter K . The locus of the closed loop poles is
generated from the open loop poles and zeros. The analysis is encompassing
the characteristic equation of the system which remain same for any transfer
function of a specific system. Therefore the root locus analysis and design
is not focusing on the input of the system. Frequency response analysis and
design is used to cover the steady state part of the response. The root locus
and frequency response are complementary to each other and used for the
complete analysis-design.

+
U Y
K G
+
−

Y KG Y G Y KG
= = =
U 1 + KG D 1 + KG V 1 + KG
 220

|K(jω)G(jω)|

TRACKING
DISTURBANCE REJECTION

BIG
NOISE REJECTION
PLANT UNCERTAINTY
STABILITY

SMALL

FREQUENCY RESPONSE (BODE):

a
G(s) =
s+a
a
G(jω) =
a + jω
a a
|G(jω)| = √ =
a2 + ω 2 l
!
ω
G(jω = ϕ = − tan−1
a
 221

ω=0 −→ |G(jω)| = 1, ϕ = 0◦
ω=∞ −→ |G(jω)| = 0, ϕ = −90◦
1
ω=a −→ |G(jω)| = √ , ϕ = −45◦
2

jω
ω
l
ϕ
σ
−a

a b
G(s) = ·
s+a s+b

a b
G(jω) = ·
a + jω b + jω

= aM1 e−jϕ1 · bM2 e−jϕ2

= a · b · M1 · M2 · e−j(ϕ1 +ϕ2 )
 K(jω)G(jω) |K(jω)G(jω)|

ω
222
 223

Bode Magnitude Diagram

0
|K(jω)G(jω)|(dB)

−20

−40

−60

−80

−100

−120

10−1 100 101 102 103 104 105

ω

Bode Phase Diagram

0

−10

−20
K(jω)G(jω)

−30

−40

−50

−60

−70

−80

−90

−100
10−1 100 101 102 103 104 105
ω
 224

Bode Phase Diagram

0

−20

−40
K(jω)G(jω)

−60

−80

−100

−120

−140

−160

−180

−200
10−1 100 101 102 103 104 105
ω

(s + a)(s + b)
G(s) =
(s + c)(s + d)
M1 ejϕ1 · M2 ejϕ2
=
M3 ejϕ3 · M4 ejϕ4
log |G(s)| = log M1 + log M2 − log M3 − log M4
G(s) = ϕ1 + ϕ2 − ϕ3 − ϕ4
 225

G(s) = K, K>0
|G(jω)| = |K| = K
20 log10 |G(jω)| = 20 log10 K
G(jω) = 0◦

dB

0 ω

G(jω

0◦ ω
 226

1
sn
sn
n=1 n=1

n=2 n=4 n=2 n=4

n=3 n=3

G(s) = sn
G(jω) = (jω)n , G(jω) = n(90◦ )
G(jω) = jω, n = 1, G(jω) = 90◦
G(jω) = −ω 2 , n = 2, ∵ j 2 = −1, G(jω) = 180◦
G(jω) = −jω 3 , n = 3 ∵ j 3 = −j, G(jω) = 270◦
G(jω) = ω 4 , n = 4 ∵ j 4 = 1, G(jω) = 360◦

1
G(s) =
sn
1
G(jω) = , G(jω) = n(−90◦ )
(jω)n
1
G(jω) = , n = 1, G(jω) = −90◦
jω
1
G(jω) = − 2 , n = 2, ∵ j 2 = −1, G(jω) = −180◦
ω
1
G(jω) = − 3 , n = 3 ∵ j 3 = −j, G(jω) = −270◦
jω
 227

1
G(jω) = , n = 4 ∵ j 4 = 1, G(jω) = −360◦
ω4

G(s) = sn
G(jω) = (jω)n
20 log10 |G(jω)| = n · 20 log10 ω
G(jω) = n(90◦ )

Bode Diagram

60
Magnitude (dB)

40

20

0
270

225
Phase (deg)

180

135

90
100 100.1 100.2 100.3 100.4 100.5 100.6 100.7 100.8 100.9 101
Frequency (rad/s)
 228

1
G(s) =
sn
1
G(jω) =
(jω)n
20 log10 |G(jω)| = −n · 20 log10 ω
G(jω) = n(−90◦ )

Bode Diagram

0
Magnitude (dB)

−20

−40

−60
−90

−135
Phase (deg)

−180

−225

−270
100 100.1 100.2 100.3 100.4 100.5 100.6 100.7 100.8 100.9 101
Frequency (rad/s)
 229

s+a
G(s) =
a !
s
a

 +1
a
=
a



G(s) = τ s + 1
G(jω) = 1 + jωτ
p
|G(jω)| = 1 + ω 2 τ 2
20 log10 |G(jω)| = 20 log10 1 = 0dB, ωτ << 1
√
20 log10 |G(jω)| = 20 log10 2 = 3dB, ωτ = 1
20 log10 |G(jω)| = 20 log10 ωτ, ωτ >> 1

dB

60

40

20
20 dB/decade

0 ωτ
100 101 102 103
 230

40

35
|G(jω)|(dB)

30

25

20

15

10

10−2 10−1 100 101 102

ωτ

!
ωτ
G(jω) = tan−1
1
= 0◦ , ωτ << 1
= 45◦ , ωτ = 1
= 90◦ , ωτ >> 1

Two accepted methods of approximating the slope in between the minimum

and maximum phase values.
 Use a least square fit
 Match slope at ωτ = 1
 231

ϕ = tan−1 (ωτ )
u = ωτ, x = ln ωτ
ex = eln ωτ = ωτ = u
ϕ = tan−1 (u)



d  d
(ϕ) = (tan−1 (u))
d(ln ωτ )  dx
ωτ =1

d 1 d
(tan−1 (u)) = · (u)
dx 1 + u2 dx

d d
(ωτ ) = (u) = ex
d(ln ωτ ) dx



ln ωτ 
=e  = e0 = 1

ωτ =1

d 1
(tan−1 (u)) = ·1
dx 1 + u2


1  1
=  =
1 + u2  2
u=ωτ =1
 232

ωτ = 4.81 ≈ 5
90◦

−11◦

1
2
11◦

0◦ ωτ = 100 = 1
1 1
ωτ = 4.81 ≈ 5

ALTERNATIVE PROOF:

