Experimental Stress Analysis Unit 3: PHOTO-ELASTICITY Nature of Light, Wave Theory of Light: Consider a disturbance that is propagated through the space in a periodic manner. Such a disturbance can be represented graphically as shown in fig. let y denote the magnitude of disturbance Then y = f(z) is periodic in z, ig. its value is repeated after regular interval of z. the lowest values of this intervals is called the wavelength and is generally denoted by the letter 4. the time taken for one wavelength to pass through a point in space is called the period and is denoted by t. If ¢ is the velocity of propagation of the disturbance, then Azer ‘The reciprocal of the period t is called the frequency. It is the number of oscillation at a given point per second. Department of M echanical Engineering PagelExperimental Stress Analysis Let disturbance originate from the point source. The disturbance travel outwards in all directions and if the medium is isotropic, the speed of propagation of these disturbances will be the same in all directions. Consequently, the disturbance travels in the form of diverging spherical waves, The locus of points having the same magnitude of disturbance is known as a wave-front, and in this particular case, the wave fronts are surface of concentric spheres with the source as centre. As this spherical wave s expands outwards, the radius becomes larger and any finite portion of the wave-front tends to become a plane. The direction of propagation of the disturbance would be perpendicular to the plane and is called the wave normal (transverse disturbance), The disturbance itself could be either perpendicular to the wave normal or in the direction of the wave normal (longitudinal disturbance) Consider a plane wave propagating in the z direction with velocity c. the wave front is parallel to the xy-plane. At time t=0, let the disturbance y be given by the equation y= flz) 2) After a time ¢, the disturbance will have travelled a distance ct and the graph shown in fig 1 will have shifted parallel to itself by a distance ct. Hence, the disturbance at a point z=2"+tcf af time ¢ is the same as the disturbance at z- at time In other words, from eq 2, the disturbance at point z at time f is the same as the disturbance that existed at z-cr at time 1=0, i.e. f(z — ct) Hence, the disturbance at z at time t can be written as y =flz—ct) (3) This is the fundamental equation of a plane wave travelling forward in the z-direction, Similarly, for a plane wave travelling backward, the fundamental equation is, y= f{ztct) (4) If the disturbance is periodic, then the function f(z) is periodic in z Eq 3 and 4 represents the plane waves can easily be seen since 2= constant represents a plane parallel to the xy-plane and on this plane the disturbance y has a uniform magnitude. Similarly, the fundamental equation of a plane wave propagating in a direction with direction cosines man) is 9 = fll + my + nz— Ct) wins aaeses (5) Because, the equation Lx + my + nz = p represents a plane whose normal has direction cosines (m,n) and on this plane the disturbance g has a uniform magnitude at a given time. A function f(z) which is periodic in z, the period being A, can be expanded in a Fourier series as Department of M echanical Engineering Page 2Experimental Stress Analysis fz) 2 Apt Y Ag cos eben) (6) For a periodic wave travelling forward with a velocity c, the Fourier expansion will be (7) flz—ct) = Ag+ Y Am cos (2 et +€n) ‘The first vibratory component of the series, ie. A,COS“"(z— ct +€,) is termed the fundamental simple form of a pline harmonic wave. In subsequent discussions, the typical fundamental light- wave propagating in the z-direction will be taken in the form 2: y= Acos— (a FH COFE) vests vsesrsreeees (BD ‘The constant A is called the amplitude and the quantity (z — ct+€) is called the phase. ot E z Light-waves belong to the class of transverse wave and the disturbance can be represented by means of a vector called the light vector. This light vector is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Light is known to be an electromagnetic disturbance propagated through space and Ovo vectors, namely the electric force vector H are associated with it. These two vectors are mutually perpendicular and either of these can be taken as the fundamental light vector. Acconiling to eq 8, the fundamental eq for light-wave (plane wave) travelling in the z-direction is an y= Acs H(z—ctte) For a given value of z, the above eq can be written as, Department of M echanical Engineering Page3Experimental Stress Analysis y= Acos(#ct +¢,) (a) Where ; is some constant. From eq 1 lic ear Where f is the frequency. This can be stated as the number of wavelengths travelled per second. 