KALAIGNAR KARUNANIDHI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ‘ 3 KANNAMPALAYAM, COIMBATORE-641 402. aa ED8073-COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND MECHANICS NO’ YEAR: MET YEAR SEM :TUNITI INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITE MATERIALS MATRIX MATERIALS A fiber-reinforced composite (FRC) is a high-performance composite material made up ‘of three components - the fibers as the discontinuous or dispersed phase, the matrix acts as the continuous phase, and the fine interphase region or thefifterface The matrix is basically a homogene Yonolithic material in which a fiber system of a composite is embedded. It is comp] jous. The matrix provides a medium for solid. It offers protection to the load, and provides finish, texture, ‘Types of Composite = Cer: nic matrix compos [Cs) are a subgroup of composite materials ceramic fibers embe ceramic matrix, thus forming a ceramic fiber terial, The matrix and fibers can consist of any ceramic. m: designed to overcome the major disadvantages such as icture toughness, brittleness, and limited thermal shock resistance, faced the traditional technical ceramics ‘+ Metal matrix - Metal matrix composites (MMCs) are composite materials that contain at least two constituent parts — a metal and another material or a different meta ‘The metal matrix is reinforced with the other material to improve strength and wear. Where three or more constituent parts are present, it is called a hybrid composite, In_ structural applications, the matrix is usually composed of a lighter metal such as magnesium, titanium, or aluminum. In high temperature applications, cobalt and cobalt-nickel alloy matrices are common. Typical MMC’s manufacturing is basically divided into threetypes: solid, liquid, and vapor. Continuous carbon, silicon carbide, or ceramic fibers are some of the materials that can be embedded in a metallic matrix material. MMCs are fire resistant, operate in a wide range of temperatures, do not absorb moisture, and possess better electrical and thermal conductivity. They have also found applications to be resistant to radiation damage, and to not suffer from outgassing. Most metals and alloys. make good matrices for composite applications. Polymer matrix - Polymer matrix compo: MCs) can be divided into three sub- types, namely, thermoset, thermoplasfi rubber. Polymer is a large molecule composed of repeating structural ted by covalent chemical bonds. PMC's consist of @ polymer matrix co, lus reinforcing dispersed phase. They are cheaper with easier fabri . s are less dense than metals or wrosion, and exhibit superior je matrix materials: High pesformanes Sealants and gaskets Heat shield systems (cap: handling high temperatures, thermal shock condi ans and heavy vibration) Components for high-temperature gas turbines such as combustion chambers, stator vanes and turbine blades Brake disks and brake system components used in extreme thermal shock environments ‘Components for slide bearings under heavy loads requiring high comosion and wear resistance Carbide drills are made from a tough cobalt matrix with hard tungsten carbide particles inside+ Components for bumers, flame holders, and hot gas ducts POLYMERS Polymers are substances whose molecules have high molar masses and are composed of a large number of repeating units. There are both naturally occurring and synthetic polymers. Among naturally occurring polymers are proteins, starches, cellulose, and latex, METALS: “Metals are opaque, lustrous elements Most metals are malleable and ductile ‘good conductors of heat and electricity. jeneral, denser than the other elemental substances CERAMICS are hard to specify for the group as a whole. However, generalities such as hi temperature, high hardness, poor conductivity, high moduli of elasticity, chemical resistan A low ductility are the norm, |"! with known exceptions to cach of these rules (e.g. piezoelectric ceramics, glass transition temperature, superconductive ceramics, etc.). Many composites, such as fiberglass and carbon fiber, while containing ceramic materials, are not considered to be part of the ceramic family. REINFORCEMENT In behavioral psychology, reinforcement is a consequence that will strengthen an ‘organism’ future behavior whenever that behavior is preceded by a specific antecedent stimulus.This strengthening effect may be measured as a higher frequency of behavior (e.g., pulling a lever more frequently), longer duration (e.g., pulling lever for longer periods of time), greater magnitude (¢.g., pulling a lever with greater force), or shorter latency (e.g., pulling a lever more quickly following the antecedent stimulus). Although in many cases a reinforcing stimulus is a rewarding stimulus which is "valued" or "liked" by the indi idual (e.g., money received from a slot machine, the taste of the treat, the euphoria produced by an addictive drug), this is not a requirement. Indeed, reinforcement does not even require an individual to consciously perceive an effect elicited by the stimulus.'"