ϕ = tan−1 (ωτ )
!
ω 1
= tan−1 , τ =
ω0 ω0
d 1 1
(ϕ) = 2 ·
dω 1 + ωω2 ω0
0

ω02
1 ω0
= · =
ω02 + ω 2 ω
 ω + ω02
 0
 ω
d   0 1
(ϕ) = =
dω  2ω02
2ω0
ω=ω0
 233

!
π ω
ϕSL (ω) = + m log10
4 ω0
!!
d d ω
(ϕSL (ω)) = m log10
dω dω ω0
!
d ln( ωω0 )
= m·
dω ln 10
!!
m d ω
= · ln
ln 10 dω ω0
!
m 1 1
= · ω ·
ln 10 ω
ω
 0
 0
m
=
 ω ln 10

d  m
(ϕSL (ω)) =
dω  ω0 ln 10
ω=ω0

m 1
=
ω
 0 ln 10 2ω0
ln 10
m=
2 ! !
π ln 10 ω
ϕSL (ω) = + · log10
4 2 ω0
!

!
π 
ln 10
 ln( ωω0 )
= + · 

4 2 ln10

!
π 1 ω
= + · ln
4 2 ω0
 234

!
π 1 ω
ϕSL (ω) = + · ln
4 2 ω0
ω −→ ϕSL (ω) = 0
!
π 1 ω
0= + · ln
4 2 ω0
!
1 ω π
· ln =−
2 ω0 4
!
ω π
ln =−
ω0 2


ω
ln
= e− 2
π
e ω0

ω
= e− 2
π

ω0
ω0
ω = ω0 · e− 2 ≈
π

5
π
ω −→ ϕSL (ω) =
2!
π π 1 ω
= + · ln
2 4 2 ω0
!
1 ω π
· ln =
2 ω0 4
!
ω π
ln =
ω0 2


ln ω π
e ω0 = e 2
ω π
= e2
ω0
π
ω = ω0 · e 2 ≈ 5 · ω0
 235

90

80

70

60
G(jω)

50

40

30

20

10

0
10−2 10−1 100 101 102
ωτ

a
G(s) =
s+a
a


= !
s
a

 +1
a
1
G(s) =
τs + 1
1
G(jω) =
1 + jωτ
1
|G(jω)| = √
1 + ω2τ 2
20 log10 |G(jω)| = 20 log10 1 = 0dB, ωτ << 1
√
20 log10 |G(jω)| = −20 log10 2 = −3dB, ωτ = 1
20 log10 |G(jω)| = −20 log10 ωτ, ωτ >> 1
 236

−5

−10
|G(jω)|(dB)

−15

−20

−25

−30

−35

−40

10−2 10−1 100 101 102

ωτ

!
ωτ
G(jω) = − tan−1
1
= 0◦ , ωτ << 1
= −45◦ , ωτ = 1
= −90◦ , ωτ >> 1
 237

−10

−20

−30
G(jω)

−40

−50

−60

−70

−80

−90
10−2 10−1 100 101 102
ωτ
 238

LEAD

s + 10 100
G(s) = ·
10 s + 100

60

40
|G(jω)|(dB)

20

−20

−40

10−1 100 101 102 103 104

ω

100

80

60

40
G(jω)

20

−20

−40

−60

−80

−100
10−1 100 101 102 103 104
ω
 239

LAG

s + 100 10
G(s) = ·
100 s + 10

40

30

20
|G(jω)|(dB)

10

−10

−20

−30

−40

−50

−60
10−1 100 101 102 103 104
ω

100

80

60

40
G(jω)

20

−20

−40

−60

−80

−100
10−1 100 101 102 103 104
ω
 240

Bode Diagram

20

10
Magnitude (dB)

−10

−20
90

45
Phase (deg)

−45

−90
10−1 100 101 102 103 104

Frequency (rad/s)
 241

s2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2
G(s) =
ωn2
!2 !
s s
= + 2ζ +1
ωn ωn
!2 !
ω ω
G(jω) = 1 − + j2ζ
ωn ωn
v !2 !2 !!2
u
u ω ω
|G(jω)| = t 1 − + 2ζ
ωn ωn

20 log10 |G(jω)| = 20 log10 1 = 0dB, ω << ωn

!2 !
ω ω
20 log10 |G(jω)| = 20 log10 = 40 log10 , ω >> ωn
ωn ωn
20 log10 |G(jω)| = 20 log10 (2ζ), ω = ωn
 
−1 
2ζ ωωn 
G(jω) = tan   2 
1 − ωωn

= 0◦ , ω << ωn
= 90◦ , ω = ωn
= 180◦ , ω >> ωn
 242

60
Magnitude (dB)

40

20

−20
180

135
Phase (deg)

90

45

0
10−2 10−1 0
10  101 102
ω
Frequency ωn
(rad/s)

 
 2ζ ωωn 
ϕ(ω) = tan−1   2 
1− ω
ωn

Using Matlab Symbolic Toolbox

d 2ζωn (ω 2 + ωn2 )
ϕ(ω) = 4
dω ω + ωn4 + ωn2 (4ω 2 ζ 2 − 2ω 2 )


d  1
ϕ(ω) =
dω  ωn ζ
ω=ωn
 243

Straight Line Approximation

!
π ω
ϕSL (ω) = + m log10
2 ωn
d m
ϕSL (ω) =
dω  ω ln 10

d  m
ϕSL (ω) =
dω  ωn ln 10
ω=ωn
m 1
=
ω
 n ln 10 ω
 nζ
ln 10
m=
ζ
!
π ln 10 ω
ϕSL (ω) = + log10
2 ζ ωn
 
ω

 ln
π ln10
 ωn
= + · 

2 ζ ln10
  
ω
ln
π ωn
ϕSL (ω) = +
2 ζ
At Low Frequencies
 
ω
ln
π ωn
0= +
2 ζ


ω = ωn e −
π
2
ζ
 244

At High Frequencies
 
ω
ln
π ωn
π= +
2 ζ


π
ζ
ω = ωn e 2

Similarly, the analysis exists for

ωn2
G(s) =
s2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2

20

0
Magnitude (dB)

−20

−40

−60

−45
Phase (deg)

−90

−135

−180
10−2 10−1 0
10  101 102
ω
Frequency ωn
(rad/s)
 245

GAIN AND PHASE MARGINS

s+a
G(s) =
s(s2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2 )

Bode Diagram

20

0
Magnitude (dB)

−20

−40

−60

−80
−45

−90
Phase (deg)

−135

−180

−225
10−1 100 101 102

Frequency (rad/s)

jω + a
G(s) = G(jω) =
(jω)((jω)2 + 2ζωn (jω) + ωn2 )
|G(jω)|ω=1 rad/sec = −8.3924 dB = 0.3805
G(jω) = −78.4763◦
 246

R(s) + Y(s)
K G(s)
−

Y (s) KG(s)
Tcl (s) = =
R(s) 1 + KG(s)
Unstable Closed Loop System Response Increases without any Bound.