2tf expresses the quantity in radians per second and is called the circular frequency. Denoting the circular frequency by «@, eq A becomes, y = Acostwt +€,) (b) Instead of cosine function sin function can also be used to represent a plane harmonic wave, is y = Asin(wt +€,).. we) ‘The frequency of a light wave determines that quality which the eye recognizes as color. The lowest frequency which the human eye can recognize as light is about 390*10'? and this corresponds to deep red color. The highest frequency is about 770*10" corresponding to deep violet. Between these two frequencies, one finds the colors arranged as violet, indigo, blue, given, yellow, orange, and red. The gradation from one color to next is smooth and not abrupt When these colors are spread out to form a continues band, it is called a spectrum. Light corresponding to one particular frequency and one color is said to be homogeneous or monochromatic. It was stated that light-wave belongs to the class of transverse waves and the disturbance can be represented by means of a vector called the light vector. In ordinary light, the tip of the light- vector describes a random vibratory motion in a plane transverse to the direction of propagation If the tip of the light-vector is forced to follow a definite law, the light is said to be polarized. For example, if the tip is constrained to lie on the circumference of a circle, it is said to be circularly polarized. If the tip describes an ellipse, it is elliptically polarized. Ifthe light vector is parallel to a given direction in the wave-front, it is said to be linearly or plane polarized. These are shown in fig. if the tip of the light-vector in fig (a) describes the circle in a counter-clockwise direction as shown, then itis said (o be right handedly circularly polarized On the other hand, if the path is transverse in a clockwise direction, then it is teft-handedly circularly polarized. This notation is adopted so as to be consistent with the right-handed coordinate system. The positive z-axis is away from the source and the vibrations are in planes parallel to the xy-plane. Department of M echanical Engineering Page 4Experimental Stress Analysis + Plane polarised light Elliptically polarised light Similarly, one can speak of right-handedly or left-handedly elliptically polarized light. Itis easily ‘observed that an elliptically polarized light is the most general form of polarized light since a circle can be considered as an ellipse with the major and minor axes being equal. Similarly, a straight line is a degenerated form of an ellipse with the minor axis being equal to zero. Optically isotropic: Refractive index is same for all direction in the material. Therefore light propagate with the same velocity in all direction. Optically Anisotropic: the ability to resolve the light vector into two orthogonal components and transmit the components with different velocity in difierent direction. Such material is Known as double retracting or bitringement material. This type of properties is known as optically anisotmpic property Double Refraction: when a beam of un-polarized light is incident on the crystalline material , the beam upon entering the material get split into two component of plane polarized light. This Department of M echanical Engineering Page 5Experimental Stress Analysis phenomenon is known as double refraction and the material exhibiting this behavior is known as double refractive material, Canada balsam layer ‘Unpolarised light Extraordinary ray Ordinary ray Double refraction in Nicol prism Wave plat orthogonal components and transmit each one of them in different speed and phase. This phase difference is proportional to the thickness of the plate. A typical wave plate is as shown in fig. certain crystalline materials have the ability to resolve the light vectors into two A, Pepa ti Ts D The wave plates are of two types quarter wave plate(QW.P) and half wave plate(H.W.P), depending on the path difference(v/4 and m/2 respectively) produce between the two orthogonal ‘components, Wave plate Photo-elasticity: photo-clasticity is a stress analysis technique using the relative retardation