! Furthermore, st uit are "rewarding" or "liked" are not always reinforcing: if an individual eats at afi staurant (response) and likes the taste of the food (stimulus), but believes it is bad lth, they may not eat it again and thus it Was not reinforcing in that condi ¢ occurs only if there is an observable strengthening in behavior. PARTICLE properties elementary scientific fields. However, the term atmosphere, which are a aggregation, icles, rather than a connected particle INORGANIC FIBERS ‘The inorganic fibers are constituted mainly by inorganic chemicals, based on natural elements such as carbon, silicon and boron, that, in general, after receiving treatment at elevated temperatures are transformed into fibers. Inorganic fibers, also sometimes dubbed high performance fibers or super-fibers, have characteristics and properties that differ from other non-natural fibers and therefore rarely find applications in the field of conventional textiles.Effectively, these fibers have general characteristics as high thermal and mechanical resistance, which makes them especially in engineering solutions applied in many cases in combination with other materials ~ composites. In these applications, they compete normally with conventional materials, replacing them often due to their ease of processing, thermal resistance, resistance to chemical agents and especially due to the excellent weight/mechanical properties correlation. In general, the inorganic fibers are difficul fess by conventional textile techniques, such as weaving or knitting, due to the fact fy break in flexure (weak), presenting low 1, then theresults are similar to those in Theorem 1.1, except for somedi_erences in the regularity of solutions ‘Theorem 1.3, Let _> 1 and let 0 be the boundary of an open bounded convex set in R2. Then there exists a solution x : SI _ (0; T )! R2 of Equation (1.1) with x(S1; t) converging to 0 in Hausdor_ distance as ¢ ! 0. This Ctl solution is unique up to time-independent reparametri tion, 1) for positive times, and C1 for times close to T . The curves t = x($1; 0) converge to a point p 2 R2 ast! T while (tp)=(1+_MT “11))1=(1+_) converges smoothly to the unit circle about the origin, If 0 is smooth and strictly cony4 nthe solution is smooth and strictly convex for all t ORTHOTROPIC STIFFNESS MATRI Consider the stress strain curve stress loading conditions. This further reduces the most general anisotropic linear elastic material s ‘ .¢ stress-strain relations composites. ‘The differ in the internal struct the internal symmetries, the simpler the structure of the sti_ness te ‘results in the invariance of the stiffness tensor to a specife symmetry t ‘Transversely isotropic ‘The physical properties are symmetric about an axis that is normal to a plane of isotropy (xy-plane in the _gure), Three mutually orthogonal planes of reection symmetry and axial symmetry with respect to z-axis. Cubic ‘Three mutually orthogonal planes of reection symmetry plus 90_ rotation symmetry with respect to those planes. cj a= b= ¢ = 90 Number of independent coe_cients: 3 Symmetry transformations: rections and 90_ rotations about all three orthogonal planesIndependent coe_cients for linear elastic isotropic materials. For a linearly elastic, homogeneous, isotropic material, the constitutive laws involve three parameters: Young's modulus, E, Poisson's ratio, and the shear modulus, G. 1. Write and explain the relation between stress and strain for this kind of ma 2. What is the physical meaning of the coe_cients E, 3. Are these three coe_cients independent ? If not, derive the expressions that relate 2). Hint: use the concept the same at each point. Linear elastic makes 1g perpendicular to the surface of ngation (or stretch) per unit length of material in the direction of ied force. For isotropic materials, the relationship between slress and ser~ne! is independ. required to des direction of force, thus only one clastic constant (Young's modulus) is e stress-strain relationship for a uniaxially applied force. For a nonisotrspic material, at least two elastic constants are needed to describe the stress- strain behavior of the material. ‘The previous section dealt with an extremely simple type of stress state, uniaxial. In general, plates will experience stresses in more than one direction within the plane. This is referred to as plane sess. In addition, Poisson's ratio now becomes important. Poisson's ratio is the ratio ofthe strain perpendicular toa given Joading direction.MECHANICS OF LAMINATED COMPOSITES Assumptions The following assumptions are made for the remainder of this paper: (1) The laminate thickness is very small compared to its other dimensions. (2) The lamina (layers) of the laminate are perfectly bonded, (3) Lines perpendicular to the of the laminate remain straight and perpendicular to the surface after defor ible. These assumptions of rotation of the tor are pointing), Note that Mx and My will cause the plate t ate to twist. For symmetric laminates (lami iat are configured such that the geometric midpime is a mirror image of the ply configurati ¢ and below the midplane), the geometric midplane is also the neutral plane of the plate, and the (B] matrix will have all elements equal to zero (as ill be shown later). However, if the laminate is unsymmettic, ie., if the plies near the bottom of the plate are much stiffer in the x-direction, then the geometric midplane will not be the neutral phine of the plate; and the neutral pline will be closer to the bottom of the plate for x-direction beading in figure. This is accounted for in the constitutive equations, since the [B] matrix will have some nonzero elements (as will be shown later), implying that a bending strain (plate curvature) will cause a midplane strain as depicted in figure 10. Likewise, a midplane strain willcause a bending moment. A method to find the neutral axis of the plate will be discussed in a later section about stresses within the plies of a laminate. STRAIN DISPLACEMENT RELATIONS. ‘The strain was introduced in Book I: §4. The concepts examined there are now extended to the case of strains which vary continuously throughout a material. Consider a line element of length xAemanating from position ).