∆(s) = 1 + KG(s) = 0
1 + KG(s) = 0
KG(s) = −1

KG(s) is an Open Loop System

KG(jω) = −1
|KG(jω)| = 1 = 0 dB
KG(jω) = ±180◦

Any Frequency ω in Bode Plot of an Open Loop System KG(jω) has a

magnitude of 1 (0 dB) and phase of −180◦ will make the closed loop
system at the brink of instability.
 247

Bode Diagram

GM = 13.3 dB (at 3.73 rad/s) , PM = 94.2 deg (at 0.33 rad/s)

20

0
Magnitude (dB)

−20

−40

−60

−80
−45

−90
Phase (deg)

−135

−180

−225
10−1 100 101 102

Frequency (rad/s)

13.3
GM = 13.3 dB = 10 20 = 4.6238
 248

Bode Diagram

GM = 0.00 dB (at 3.7 rad/s) , PM = 0.00 deg (at 3.7 rad/s)

40

20

0
Magnitude (dB)

−20

−40

−60

−80
−45

−90
Phase (deg)

−135

−180

−225
10−1 100 101 102

Frequency (rad/s)
 249

Root Locus

10

5
Imaginary Axis

−5

−10

−3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1

Real Axis gain = [0, 130.894]

Root Locus Confirms the Poles of the Closed Loop system are on imaginary
axis when K = 4.62.

EXAMPLE

1
KG(s) =
s−1
When K = 1.
 250

Pole-Zero Map
1

0.8

0.6

0.4
Imaginary Axis

0.2

−0.2

−0.4

−0.6

−0.8

−1
0.9 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 1 1.02 1.04 1.06 1.08 1.1
Real Axis
 251

Bode Diagram

GM = 0 dB (at 0 rad/s) , PM = 0 deg (at 0 rad/s)

−10
Magnitude (dB)

−20

−30

−40
−90
Phase (deg)

−135

−180
10−2 10−1 100 101 102

Frequency (rad/s)
 252

Root Locus
0.1

8 · 10−2

6 · 10−2

4 · 10−2
Imaginary Axis

2 · 10−2

0
K=1
−2 · 10−2

−4 · 10−2

−6 · 10−2

−8 · 10−2

−0.1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Real Axis gain = [0, 1]

R(s) + 1 Y(s)
K=1
s−1
−

1
Tcl (s) =
s
 253

1
KG(s) =
s−1
When K = 2.
Bode Diagram

GM = -6.02 dB (at 0 rad/s) , PM = 60 deg (at 1.73 rad/s)

10

0
Magnitude (dB)

−10

−20

−30

−40
−90
Phase (deg)

−135

−180
10−2 10−1 100 101 102

Frequency (rad/s)
 254

Root Locus
0.1

8 · 10−2

6 · 10−2

4 · 10−2
Imaginary Axis

2 · 10−2

0
K=2 K=1
−2 · 10−2

−4 · 10−2

−6 · 10−2

−8 · 10−2

−0.1
−1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Real Axis gain = [0, 2]

R(s) + 1 Y(s)
K=2
s−1
−

2
Tcl (s) =
s+1
 255

NYQUIST PLOTS
 POLAR PLOT
 COMBINING BODE PLOT
4
G(s) =
s(s + 5)
BODE PLOT
Bode Diagram

20

0
Magnitude (dB)

−20

−40

−60

−80
−90
Phase (deg)

−135

−180
10−1 100 101 102

Frequency (rad/s)
 256

NYQUIST PLOT
Nyquist Diagram

1
Imaginary Axis

−1

−2

−1 −0.9 −0.8 −0.7 −0.6 −0.5 −0.4 −0.3 −0.2 −0.1 0

Real Axis

NYQUIST PLOT USING MATLAB PLOT

0

−4

−8
−1 −0.5 0
 257

Nyquist Plot −→ Mapping from ’s’ plane (space) to G(s) plane (space)

D-Contour
jω

P σ
RH

s-plane (space)

 Four Right Hand Right Angle Turns

 D-Contour −→ Values of s −→ Sketch Bode and Nyquist Plots
 Nyquist plot mapping of G(s) as ’s’ describes the D-Contour
 Nyquist plot ←− must contain right hand right angle turns at points cor-
responding to those in D-Contour
 D-Contour is closed so mapping of this is closed
 Nyquist plot includes positive ’ω ’ as well as negative ’ω ’
 258

 Nyquist plot must be symmetric (about real axis)

G(jω) = G(−jω)

Nyquist Diagram
4

1
Imaginary Axis

−1

−2

−3

−4
−1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Real Axis

Conformal Mappings
Analytical Function G(s) −→ If locus of s space moves through an angle
’α’ then the locus of G(s) space must also move through an angle ’α’.
 259

s− space G(s)− space

jω Im{G(s)}

α
s = s1
G(s1)
α
σ Re{G(s)}
G(s)

SIGNIFICANCE: D-Contour has four right hand right angle turns

CASE I: PROPER RATIONAL FUNCTION
sm + bm−1 sm−1 + bm−2 sm−2 + · · · + b0
G(s) = , n>m
sn + an−1 sn−1 + an−2 sn−2 + · · · + a0
( )
(jω)m + bm−1 (jω)m−1 + bm−2 (jω)m−2 + · · · + b0
G(jω) = lim
ω→∞ (jω)n + an−1 (jω)n−1 + an−2 (jω)n−2 + · · · + a0
=0