b/w two components of light vector along the directions of two principle stresses at a point on a photo-clastic model. Photo-elastic model: A. photo-clastic model is a transparent material possessing the property of temporary double refraction. Without external load, the model is isotropic and when it is loaded, refractive index changes along the directions of principle stresses in the model. Department of M echanical Engineering Page 6Experimental Stress Analysis ‘There are many transparent, non-crystalline materials which are optically isotropic when free of stress but become optically anisotropic after the application of stress. This behavior is known as double refraction and the materials exhibits this behavior are known as photo-elastic materials. ‘As long as the loads are maintained on the photo-elastic materials, it exhibits the behavior of ‘temporary double refraction and the material becomes again isotropic after the removal of loads. Stress optic law Unstressed / Stressed . material | material fig 1 shows a unstressed thin dise of a photo-elastic model, The refructive index of this material in any direction is na. This thin disc is subjected to loads such that the principal stresses developed at a point 0 are 6; and @, as shown in fig 2. The refractive index of material changes in the direction of «to the value 2, and n> in the directiona,. These changes in refractive idiocies are linearly proportional to the stresses My = Ng = C10, F C20 q.00-0-(1) Ny = My = C102 + C000...) Where o and a are the principal stresses at a point in a material under plane stress condition, Ng is reftactive index of unstressed model. n, nz are the refractive index of stressed model associated with the directions of principal stress 01 and 02. ¢,Cp are stress optic co-efficient. ‘These changes is refractive index can be used as the basis for a stress measurement technique Le photo-elasticity. eq(2)-eq(l) ny =m, = (¢, ~e2)o2— 94) my — my = C9, — @) on...) Department of M echanical Engineering Page 7Experimental Stress Analysis Where, cy — ¢ If 0, > @2 and velocity of propagation of light wave associated with principle stress 0} is greater than the velocity of propagation of light wave associated with principal stress 02 is known as positive bifringence. A photo-elastic model behaves like a wave plate and it can be used to relate the relative retardation A to changes in the reffactive index in the material due to stress. If a beam of plane polarized light is passed through the thin sheet of photo-elastic material at normal incidence as shown, then relative retardation A between the two components of light vector along each of principal stress directions can be obtained by = PS (a4 — Oa) ses eeses nl) = thickness of model A=magnitude of relative retardation b/w two components of light beam propagating in penne directions perpendicular to a, anda, Eq 4 shows that relative retardation 4 is linearly proportional to (6; — >), b and inversely proportional to A wavelength of light being used. ‘The relative stress optic co-efficient c is assumed as a material constant AlaAgt (oy 02) = Sv 20t ) = N, relative retardation in terms of complete cycle a © = o = stress fringe value Department of M echanical Engineering Page 8Experimental Stress Analysis gy stress fringe value is a property of the model material and it is determined by calibration. If photo-elastic model material exhibits a perfectly linear elastic behavior, the difference in lishing the value N, relative retardation principal strain €,—-€, can also be measured by e 1 €1= 5 (a1 — 802) 1 €,= glo, 0m) 1 e-€2= ga + 8)(o, — 52) €,= material fringe value in terms of strains Types of polariscopes: We have two types of polariscopes 1) Plane polariscopes. 2) Circular polariscopes 1) Plane polariscope: Its the simplest mode! or optical system used in photo-elasticity. It consists of two linear polarizer’s and a light source as shown in the figure. The linear polarizer nearest to the light source is called polarizer. While the second linear polarizer is y from the light source called analyzer. Here the two axes of the polarizer’s always cross. Hence no light is transmitted through the analyzer and produce dark field. The model is inserted and viewed through analyzer. The polarizer is kept perpendicular to the axes of light propagation it transmits the light wave comes only in there axes. The analyzer is kept 90 deg to the polarizer and it transmit the