(yxand lyin; x- direction, denoted by AB. After deformation the line element occupies BA”, undergone a translation, extension and rotation. ‘The particle that was originall; a displacement ),(yxux and the other end of the line element has undergone # displacement A+. By the definition of (small) normal strain, displacement changes sically, it represents the(approximate) unit not encompas a jon about the precise location in space of parti ine this, one must spei © displacement components (in two-dimensional pro this is equivalent to saying that one cannot uniquely determine the di lacement relations. BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF LAMI ANISOTROPIC PLATES Using the basic assumptions of thin-plate theory, including nonlinear terms in the von Karman sense, the governing equations of a laminated nisotropie plate are formulated. In particular, the type of plate under discussion consists of n layers of orthotropic sheets bonded together. Each layer has arbitrary thickness, elastic properties, and orientation of orthotropic axes with respect to the plate axes. The governing equations are obtained by integrating the equations of nonlinear elasticity. Inertia terms and thermal stresses are included. Closed-form solutions to the linearized equations are obtained for bending, flexural vibration, and buckling of special, butimportant, classes of laminates for which coupling between bending and stretching is unavoidable. LAMINATE CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS INTRODUCTION * Equations of Motion * Symmetric of Stresses & — ENGINEERING CONSTITUTIVE IONS FOR AN ORTHOTROPICLAMINA * Plane Strain Condition * Plane Stress Condition CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS FOR AN ARBITRARILY ORIENTED. LAMINA * CoordinateTransformation * Stress Transformation© Strain Transformation © Stiffness and Compliance Matrix Transformation ENGINEERING CONSTANTS OF ALAMINATE * Lamina © Laminate Restrictions on Elastic Constants of Orthotroy rials From Energy Principles, Lemy {the Strain Energy is Positive if the tical Argument (a) If only one only when the corresponding of the material, Like thermal A ceramic is an inorganic, nonmetallic solid material comprising metal, nonmetal or metalloid atoms primarily held in ionic and covalent bonds. The crystallinity of ceramic materials ranges from highly oriented to semicrystalline, and often completely amorphous (e.g., glasses), Varying crystallinity and electron consumption in the ionic and covalent bonds cause most ceramic materials to be good thermal and electrical insulators and extensively researched in ceramic engineering. Nevertheless, with such a large range of possible options for thecomposition/structure of a ceramic (e.g. nearly all of the elements, nearly all types of bonding, and all levels of crystallinity), the breadth of the subject is vast, and identifiable attributes (e.g. hardness, toughness, electrical conductivity, etc.) are hard to specify for the group as a whole. However, generalities such as high melting temperature, high hardness, poor conductivity, high moduli of elasticity, chemical resistance and low ductility are the norm,|"! with known exceptions to each of these rules (e.g. piezoelectric ceramics, glass transition temperature, superconductive ‘ceramics, etc.). Many composites, such as fiberglass and carbon fiber, while containing ceramic materials, are not considered to be part of the cera In behavioral psychology, reinfore fs a consequence that will strengthen an organism’s future behavior whenever tt -eded by a specific antecedent stimulus. ‘This strengthening effect may be met slot machine, the taste o was not reinforcing in that strengthening in behavior. A particle is a minute fragment @Pquantity of matter. In the physical sciences, the word is used to describe a small localized object to which can be ascribed several physical or chemical properties such as volume or mass; subatomic particles such ay protons or neutrons; and other elementary particles. The word is rather general in meaning, and is refined as needed by various scientific fields. Something that is composed of particles may be referred to as being particulate, However, the term particulate is most frequently used to refer to pollutants in the Barth's atmosphere, which are a suspension of unconnected particles, rather than a connected particle aggregation,SYMMETRIC LAMINATES, ANGLE PLY LAMINATES Metal-mairix composites are either in use or prototyping for the Space Shuttle, commercial airliners, electronic