IGNORE RIGHT HAND RIGHT ANGLE TURNS AS ω → ∞

CASE II: ABSENCE OF 1
sn
, n = 1, 2, · · · FACTORS
sm + bm−1 sm−1 + bm−2 sm−2 + · · · + b0
G(s) = , a0 ̸= 0
sn + an−1 sn−1 + an−2 sn−2 + · · · + a0
( )
(jω)m + bm−1 (jω)m−1 + bm−2 (jω)m−2 + · · · + b0
G(jω) = lim
ω→0 (jω)n + an−1 (jω)n−1 + an−2 (jω)n−2 + · · · + a0
b0
=
a0
 260

∴ ω → 0 THE GAIN TENDS TO A FINITE CONSTANT, IGNORE RIGHT HAND

RIGHT TURNS

1
MAPPING OF s

jω jω

1
G(s) =
s

σ 1 σ
G(jω) =
jω

It can be observed that as ω → 0 then |G(jω)| → ∞

D-Contour (s-space) moves Nyquist (G(s)-space) must

through 180◦ anticlockwise moves through 180◦ clock-
−→
(around the origin) as ω tran- wise (with infinite gain) as ω
sits from 0− to 0+ transits from 0− to 0+
261
 262

−1 PASSING
Nyquist plot passed with −1 point on right or the left (Direction in increasing
ω)

Im{G(s)}

RIGHT

Re{G(s)}
−1
LEFT

RIGHT HALF PLANE FACTOR

s-space G(s)-space
jω Im{G(s)}

θ s1 θ
ω G(s ) = −1
1
σ G(s1) Re{G(s)}
ω −1

Turn Right from Nyquist to get to −1 −→ Right Half Plane Poles

 263

LEFT HALF PLANE FACTOR

s-space G(s)-space
jω Im{G(s)}

s1 θ
G(s1) = −1
ω
σ G(s1) Re{G(s)}
−1 θ

Turn Left from Nyquist to get to −1 −→ Left Half Plane Poles

Conformal mappings indicate that for closed-loop stability the Nyquist plot
must pass with the −1 point on the left (in direction of increasing ω ).

ORIGIN ENCIRCLEMENT
s-space G(s)-space

jω Im{G(s)}

G(s) = s + a

σ Re{G(s)}
−a 0 0 a

G(jω) = jω + a

No Encirclement of Origin
 264

s-space G(s)-space
jω Im{G(s)}

1
G(s) = s+a
1
a
σ Re{G(s)}
−a 0 0
1
G(jω) = jω+a

No Encirclement of Origin

s-space G(s)-space

jω ∠G(jω)
90
G(s) = s + a

σ
−a 0 0

G(jω) = jω + a
−90

s-space G(s)-space

jω ∠G(jω)
180
G(s) = s − a
180 − α
α
σ
0 a 0

G(jω) = jω − a
−180
 265

s-space G(s)-space
jω Im{G(s)}

G(s) = s − a
180 − α
α
σ Re{G(s)}
0 a 0

G(jω) = jω − a

One Encirclement Clockwise

s-space G(s)-space
jω Im{G(s)}
1
G(s) = s−a
180 − α
α − a1
σ Re{G(s)}
0 a 0
1
G(jω) = jω−a

One Encirclement Anticlockwise

Every RHP Zero −→ One Encirclement of Origin (Clockwise)

Every RHP Pole −→ One Encirclement of Origin (Anticlockwise)

(s − α)
G(s) =
(s + γ)(s − β)
 266

G(s)-space
Im{G(s)}

Re{G(s)}
0

NYQUIST STABILITY CRITERION

”Open Loop” Nyquist plot to make inferences about ”Closed Loop” stability
Closed Loop and Open Loop Connection

KG(s)
Tcl (s) =
1 + KG(s)
∆(s) = 1 + KG(s) = 0
KG(s) = −1
n
KG(s) =
Po
n n + Po Pc
1 + KG(s) = 1 = = =
Po Po Po
 267

Pc Closed Loop Poles

1 + KG(s) = =
Po Open Loop Poles
Nc = Number of closed loop RHP poles (in numerator)
No = Number of open loop RHP poles (in denominator)
1 + KG(s) −→ Nc − No clockwise encirclement of origin
KG(s) −→ Nc − No clockwise encirclement of −1
NQ = Number of clockwise encirclement of −1

NQ = Nc − No

Closed Loop Stability =⇒ Nc = 0

NQ = −No Closed Loop stable iff it is true

Number of anticlockwise encirclement of −1 point matches number of open

loop RHP poles
Most system are open loop stable so that No = 0 hence would require no
encirclement.
1
s
is considered as LHP in the above count.
Closed Loop RHP Poles are equal to

NQ + No = Nc
 268

EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
2
KG(s) =
s−1

Nyquist Diagram

0.8

0.6

0.4
Imaginary Axis

0.2

−0.2

−0.4

−0.6

−0.8

−1
−2 −1.8 −1.6 −1.4 −1.2 −1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0
Real Axis

NQ = 1, Anticlockwise Encirclement
No = 1
NQ = No , Closed Loop Stable
 269

Bode Diagram

0
Magnitude [dB]
−10

−20

−30

10−2 10−1 100 101 102

−100
Phase [deg]

−120

−140

−160

−180
10−2 10−1 100 101 102
Frequency [rad/s]

Root Locus
0.1

8 · 10−2

6 · 10−2

4 · 10−2
Imaginary Axis

2 · 10−2

0
K=2 K=1
−2 · 10−2

−4 · 10−2

−6 · 10−2

−8 · 10−2

−0.1
−1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Real Axis gain = [0, 2]

EXAMPLE 2 ( )
1
s+ 3
KG(s) = 2 ×
(s + 1)(s + 2)
 270

Nyquist Diagram
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1
Imaginary Axis

−0.1

−0.2

−0.3

−0.4
−1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
Real Axis

NQ = 0
No = 0
Nc = NQ + No = 0, Closed Loop Stable

Bode Diagram

−10
Magnitude [dB]

−20

−30

10−2 10−1 100 101 102

0
Phase [deg]

−50

10−2 10−1 100 101 102

Frequency [rad/s]
 271

Root Locus
0.1

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02
Imaginary Axis

0
K=2 K=2

−0.02

−0.04

−0.06

−0.08

−0.1
−10 −9 −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0
Real Axis gain = [0, 7.11905]