light waves in there axes. Department of M echanical Engineering Page 9Experimental Stress Analysis Polariser Light source Plane polariscope 2) Circular polariscopes It employs circularly polarized light. The first clement following light source is called polarizer. It converts ordinary light into plane polarized light. The second wave plate is quarter wave plate’s convert’s plane polarized light into circularly polarized light. The second quarter wave plate is kept between the analyzer and model. The second quarter wave plate converts circularly polarized light into plane polarized light. The last clement is analyzer which extinguishes the light ‘quarter wave plate with an angle w/4 to the plane of polarization. TI Circular polariscope Department of M echanical Engineering Page 10Experimental Stress Analysis Isoclinic and Isochromatics: Consider the arrangement shown in fig. ie., monochromatic light source, pols in plane state of stress, and analyzer, is a second polarizing element kept 90 deg to polarizer axes. We should assume that through a suitable optical arrangement, the image of the model is projected on the screen. The polarizer and analyzer are always kept crossed, but their combined orientation can be arbitrary. ver, model is When a model is stressed, it behaves as a crystal and at the point where the ray passes, the polarizing axis coincide with the principal stress axes 4,03 at that point. In general, the polarizer makes an angle with a, axes. If the polarizer coincides with either @, or a then the plane polarized light incident on the model at that point will emerge as a plane polarized light. Since the analyzer is kept crossed with respect to polarizer, the light coming out of the analyzer is zero. Consequently, at all those point of model, where the directions of the principal stress happen to coincide with the particular orientation of the polarizer analyzer combination , the light coming out of the analyzer will be zero. If the polarizer analyzer combination happens to coincide with the directions of 04,» stresses at one point of the model, then in general, there will be a locus of points in the model along which this condition is satisfied. This is so because, in general, the stresses are distributed in a continuous in the model. The locus of points where the directions of the principal stresses coincide with particular orientation of the polatizer-analyzer combination is known as Isoclinic’s. wanner axis of polarization Sample polarizer light source ‘Suppose at a particular point of the model, the values of a;,a2 are such as to cause a relative phase difference of 2mm where m is an integer. The relative phase difference is related to Department of M echanical Engineering Page 11Experimental Stress Analysis 0, — oy . When the relative phase at that particular point. The discussion on crystal optics shown that an incident linearly polatized light on a full-wave plate emerges as a linearly polarized light and is cut off by the analyzer, because of its crossed position. Therefore, at all those points of the model where the values of 6, —o are such as to cause a relative phase différence of 2mr, the intensity of light on the screen will be zero. On the screen, a series of dark bands corresponding to the loci of these points are observed. These dark bands or fringes are known as Isochromatics. An Isochromatics is a locus of points where the values of , —¢ are such as to cause a relative phase difference of 2mz, when background is dark Effect of Stressed Model in Plane Polariscopes (Dark Field Set up) It consists of two linear polatizes’s and a light source as shown in the figure. The linear polarizer nearest to the light source is called polarizer, It transmits the plane polarized light in there axis. While the second linear polarizer is away from the light source called analyzer. Here the two axes of the polarizer’s always cross. Hence no light is transmitted through the analyzer and produce dark field. The model is inserted and viewed through analyzer. The polarizer is kept perpendicular to the axes of light propagation it transmits the light wave comes only in there axes. The analyzer is kept 90 deg to the polarizer and it transmit the light ‘waves in there axes. erence is 2mm, the model behaves as a full wave plate ‘The component of light vector transmitted by the polarizer is Ay = acoswt The light vector when incident on the model is resolved into two components