substrates, bicycles, automobiles, golf clubs, and a variety of other applications. While the vast majority are aluminum mattix composites, a growing number ‘of applications require the matrix properties of superalloys, titanium, copper, magnesium, or iron. Like all composites, aluminum-matrix con ‘are not a single material but a family ‘of materials whose stiffness, strength, dens) thermal and electrical properties can be tailored. The matrix alloy, the rein! terial, the volume and shape of the conductivity, high she: sion res temperature operation, nonflammability, mini ‘on conventional equip: Alun S c a metallurgy, in situ development of reinforcements, now available in lal ling up production and reducing prices. They are applis 1 automotive components, as well as golf clubs, bicycles, machinel nents, electronic substrates, extruded angles and channels, and a wide variety of other struct electronic applications. Superalloy composites reinforced with tungsten alloy fibers are being developed for components in jet turbine engines that operate temperatures above 1,830 °F Graphite/copper composites have tailorable properties, are useful to high temperatures in air, and provide excellent mechanical characteristics, as well as high electrical and thermal conductivity. They offer easier processing as compared with titanium, and lower density ‘compared with steel. Ductile superconductors have been fabricated with a matrix of copper andsuperconducting filaments of niobium-titanium. Copper reinforced with tungsten particles or aluminum oxide particles is used in heat sinks and electronic packaging ‘Titanium reinforced with silicon carbide fibers is under development as skin material for the National Aerospace Plane. Stainless steels, tool steels, and Inconel are among the matrix materials reinforced with titanium carbide particles and fabricated into draw-rings and other high-temperature, corrosion-resistant components. ‘Compared to monolithic metals, MMCs have: + Higher strength-to-density ratios «Higher stiffness-to-density rati © Better fatigue resistance + Higher temper + Fire resistance + Higher transverse stiff * No moisture absorption + Higher electrical and thermal col + Better radiation resistance + No outgassing + Fabricability of whisker and particulate-reinforeed MMCs with conventional metalworking equipment. Some of the disadvantages of MMCs compared to monolithic metals and polymer matrix composites are:‘+ Higher cost of some material systems + Relatively immature technology © Complex fab on methods for fiber-reinforced systems (except for casting) + Limited service experience Numerous combinations of matrices and reinforcements have been tried since work on MMC began in the late 1950s. However, MMC technology is still in the early stages of development, and other important systems undoubtedly will emerg MMC reinforcements can be divid ive major categories: continuous fibers, discontinuous fibers, whiskers, particulat With the exception of wires, which are metals, reinforcements generally are c Key continuous fibers inclu graphite (carbon), and silicon carbide. Boron fibers are made by chemi i \n a tungsten core. Carbon cores have also been s able in 4.0, 5.6, and 8.0-mil diameters. To temperature, carbide or boron carbide are sometimes used. Silicon carbide mo ® using a tungsten or carbon core. A Japanese multifita carbide by its manufacturer, is. also commercially available. Thi jal, however, y pyrolysis of organometallic precursor fibers, is far from pure silicon and its properties difter significantly from those of monofilament silicon carbide. Continuous alumina fibers are available from several suppliers. Chemical compositions and properties of the various fibers are significantly different, Graphite fibers are made from two precursor materials, polyacrilonitrile (PAN) and petroleum pitch. Efforts to make graphite fibers from coal-based pitch are under way. Graphite fibers with a wide range of strengths and moduli are available‘The leading discontinuous fiber reinforcements at this time are alumina and alumina- silica, Both originally were developed as insulating materials, The major whisker material is silicon carbide. The leading U.S. commercial product is made by pyrolysis of rice hulls. Silicon carbide and boron carbide, the key particulate reinforcements, are obtained from the commercial abrasives industry. Silicon carbide particulates are also produced as a by-product of the process used to make whiskers of this material CROSS PLY LAMINATES Composites are one of the mos! aterials because of their adaptability to to design changes, m; jois higher than other materials. Their stif vailability of raw materials, makethem thi c ortation, In heavy ‘transport ing of component parts with cost- effectiveness. Reproducti handling by seMipSkilled workers are the basic, requirements of a g costs of achieving advanced composites may not justify the savings interms of -vis vehicle production, carbon fibers reinforced epoxies have been ing cars and recently for the safety of cars. Polyester resin with suitable fillers and rein 1's were the first applications of composites in road transportation, The choice was dictate@”by properties like low cost, ease in designing and production of functional parts etc. Using a variety of