EXAMPLE 3

K
KG(s) =
(s + 1)3
K=1
Nyquist Diagram
0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
Imaginary Axis

−0.2

−0.4

−0.6

−0.8
−1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Real Axis
 272

NQ = 0
No = 0
Nc = NQ + No = 0, Closed Loop Stable

K=15
Nyquist Diagram
12

10

4
Imaginary Axis

−2

−4

−6

−8

−10

−12
−4 −2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Real Axis

NQ = 2, Clockwise Encirclement
No = 0
Nc = NQ + No = 2, Closed Loop Not Stable
 273

Root Locus
3

2
K = 15

1
Imaginary Axis

0
K = 15

−1

K = 15
−2

−3
−4.5 −4 −3.5 −3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Real Axis gain = [0, 13.9655]

K
KG(s) =
(s + 1)3
K
KG(jω) =
(jω + 1)3
KG(jω) = −3 tan−1 (ω) = −180◦
ω = tan (60◦ ) = 1.732
K
|KG(jω)| = √
( 1 + ω 2 )3
K
|KG(jω)|ω=1.732 = √ =1
( 1 + (1.732)2 )3
K=8
 274

K=1
Bode Diagram

GM = 18.1 dB (at 1.73 rad/s) , PM = -180 deg (at 0 rad/s)

−10

−20
Magnitude (dB)

−30

−40

−50

−60

−70
0

−45

−90
Phase (deg)

−135

−180

−225

−270
10−1 100 101

Frequency (rad/s)

K=8
Bode Diagram

GM = 0.00 dB (at 1.73 rad/s) , PM = 0.00 deg (at 1.73 rad/s)

20

10

0
Magnitude (dB)

−10

−20

−30

−40

−50
0

−45

−90
Phase (deg)

−135

−180

−225

−270
10−1 100 101

Frequency (rad/s)
 275

Nyquist Diagram

2
Imaginary Axis

−2

−4

−6
−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Real Axis

EXAMPLE 4

s+3
KG(s) = 0.5 ×
s(s − 1)

Nyquist Diagram

2
Imaginary Axis

−1

−2

−3

−4

−1.8 −1.6 −1.4 −1.2 −1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0

Real Axis
 276

NQ = 1, Clockwise Encirclement
No = 1
Nc = NQ + No = 2, Closed Loop Not Stable
 277

Root Locus

3.5

2.5

1.5
K = 0.5
1
Imaginary Axis

0.5

−0.5

−1
K = 0.5
−1.5

−2

−2.5

−3

−3.5

−28 −26 −24 −22 −20 −18 −16 −14 −12 −10 −8 −6 −4 −2 0 2
Real Axis gain = [0, 31.8843]

GAIN AND PHASE MARGINS

GAIN MARGIN
Nyquist Diagram

0.5
Imaginary Axis

−0.5

−1

−1 −0.9 −0.8 −0.7 −0.6 −0.5 −0.4 −0.3 −0.2 −0.1 0

Real Axis
 278

−0.1667 × K = −1
K=6

Margin −→ Space to a boundary (Instability)

Nyquist plot going through the −1 point
Gain Change −→ Nyquist plot goes through the −1 point
Change −→ Multiplicative
KG(s) = −1, KG(jω) = −1


Real Number K −→ KG(jω) = −1 =⇒ G(jω) = −180◦
ω=ωp
ωp −→ Phase Crossover Frequency
Nyquist plot must cross the negative real axis then Gain Margin exists
Let ’a’ is the intercept with the negative real axis then

−|a| × K = −1
1
GM = K =
|a|
1) G(jωp ) = −180◦

2) |G(jωp )|

1 1
3) a = −|G(jωp )| −→ GM = K = =
|G(jωp )| |a|

1
|G(jωp )| =
GM
GM should be at least 3
GM < 3 −→ Unsatisfactory behaviour
 279

EXAMPLE
1
G(s) =
s(s + 1)(s + 2)
1
G(jω) =
(jω)(jω + 1)(jω + 2)
!
ωp
G(jωp ) = −90◦ − tan−1 (ωp ) − tan−1 = −180◦
2
 
ω
ω + 2p 
−1  p
−90◦ − tan  ωp2 
= −180◦
1− 2
 
ω
ω + 2p 
−1  p
tan  ωp2 
= 90◦
1− 2
ωp
ωp + 2
ωp2
= tan (90◦ ) = ∞
1− 2
ωp2
1− =0
2
√
ωp = 2
a = −|G(jωp )|
1
=−
(jωp )(jωp + 1)(jωp + 2)
1
= −q √ √ √
( 2)2 (1 + ( 2)2 )(4 + ( 2)2 )
1
=−
6
1
GM = =6
|a|
 280

Nyquist Diagram

2
Imaginary Axis

−2

−4

−6

−8
−4 −3.5 −3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0
Real Axis

PHASE MARGIN
Nyquist Diagram

0.5
Imaginary Axis

−0.5
ϕ

−1

−1 −0.9 −0.8 −0.7 −0.6 −0.5 −0.4 −0.3 −0.2 −0.1 0

Real Axis
 281

Rotation of Nyquist Plot −→ It passes throught −1 point

Change −→ Additive
Rotation e−jϕ −→ e−jϕ G(jω) = −1 =⇒ |G(jω)| = 1
ωG −→ Gain Crossover Frequency
jωG − ϕ = −180◦
Nyquist plot must cross the unit circle then Phase Margin exists
Positive ϕ −→ clockwise
Let ’p’ is the intercept with the unit circle

P M = ϕ = 180◦ + p

Nyquist Diagram

0.5
Imaginary Axis

−0.5
ϕ p
p
−1

−1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4

Real Axis

1) |G(jωG )| = 1

2) G(jωG )

3) Clockwise rotation required: ϕ = 180◦ + G(jωG )

 282

Most real systems PM cannot be computed analytically so numerical

methods are used.
PM should be around 60◦
PM around 60◦ =⇒ Nyquist plot crosses the unit circle in quadrant 3.
PM < 60◦ −→ Poor Behaviour
PM > 60◦ −→ system slow or detuned