along principle stress direction. Ag = a COS wt COS As = acosetsind ‘A, and Ay are incident on one side of photo-elastic model. These two components of the light vector propagate through the stressed model at different velocities. As a result, when these two components emerge from the model, these are out of phase. Upon leavening the model, the two vibrating components acquire a relative phase difference of A. We shall assume that ‘Az leads3. Hence, upon leavening the model, the vibrating components are Ay = acos{wt +A) cosp As = acositsin Department of M echanical Engineering Page 12Experimental Stress Analysis Analyser Polarising axis Retardation Rays vibrating along the = ponents of the rays planes of the principal pao Mapnigh ts analyser vibrating along its polarsing axis retardation causes interference stresses and At ee Pp A - A3,As AzAs As 4 Ao Department of M echanical Engineering Page 13,Experimental Stress Analysis (On entering analyzer, only the components along A, are allowed to emerge Ag = Agsing = Ascosp A, = acoslwt + A) cospsing —acoswtsing cos Ay = acospsinp[cos(wt + A) — cos wt] a 2 sin2[cos wt cosa — sinwtsinA — cos wt] sin 2¢ [cos cot (cos A — 1) ~sinat sin A] 4 4 4g = $5in26|-2cos wt sin? 5 — 2sin at sins cos 5] a A Ag = ~asin 2p sins [coswe sin + sin at co: : A. aM ~asin2psinssin (wt # 3) Me ~bsin(wt +3) b = asin2p sin? is the amplitude of emerging light vector, A measure of intensity of light is given by the square of amplitude. In our case, the intensity is A I= b? = a2sin? 2p sin? 2 Intensity of light coming out of analyzer is zero under two conditions (1) When ¢ = 0 or 90 2) When A= 2mn(m = 0,123. First condition tells that light extinction occur at a point when direction of principal stresses coincide with the direction of polarizer and analyzer. The locus of point when this happens is called the Isoctinic’s Second condition tells that light extinction occur at @ point when the relative phase difference is equal to2 ma. The locus of point where this occurs is called Isochromatics. Department of M echanical Engineering Page 14Experimental Stress Analysis Effect_of Stressed Model in Circular Polariscopes under Dark Field Arrangement Ist quater. (nest polarizer) Mise if wave plate 2nd quarter. ‘wave plate Analyzer (linea polarizer) Circular Poleriscope It employs circularly polarized light. The first element following light source is called polarizer. It converts ordinary light into plane polarized light. The second wave plate is quarter wave plate with an angle 1/4 to the plane of polarization. This quarter wave plate’s convert’s plane polarized light into circularly polarized light. The second quarter wave plate is kept between the analyzer and model, The second quarter wave plate converts circularly polarized light into plane polarized light. The last element is analyzer which extinguishes the light. The light vector emerging out of polarizer A= acoswt Light vector entering first Q.W.P Ay, = ACOs 45 Are = ACOs 4S 1 Aye = ac0S at \ v2 ayeoacies IstQwe Department of M echanical Engineering Page 15,Experimental Stress Analysis The two vectors travels with a different velocity along the Q.W.P so they will have an angular phase shift of m/2. ‘The light vector leavening first Q.W.P Ay = costat + Hl Ay = —sin(wt) e a Aa = costo) Here Ist light vector gains the phase shift of 2/2 because it travels faster than the second light vector. ‘The light vector entering the model o Aa Ae gl Age = Ay, C080 —Az, sind Age = ~Sinlwt) «4 + cos 6 — cost) +L sind v2 v2 a hee tien cos @ + cos(we) sin @} Age = —2e{sin(wt + 6)} v2 Ane = Ay SiN @ + Ap, COSB cosé a. a *sin@ —cos(at) + v2 v2 Age = sintwt) Ave = 5 Ginlwe) sind costae) cosa} v Department of M echanical Engineering Page 16Experimental Stress Analysis ‘The light vector leavening the model will have an angular phase shift Sbinlor+ @+a)} Aat 5 Au, = + {eos| wt + 6)} v2 The light vector entering second Q.W.P Age = Aq C080 + Ay Sind a {sin(wt + 6 + A) }cos@ + = {cosl wt + @) }sind v2 Age = Api C088 = AgSiN@ (cos(wt + 8) cose + fine + 4 +a)}sing ‘The light vector leaves the second Q.W.P with a phase difference of 1/2 {Sinlwe + 6 + A)}cos8 + {cosl we + 6)}sin a v2 Department of M echanical Engineering Page 17Experimental Stress Analysis Ag = fcoslat+ a+ n/2)heos0 + FGsinlot +O + A+ n/2)}sing v2 Au {sin(wt + 0) }cos@ + = {eoslwe + 6 + A) }sind v2 The light vector entering the analyzer v2 Aax = Az, COS45 — Ay, COoS45 £ (wt + @ + A) }cosd Fyne cos +S tcostat + 6) }sin 0 +L tsin( we + 6) }coso v2 v2 ~ Fy eostat +0 +a)}sing] Flieoslwe + 8) }sind + 4Sinlwe + # }cose— {coslwe + 0+ A) }5ine + {Sin(wt + @ + A) }cosé) fax = S{{sin(we + 26)}= {sinlot +20 + a)}] jue = ac05(at #204 4)sin(4) Age = b05(t +29 +5) lee = a?sine(4) Department of M echanical Engineering Page 18Experimental Stress Analysis Since the intensity of light is square of amplitude the frequency is very high any extinction produced by this cannot be detected by photographic equipment hence isoclinie are eliminated from the fringe pattern, observed with circular polarizer. The fringe pattern associated with the pattem is Isochromatics fringe pattern. Thus circular polariscopes eliminates isoclinic fringe pattem. Thus circular polariscopes eliminates isoclinic’s fringe pattern and retums only Isochromatics fringe pattern. Effect of Stressed Model in Circular Polariscope under Dark Field Arrangement: Consider axes of polarizer and analyzers are parallel. Thus, Aax Aai Alay = Ay COS45 + Ag, COSA5 Aa FGinlor+a+a) }cosd @ a + yp lcosat + 8) }sing Rd + Fteosur +e +a)}sing] 5 Aoy = FUlcoslwt +4) sing —Ginlwt + 6)}cos8 + fcoslwe +0 +4) sing — {sin(we + @ + A) }cosé] Ane ${—Gin(we)) fsin(wt + A)}] jue = ~£42s5in(ut +2) con(2) 2. Department of Mechanical Engineering ‘Page 19Experimental Stress Analysis aM A dor =asin(wt +2) c05(2) 2) Mize ~bsin(we + b= cos(5) I= b? = a cos? 6) For extinction to occur A Bs ya nels n=0,1,2...., Ny ca 1 og OD Hence the order of first fringe observed in a light field polariscopes is % which corresponds ton=0. The higher order fringe will be 3/2, 5/2. 7/2.....ete. therefore by using dark and bright field setup of the circular polariscopes, it is possible to obtain the fringe order to the nearest order. Method of compensation Consider any one point in the model, the relative retardation is between 32 to 3.5 2.as observed by the bright and dark field setups. Let us assume that the value is 3.36 A. this is equal to 3.36 fringe onder. The decimal part ic., 0.36 of this value is called the fractional fringe order at that point. The compensation means raising the existing value 3.36 to 4 or reducing the value to 3.0. dd) Babinet-Soleil compensator 72 moat compensator z 4 io Department of M echanical Engineering Page 20Experimental Stress Analysis It consists of two quartz wedges cut similarly with respect to their optical axes. A and B are the two wedges with their fast axes similarly oriented, so that the two wedges together form one rectangular piece of uniform thickness By moving one wedge with respect to the other, the thickness of the combination over this portion can be varied. Next to the wedge combination is a quartz plate C of uniform thickness. The fast axes of this are right angle to the fast axes of wedge combination. ‘The retardation given by the plate ¢ can be cancelled partially or fully by varying the thickness of the wedge combination. Hence by adjusting the overall thickness of the wedge combination the compensator can add or subtracts the relative retardation within a given range. The micrometer screw is calibrated in number of wavelengths of retardation added or subtracted along marked axes of compensator. ‘The compensator is kept before or after the model and is oriented along the principal stress axis at the point of interest in the model, When (1=t2 no relative retardation take place, however for (2>H1 positive and (I>, negative retardation can be produced over the whole area of the compensator plate. (2) The Tardy Method of Compensation The Tardy method of compensator is generally preferred over the Babinet-Soleil method since no auxiliary equipment is required and analyzer of polariscopes is aligned with the direction of the principal stresses o at that point of interest and all other elements of polariscopes are rotated relative to polarizer so that standard dark field polariscopes exist. ‘Then the analyzer alone is rotated to obtain extinction. The rotation of analyzer gives fractional fringe order. ly s HK 1 = -——~“e s 2 ;, = Mes s hE \ a a ‘e Ria A =~ Arrangement for Tardy’s method of compensation Department of M echanical Engineering Page 21Experimental Stress Analysis @=45 ‘The light vector emerging out from the second Q.W.P is, Ay = ~Filsn (wt - 3+ 4)}eos (-5) + Fy lers(we -})}sin (-F) Ay = ~$f{sin (wt= it a)}- $ {cos (we - a Au = ~lsin (ct -3)}cos(-3) + spleos(we -F+a)jsin(-3) Au = 5 {sin (ot 3)} - 5 {cos(we-F+4)} Lety be the angle through which analyzer should be rotated to obtain extinction i.e., Ag = 0 then, Ay = As:c05 (5 +y)- Auc0s (7-7) Ael-slon(oe—§ + 3)}-$les (orf) ~Fxfsin(oe ~)} ~5 feos (we - ale -7) Ap =—Slfsin (we -% + a) feos (& +r) + {c05(ut—Z)cos(& + y)}] [eos (=r) fsin ae —3)} + 0s (4 y) feos (an —+4)]] After simplification we will have Department of Mechanical Engineering Page 22Experimental Stress Analysis A, = asin(we+ 5)sin(5- ) If intensity is zero sin ¢ = ”) 0 =m A ()= ma +y Where m= 01,2, 3... y N=pemee If the analyzer is rotated in the opposite direction then A N=s=(m4+1)-2 2a 7 ‘A plane polariscopes arrangement is first employed so that are isoclinic fringe will pass through the point of interest. Now a plane polariscopes is converted to circular polariscopes dark field arrangement. Then analyzer rotated until extinction occurs at a point of interest. Eg: if analyzer rotated through an angle, such that second order ie, m=2 fringe passes through the point of interest then directly fringe onler is given by If analyzer rotate in opposite direction y-J =aF (3) Friedel’s Method Department of M echanical Engineering Page 23Experimental Stress Analysis (Dz Dea Steps followed for doing Friedel’s method 1. Remove first QW.P Rotate polarizer and analyzer so that their axes makes an angle of 45 deg with principle direction in the model at that point of interest. 3. Rotate second Q.W.P until one axes is parallel to axes of polarizer. 4. Rotate the analyzer until extinction is obtained at the point. ‘The light vector emerging out of polarizer A=acoswt Since polarizer is set 45 deg to axes of principle direction in model hence on entering the model the light vector is resolved into two components given by Aye = Acos45 Aye = acoswl ‘The model introduces a phase difference of A. therefore on leaving the model, the components of light vector becomes, @ v2 Ay = costoot + A) Department of M echanical Engineering Page 24Experimental Stress Analysis the fast axes of Q.W.P is set 90 deg to polarizer axes. Hence on entering the Q.W.P the light components become, Aue 10845 —A,,cos45 Aeo = F keoslae +A) =coswt} Ane 1 C0845 +A, COS 45 Ave Scos( ot +A) + cost} On leaving the Q.W-P the QW.P introduce phase difference of n/2. hence on leaving the QW.P. the light vector becomes {cos(wt-+0 +3) -cos(ue +3)} [—sin(wt + A) + sin wt} Sieostwe +a) + cosut} ‘The analyzer is rotated through an angle of y to obtain extinction at the point of interest Light transmitted through analyzer is Ar = Age COSY — Ay Siny a 4, = ~Flsinwt + a) =sin wtlcosy ~ F [costae +A) + coswelsiny a AA Ay A. A, = —Sfacos(at-+$)sin cosy + 208( 0: +4) corn When intensity of light is zero 1 # [sin cos + cosdsin l 0 = a?|sin 5 2 Zen sinScosy + cosssiny = 0 2 EEE ee sin(3+ r) 0 A Stya nm n= 0A Department of M echanical Engineering Page 25Experimental Stress Analysis Fringe Sharpening by Partial Mirror To decrease the band width of Isochromatics fringes ordinary circular polariscopes is modified by inserting partial mirrors on both side of the mode! and both are parallel to the model. We know that intensity of light 4 A a teint’ eect a? sin? > = ksin? 5 ‘The intensity of light is modified by the transmittance (T) and refractance (R) For ray 1, the intensity of light is lost by reflection from the partial mirror and resultant 1 will become of _ af d= kT? Resin? =k resin’ Similarly Ray 3 passes through the model 3 times and combined to yield intensity [y Bk = kr? Resin? (>) 2 For m" ray mas dy = KT? RI sin? (>=) The intensities /,,fy,l5 add arithmetically the intensity of sharpened Isochromatics fringe is given by Department of M echanical Engineering Page 26Experimental Stress Analysis Jy = AT? > Rlm1)in? Ce) The loss of intensity can be minimized by selecting mirror co-efficient R and T. Assuming mirrors are perfect T#R=1 TAR pape) <1 Intensity of sharpened fringe pattem is decrease by T?R'"~1! compare to ordinary fringe pattem. In actual practice rays are not inclined as shown: these rays propagate back and forth through the model at the same point of the model number of times and intensity of ray progressively diminishes. Fringe Multiplication by Partial Mirror Fringe multiplication is concemed important since standard method of compensation used to evaluate the fraction fringe order are time consuming and in some case also inaccurate. Fringe multiplication is a compensation technique where the fractional orders of the fringe