reinforcements, polyester has continued to be used in improving the system and other applications. Most of the thermoplastics are combined with reinforcing fibers in various proportions. Several methods are used to produce vehicle parts from thermo plastics.Selection of the material is made from the final nature of the component, the volume required, apart from cost-effectiveness and mechanical strength. Components that need conventional paint finishing are generally made with thermosetting resins, while thermoplastics are used to build parts that are moulded and can be pigmented. Press moulded reinforced polyester possess the capability to produce large parts in considerable volume with cost- ally find the maximum use. Sisal costs very less and this alone has prompted extensive research to come up effectiveness. In manufacturing of automobile parts, glass and sisal fibers: us with applications in which sisal is the dominant rej 12 material infilled polyester resin, in parts where specific mechanical properties ar cd and appearance is not very important, Heater housings, which find uses for sis luced by compression moulding. Since a variety of glass fibers are available, yeement for a large range of parts of different types. Rovings, non-woven m: co ed! low cost versions, Woven cloth is applied in special cases, sd as cloth is not known to be models, options and cl f a ations offered by the materials is also wide-r: ice is alsodictated by the dema c 5 alternate materials. A reinforced-plastic composite i considered on the basis of cost and performance. In ify the high expenditure. Mechanical properti Ss and weight, must offer enough savings to render them r ver shows a higher machining waste than reinforced plastics. The Lion costs of reinforced plastics is controlled by the devices and tooling used for producing turn, it is dependent on the basis of the quantity of components needed. Some complicat 8 of light commercial vehicles, which need casting, may be compression moulded from composites of the sheet or bulk variety. State-of-art technologies of moulding, tooling and fabricating have thrown open possibilities of increased manufacturing of vehicles that use reinforced polyesters. Materials used in automotive body parts show high tensile strength and flexural moduli. The material is not ductile and hence will not yield and the failure is accounted only in terms of fracture. These properties and thickness, determine the maximum bending moment which is several times higher than the pointof fracture for steel sheets. Reinforced plastics can be given the metal finish, although the cost of achievingthis continues to be prohibitive. They are restricted in their use in car components. While the defects in painted sheet metal parts are easily overlooked, the fiber pattern texture is obvious,though the surface-roughness measurements report that it is smoother. In. commercial vehicles, appearance is also important as is the functional aspect. Since a commercial vehicle is more a capital investment, it is the returns from such investment that are considered. The rate of retum depends on initial cost, durability and maintenance costs. Reinforced plastic is a boon in the sense that it uses shorter lead times and tooling cost is considerably cheaper. Commitments to launch a new model are kept easily, since the time, n production and introduction ean be co-ordinate perfectly. Studies have shown tha ite panels may be used as the complete ‘outer skin of the body to give a unique I moulding compounds of resins are most suited for this purpose. Inner and out lone by panel assembled by adhesive bonding and riveting. tension over while a delivery the axis of the rotati common filaments are wound onto the mandrel. resin is cured, Dependin; mandrel is placed in an oven or plas ler radiant heaters until the part is cured. Once the resin has cured, the mandrel is removed or extracted, leaving the hollow final product. For some products such as gas bottles the ‘mandrel’ is a permanent part of the finished product forming a liner to prevent gas leakage or as a barrier to protect the composite from the fluid to be stored. Filament winding is well suited to automation, and there are many applications, such as pipe and small pressure vessel that are wound and cured without any human intervention. ‘The controlled variables for winding are fiber type, resin content, wind angle, tow or bandwidth and thickness ofthe fiber bundle. The angle at which the fiber has an effect on the properties of the final product. A high angle "hoop" will provide circumferential strength, while lower angle patterns (polar or helical) will provide greater longitudinal / axial tensile strength. Products currently being produced using this technique range from pipes, golf clubs, Reverse Osmosis Membrane Housings, oars, bicycle forks, bicycle rims, power and transmission poles, pressure vessels to missile casings, aircraft fuselages and lamp posts and yacht masts. DETERMINATION OF LAMINA STRESSES, LAMINATES Reinforcement mat or woven rovij -d in the mold, which is then closed and clamped. Catalyzed, low-viscosity res inder pressure, displacing the air and considered an intermedi and the faster compress + Best suite i roduetion rates, in th of 200 to 10,000 