EXAMPLE

1
G(s) =
s(s + 0.2)
1
G(jω) =
(jω)(jω + 0.2)
 
 
 
 1 
|G(jωG )| =  =1
 (jωG )(jωG + 0.2) 
 
1
= q =1
2 2
ωG (0.22 + ωG )
q
2 2
= ωG (0.22 + ωG )=1
2
= ωG (0.22 + ωG
2
)=1
4
= ωG + 0.22 ωG
2
−1=0
2
ωG = 0.96
√
ωG = 0.96
 283

√ !
0.96
G(jωG ) = −90◦ − tan−1
0.2
= −168.5◦
P M = ϕ = 180◦ − 168.5◦
= 11.5◦

10

−2

−4

−6

−8

−10
−15 −14 −13 −12 −11 −10 −9 −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0
 284

DESIGN STEPS
1. Fix Crossover Frequency

ωn ≈ ωBW ≈ ωCO =⇒ |K(s)G(s)| = 0dB = 100

2. LEAD to fix Phase Margin

3. LAG to fix everything else

LAG

LEAD

0dB

−180◦
 285

R(s) + 1 Y(s)
K
(s + 1)2
−

Input: r(t) = 1(t)

REQUIREMENTS:

ζ ≥ 0.5, ωn ≥ 1, ess (t) ≤ 0.1

K
Tol (s) =
(s + 1)2
Tol (s)
Tcl (s) =
1 + Tol (s)
K
(s+1)2
= K
1 + (s+1) 2

K
=
s2 + 2s + K + 1
∆(s) = s2 + 2s + K + 1 = 0
s2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2 = s2 + 2s + K + 1
ωn2 = K + 1 = 3 + 1
ωn = 2
K=3
 286

2ζωn = 2
ζ = 0.5

0.50

1.5

0.5
Imaginary Axis

0 0 rad/s

−0.5

−1

−1.5

0.50
−1.1 −1 −0.9 −0.8 −0.7 −0.6 −0.5 −0.4 −0.3 −0.2 −0.1 0
Real Axis

ERROR ANALYSIS:
E(s) 1
TE (s) = = K
R(s) 1+ (s+1)2
(s + 1)2
=
s2 + 2s + K + 1
1
R(s) = , K = 3
s
ess (∞) = lim sE(s) = lim sTE (s)R(s)
s→0 s→0
(s + 1)2 1
s×
= lim  ×
s→0 s2 + 2s + 4 s


= 0.25 ≰ 0.1
 287

Step Response
0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5
Output

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Time [s]

E(s) 1
TE (s) = = K
R(s) 1+ (s+1)2
(s + 1)2
=
s2 + 2s + K + 1
1
R(s) = , K = 9
s
ess (∞) = lim sE(s) = lim sTE (s)R(s)
s→0 s→0
(s + 1)2 1
s×
= lim  ×
s→0 s2 + 2s + 10 s


= 0.1 ≤ 0.1
 288

Increasing the value of K to 9 in order to reduce the steady state error will
decrease the damping.

3
K(s)G(s) =
(s + 1)2

Bode Diagram

0
Magnitude (dB)

−20

−40

−60

−45
Phase (deg)

−90

−135

−180
10−2 10−1 100 101 102

Frequency (rad/s)

Since the DC gain need to be amplified so Lag controller will be a best option
with gain of 3.
 289

s+b
K(s) = 3 ×
s+a
b
=3
a
s + 0.3
K(s) = 3 ×
s + 0.1

Bode Diagram

20

18

16
Magnitude (dB)

14

12

10

8
0

−5

−10
Phase (deg)

−15

−20

−25

−30
10−3 10−2 10−1 100 101

Frequency (rad/s)
 290

3(s + 0.3)
K(s)G(s) =
(s + 0.1)(s + 1)2

Bode Diagram

20

0
Magnitude (dB)

−20

−40

−60

−80
0

−45
Phase (deg)

−90

−135

−180
10−3 10−2 10−1 100 101 102

Frequency (rad/s)
 291

Root Locus

2
0.50

1 1.00
Imaginary Axis

0 0 rad/s

−1 1.00

0.50
−2

−1 −0.9 −0.8 −0.7 −0.6 −0.5 −0.4 −0.3 −0.2 −0.1 0 0.1
Real Axis

Step Response

0.8

0.6
Output

0.4

0.2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time [s]
 292

CONTROLLER GAIN AND GAIN MARGIN

Tol (s) = KK(s)G(s)

GAIN MARGIN

K(jωp )G(jωp ) = −180◦

1
K = GM =
|K(jωp )G(jωp )|

Changing Controller Gain −→ Magnitude Plot changes by 20 log10 (K)

Gain Crossover Frequency ωG changes
Phase Plot does not change
Phase Crossover Frequency ωp constant

Find ωp using above two equations so

20 log10 (K) = −20 log10 |K(jωp )G(jωp )|

Phase crossover frequency is fixed so on Bode plot

GM = −20 log10 |K(jωp )G(jωp )| − 20 log10 (K)

 293

EXAMPLE

R(s) + s+5 0.4 Y(s)

K
s (s + 2)(s + 1)
−

0.4(s + 5)
Tol (s) = KK(s)G(s) = K
s(s + 2)(s + 1)

Bode Plot
60
K=1
40 K=0.5
K=4
20
Magnitude (dB)

-20

-40

-60

-80

-100
-90

-135
Phase (deg)

-180

-225
10 -2 10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2
Frequency (rad/s)
 294

K = 0.5 −→ GM = 23.5dB at 2.24 rad/s

K = 1 −→ GM = 17.5dB at 2.24 rad/s
K = 4 −→ GM = 5.46dB at 2.24 rad/s

Given: GM = x dB
Desired: GMd = y dB
−20 log10 (K) = y − x
K = 10−(
y−x
20
)

CONTROLLER GAIN AND PHASE MARGIN

Tol (s) = KK(s)G(s)

PHASE MARGIN

|KK(jωG )G(jωG )| = 1
ϕ = P M = 180◦ + K(jωG )G(jωG )

Changing Controller Gain −→ Magnitude Plot changes by 20 log10 (K)