can be determined simultaneously at all points on the model Partial mirror can be used to multiply the number of Isochromaties fringes if one partial mirror is placed parallel to the photo elastic model and the other partial mirror is placed slightly inclined Department of M echanical Engineering Page 27Experimental Stress Analysis with the plane of photo elastic model as shown in fig. partial mirror PM Tis parallel to model M but partial mirror PM I is slightly inclined with the model at an angle a Ray | emerges from partial mirror II, traversing two times the partial mirrors and one time through the model, intensity of light for ray 1 is le rersine = er>nesin2 (4) I5= weren'sin®() lis = kr#R™-sin# (2) Different rays are inclined with the axis of polariscopes, at angle 0, 20, 4a, Gat, as shown, each ray gets isolated and passes out from different points of the model. Any of these rays can be observed at the proper image point of focal field lens. As is obvious from the intensity equations above, Isochromatics fringe pattems can be multiplied by 1, 3, 5, 7 and so on. Fringes are not only multiplied but they are sharpened at the same time. Fringe order recorded with ray | are 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5,2,2.5..... Fringe order recorded with ray 3 is 0, 1/6, 1/3, ¥%, 2/3, 5/6, 1... Similarly fringe orders recorded with ray 5 are 0.1, 0.2, and 0 .3, 04... As tilting angle o increases fringes also increases thus fringe multiplication by this method is accomplished by considerable loss in the light intensity I of the multiplied fringe pattem as compared with the ordinary fringe pattern. Calibration Techniques ‘The photo elastic material has to he calibrated to determine the material fringe value gy so as to convert the fringe orders into stresses. The following methods may be used to calibrate a photo elastic model. Simple tensile specimen: Department of M echanical Engineering Page 28Experimental Stress Analysis If. we prepare a simple tensile specimen as shown in fig(a), whose width is w and thickness h, then under load P, the uniform stress in the test specimen is o,—0, = P/wh Then o= Applying stress optic law, we get P Noy wh hk PY 4 Ge In the tensile specimen, we get escaping type of fringes, i.e. as the load is increased from zero, successive fringe appear in the field of view and disappear as the load is increased Generally a graph is plotted between the load applied P and fringe order N as shown in fig (b) and its slope is determined, which is substituted in above eq to determine gj. In this method load P has to be adjusted to have a full fringe order in the field of view. In another technique, the Tardy’s method of compensation is used, where for a particular load P the extinction angle y are plotted against the applied stress a). Then by knowing the slope of the curve, we have Hence, of Department of M echanical Engineering Page 29Experimental Stress Analysis In asimilar way a compensation test piece may also be used. 2. Beam under pure bending: A rectangular beam of thickness h and depth w as shown in fig (a) may be used and subjected to pure bending to determine oy. Pure bending in the beam may be produced by applying equal load P at a distance a from the ends of a beam of length 1 as shown, The uniform bending moment M in the middle portion of the beam is M=Pa ‘The stress in the beam are “GE A graph is plotted between P and N and the slope of the curve is substituted in above eq to determine a7. Here we get non-escaping type of fringes. ‘The fringe pattern in the pure bending calibration specimen are shown in fig below Department of M echanical Engineering Page 30Experimental Stress Analysis A ZS 3. Circular disc under diametral compression: P @| For a circular disc of diameter D and thickness h as shown in fig (a), when subjected to a diametral compressive load P, the stresses along the horizontal diameter are given by 2p iB - “ = 1 THD DE + ax? 2 mhD woe (D+ axe F 4 4D | Try = 0 1-02 _ BP ((1=4(x/D)?1 ~ salt + cart} Department of M echanical EngineeringExperimental Stress Analysis At the center, i.e. x = 0, 2P a= + nhD --&?. 2 ahd ep _ No, Hence 04 ~ 02 = 5 = = «= Glen) By knowing the value of P for a particular fringe order N at the center of dise, a graph can be plotted, whose slope is substituted in above eq to determine the value of ay. ‘The fringe pattern in the circular dise is shown in fig below Department of Mechanical Engineering Page 32