Gain Crossover Frequency ωG changes
Phase Plot does not change
 295

EXAMPLE

R(s) + 1 Y(s)
K
s(s + 1)(s + 5)
−

1
Tol (s) = KK(s)G(s) = K
s(s + 1)(s + 5)

Bode Plot
50
K=1
K=2
K=10
0
Magnitude (dB)

-50

-100

-150
-90

-135
Phase (deg)

-180

-225

-270
10 -2 10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2
Frequency (rad/s)
 296

K = 1 −→ PM = 76.7◦ at 0.196 rad/s

K = 2 −→ PM = 65.2◦ at 0.374 rad/s
K = 10 −→ PM = 25.4◦ at 1.23 rad/s

Find ωG using the following equation with desired P Md so

KK(jωG )G(jωG ) = P Md − 180◦

use the ωG in the following equation to find K

1
K=
|K(jωG )G(jωG )|
 297

DESIGN PARAMETER K FOR SPECIFIC PHASE MARGIN

EXAMPLE

R(s) + 1 Y(s)
K
(s + 4)4
−

1
Tol (s) = KG(s) = K
(s + 1)4

Bode Diagram
Gm = 12 dB (at 1 rad/s) , Pm = -180 deg (at 0 rad/s)
0

K=1
-20
Magnitude (dB)

-40

-60

-80

-100
0

-45

-90
Phase (deg)

-135

-180

-225

-270

-315

-360
10 -1 10 0 10 1
Frequency (rad/s)
 298

P Md = 60◦
P Md − 180◦ = G(jωG )
60◦ − 180◦ = G(jωG )
−120◦ = G(jωG )
G(s) = −4 s + 1
G(jωG ) = −4 jωG + 1
−4 jωG + 1 = −120◦
jωG + 1 = 30◦
tan−1 ωG = 30◦
ωG = tan (30◦ )
1
ωG = √
3
1 1
K= =  
|G(jωG |  
G(j √ 
1
 3) 
s 4
1
= +1
3
16
= = 1.78
9

1
KG(s) = 1.78
(s + 1)4
 299

Bode Diagram
Gm = 7.03 dB (at 1 rad/s) , Pm = 59.9 deg (at 0.578 rad/s)
20

K=1.78

0
Magnitude (dB)

-20

-40

-60

-80
0

-45

-90
Phase (deg)

-135

-180

-225

-270

-315

-360
10 -1 10 0 10 1
Frequency (rad/s)

EXAMPLE

R(s) + 1−s Y(s)

K
(s + 1)2
−

1−s
Tol (s) = K
(s + 1)2

(a) Draw Bode and Nyquist of Tol (s) with K = 1.

 300

Bode Diagram
Gm = 6.02 dB (at 1.73 rad/s) , Pm = -180 deg (at 0 rad/s)
0

-5
Magnitude (dB)

-10

-15

-20
360
K=1
315

270
Phase (deg)

225

180

135

90
10 -1 10 0 10 1
Frequency (rad/s)

(b) Estimate K such that the closed loop system phase margin is 45◦ . What
is the corresponding gain margin.
 301

P Md = 45◦
G(jωg ) = P Md − 180◦
= −135◦
ωG = 1 rad/s, From Bode Plot
|G(jωG )| = |G(j1)| = −3.01 dB, From Bode Plot
√
K = 0 dB − (−3.01 dB) = 3.01 dB = 2

√ 1−s
Tol (s) = 2
(s + 1)2
Bode Diagram
Gm = 3.01 dB (at 1.73 rad/s) , Pm = 45 deg (at 1 rad/s)
5

0
Magnitude (dB)

-5

-10

-15

-20
360

315

270
Phase (deg)

225

180

135

90
10 -1 10 0 10 1
Frequency (rad/s)

(c) The closed loop stability through Nyquist stability criterion must be con-
firmed.
302
 303

LAG COMPENSATOR DESIGN

s+b b
Tlg (s) = K , where α=
s+a a
s + αa
=K , 1 ≤ α ≤ 10
s+a

Bode Diagram

13

12

11
Magnitude (dB)

10

6
0

−5
Phase (deg)

−10

−15

−20 √
a a α αa

Frequency (rad/s)

GAIN AND PHASE CHARACTERISTICS

Low Frequency Gain −→ Kα
High Frequency Gain −→ K
Shifts Low Frequency up by Kα and High Frequency by K
Ratio to Low to High Frequency Gains −→ α
A Typical Lag design focuses on α i.e. ratio of Low to High Frequency Gain.
 304

Phase is zero −→ High and Low Frequencies

Phase is negative around corner frequencies and negatively largest between
the corner frequencies
Phase Characteristics −→ zero to pole ratio i.e. α
Gain Characteristics −→ zero to pole ratio i.e. α

! !
ω ω
Tlg (jω) = tan−1 − tan−1
αa a

Phase is always negative ∵ α > 1

Phase at corner frequencies ω = a and ω = αa must be the same i.e.

! ! ! !
a a αa αa
tan−1 − tan−1 = tan−1 − tan−1
αa a αa a
!
1
= tan−1 − 45◦
α

The largest (negative) phase occurs at the geometric mean of the corner
frequencies i.e
√
ωm = a α

The phase at ωm
! !
ωm ωm
Tlg (jωm ) = tan−1 − tan−1
αa a
√ ! √ !
a α a α
= tan−1 − tan−1
αa a
 305

!
1 √
= tan−1 √ − tan−1 ( α)
α
 
√

√1
α −
−1 α
= tan  √ 
1 + √1α α
 
√
√ −
1
α
−1  α
= tan  
2

α 2 3 4 6 8 10
Phase −19◦ −30◦ −37◦ −46◦ −51◦ −55◦

EXAMPLE

s + 0.5
Tlg (s) = 0.2 , α = 5, K = 0.2, a = 0.1
s + 0.1

ωlow GAIN −→ 0.2 × 5 = 1 = 0dB

ωhigh GAIN −→ 0.2 ≈ −14dB
√
ωm −→ 0.5 × 0.1 = 0.22
 
√
√1 − 5
−1  5 ◦
Tlg (jωm ) −→ tan   = −42
2
 306

Bode Diagram
0

-2

-4 System: sys
Magnitude (dB)

Frequency (rad/s): 0.222

-6 Magnitude (dB): -6.94

-8

-10

-12

-14
0

System: sys
Phase (deg)

Frequency (rad/s): 0.499

-30 Phase (deg): -33.7

System: sys
Frequency (rad/s): 0.1
Phase (deg): -33.7 System: sys
Frequency (rad/s): 0.222
Phase (deg): -41.8
-60
10 -3 10 -2 10 -1 10 0 10 1
Frequency (rad/s)

EXAMPLE

R(s) + s+5 3 Y(s)

2
s+1 (s + 1)(s + 4)
−

s+5 3
Tol (s) = KK(s)G(s) = 2 × ×
s+1 (s + 1)(s + 4)
 307

System: sys l ag
Frequency (rad/s): 0.0265 System: sys l ag
Magnitude (dB): 20 Bode Diagram
Frequency (rad/s): 2.2
20
Magnitude (dB): 13.1
System: untitled1
10 Frequency (rad/s): 0.0265
Magnitude (dB): 17.5 System: sys p lant
0
System: untitled1 Frequency (rad/s): 2.2
System: sys p lant Frequency (rad/s): 2.2 Magnitude (dB): -11.3
-10
Frequency (rad/s): 0.0265 Magnitude (dB): 1.77
Magnitude (dB): -2.5
Magnitude (dB)

-20

-30 System: untitled1

Frequency (rad/s): 31.6
-40 Magnitude (dB): -44.4

-50
System: sys p lant
-60 Frequency (rad/s): 31.6
Magnitude (dB): -50.5
-70

-80
0

-45
System: sys l ag
Frequency (rad/s): 2.21
Phase (deg)

Phase (deg): -41.8

-90
System: sys p lant
Frequency (rad/s): 2.2
Phase (deg): -94.3
-135
System: untitled1
Frequency (rad/s): 2.2
Phase (deg): -136

-180
10 -2 10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2
Frequency (rad/s)
 308

LEAD COMPENSATOR DESIGN

s+a b
Tld (s) = K , where α=
s+b a
s+a
=K , 1 ≤ α ≤ 10
s + αa

Bode Diagram

16

14

12
Magnitude (dB)

10

2
40

30
Phase (deg)

20

10

0 √
a a α αa

Frequency (rad/s)

GAIN AND PHASE CHARACTERISTICS

Low Frequency Gain −→ K
α
High Frequency Gain −→ K
K
Shifts Low Frequency up by α
and High Frequency by K
Ratio to High to Low Frequency Gains −→ α
 309

A Typical Lead design focuses on α i.e. ratio of High to Low Frequency

Gain.
Phase is zero −→ High and Low Frequencies
Phase is negative around corner frequencies and negatively largest between
the corner frequencies
Phase Characteristics −→ zero to pole ratio i.e. α
Gain Characteristics −→ zero to pole ratio i.e. α

! !
ω ω
Tld (jω) = tan−1 − tan−1
a αa
Phase is always positive ∵ α > 1
Phase at corner frequencies ω = a and ω = αa must be the same i.e.

! ! ! !
a a αa αa
tan−1 − tan−1 = tan−1 − tan−1
a αa a αa
!
1
= 45◦ − tan−1
α
The largest phase occurs at the geometric mean of the corner frequencies i.e
√
ωm = a α

The phase at ωm
! !
ωm ωm
Tlg (jωm ) = tan−1 − tan−1
a αa
√ ! √ !
a α a α
= tan−1 − tan−1
a αa
 310

!
√ 1
= tan−1 ( α) − tan−1 √
α
 
√
 α− √1

−1 α
= tan  √ 
1+ √1 α
α
 
√
 α− √1
α
−1
= tan  
2

α 2 3 4 6 8 10
Phase 19◦ 30◦ 37◦ 46◦ 51◦ 55◦

EXAMPLE

s + 0.5
Tld (s) = 2 , α = 6, K = 2, a = 0.5
s+3

0.5 1
ωlow GAIN −→ 2 × = −9.5dB
=
3 3
ωhigh GAIN −→ 2 = 6.02dB
√
ωm −→ 0.5 × 3 = 1.22
 
√
6 − √16 
−1  ◦
Tld (jωm ) −→ tan   = 45.6
2
 311

Bode Diagram
6
System: sys
Frequency (rad/s): 50.7
4 Magnitude (dB): 6.01

System: sys
0 Frequency (rad/s): 1.22
Magnitude (dB)

Magnitude (dB): -1.76

-2

-4

-6

System: sys
-8 Frequency (rad/s): 0.0359
Magnitude (dB): -9.52

-10
60
System: sys
Frequency (rad/s): 1.2
Phase (deg): 45.5
System: sys
Frequency (rad/s): 0.501
Phase (deg): 35.6
Phase (deg)

System: sys
30 Frequency (rad/s): 2.99
Phase (deg): 35.6

0
10 -2 10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2
Frequency (rad/s)

EXAMPLE

R(s) + s + 0.4 Y(s)

2 G(s)
s+3
−

s + 0.4 0.2
Tol (s) = KK(s)G(s) = 2 × ×
s+3 (s + 0.1)(s + 0.2)(s + 0.6)
 312

Bode Diagram
50 System: G
Frequency (rad/s): 0.00318
Magnitude (dB): 24.4 System: L
System: L Frequency (rad/s): 40.1
Frequency (rad/s): 1.1 Magnitude (dB): 6
System: untitled1 Magnitude (dB): -2.71
0
Frequency (rad/s): 0.00318
Magnitude (dB): 13
System: L
System: G
Magnitude (dB)

Frequency (rad/s): 0.00318 System: untitled1

Magnitude (dB): -11.5 Frequency (rad/s): 1.1 Frequency (rad/s): 1.1
Magnitude (dB): -20.4 Magnitude (dB): -17.8
-50

System: untitled1
Frequency (rad/s): 40
Magnitude (dB): -104
-100

System: G
Frequency (rad/s): 40
Magnitude (dB): -110
-150
90

45
System: L
Frequency (rad/s): 1.1
0 Phase (deg): 49.9

-45
Phase (deg)

-90
System: untitled1
-135 Frequency (rad/s): 1.1
Phase (deg): -176
-180

-225
System: G
-270 Frequency (rad/s): 1.1
Phase (deg): -226
10 -3 10 -2 10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2
Frequency (rad/s)