parts per year* * Gel coats may ity, durable finish + Tooling can be mai Is - polyester, nickel shell, aluminum or even mild steel. The v 3d life of program and tooling budget will help determine what is best * Volume recommendations are averages and provided only as a general guideline. Actual volume efficiencies are a more complex matter requiring detailed statistics about the part to be manufactured,UNIT IV LAMINA STRENGTH ANALYSIS AND ANALYSIS OF LAMINATED FLAT PLATES INTRODUCTION - MAXIMUM STRESS AND STRAIN CRITERIA. A fiber-reinforced composite (FRC) is a high-performance composite material made up ‘of three components - the fibers as the discontinuous or dispersed phase, the matrix acts as the continuous phase, and the fine interphase region or thefifterface The matrix is basically a homogeneous and. jc material in which a fiber system of a composite is embedded. It is completely he matrix provides a medium for binding rotection to the reinforcements from of ceramic fibers em! reinforced ceramic (CFRC) matggial. of any ceramic material, CMC materials and limited then ince, faced by the tradit ‘hnical ceramics. VON-MISSES YIELI "IC MATERIALS Metal matrix compos ICs) are composite materials that contain at least two constituent parts — a metal and material or a different metal. The metal matrix is reinforced with the other material to i strength and wear. Where three or more constituent parts are present, it is called a hybrid composite. In structural applications, the matrix is usually composed of a lighter metal such as magnesium, titanium, or aluminum. In high temperature applications, cobalt and cobalt-nickel alloy matrices are common. Typical MMC’s manufacturing, is basically divided into three types: solid, liquid, and vapor. Continuous carbon, silicon carbide, or ceramic fibers are some of the materials that can be embedded in a metallic matrix material MMC+ are fire resistant, operate in a wide range of temperatures, do not absorb moisture, and possess better electrical and thermal conductivity. They have also found applications to beresistant to radiation damage, and to not suffer from outgassing. Most metals and alloys make good matrices for composite applications. GENERALIZED HILL’S CRITERION FOR ANISOTROPIC MATERIALS, A partiele is a minute fragment or quantity of matter. In the physical sciences, the word is used to describe a small localized object to which can be ascribed several physical or chemical properties such as volume or mass; subatomic p: ich as protons or neutrons; and other elementary particles. The word is rather gener ining, and is refined as needed by various scientific fields. Something that is compos cles may be referred to as being particulate. to refer to pollutants in the Earth's atmosphere, which are a suspension of rather than a connected particle ‘The inorganic 0 i icals, based on natural elements such as carbor i atment at elevated applications in the fiek Effectively, these fib general characteristics as high thermal and mechanical resistance, which makes them e: combination with other materials ~ co1 In these applications, they compete normally with conventional materials, replacing them. ‘often due to their case of processing, thermal resistance, resistance to chemical agents and especially due to the excellent weight/mechanical properties correlation, In general, the inorganic fibers are difficult to process by conventional textile techniques, such as weaving or knitting, due to the fact that easily break in flexure (weak), presenting lowclongation at break and possess high coefficients of friction with metals , forcing many times to its surface lubrication, ‘TSAI-HILL’S FAILURE CRITERION FOR COMPOSITES Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) are a subgroup of composite materials as well as a subgroup of technical ceramics. They consist of ceramic fibres embedded in a ceramic matrix, thus forming a ceramic fibre reinforced ceramic (CERC) material. The matrix and fibres can consist of any ceramic material, whereby carbo hon fibres can also be considered a ceramic material. Ceramic fibres in CMCs talline structure, as in conventional temperatures above 10 carbon, Amorphous Si ‘convention that most of tensile strength dimensional fibre ary ein figure) in-textile fabrication, where a small bending radius is essential ‘The use of composite mi dates from centuries ago, and it all started with natural fibres. In ancient Egypt some 3000 0, clay was reinforced by straw to build walls. Later ‘on, the natural fibre lost much of its interest. Other more durable construction materials like metals were introduced. During the si ties, the rise of composite materials began when glass fibres in combination with tough rigid resins could be produced on large scale. During the last decade there has been a renewed interest in the natural fibre as a substitute for glass, motivated by potential advantages of weight saving, lower raw material price, and ‘thermal recycling! or the ecological advantages of using resources which are renewable. On the other hand natural fibres have their shortcomings, and these have to be solved in order to be competitive with glass.Natural fibres have lower durability and lower strength than glass fibres. However, recently developed fibre treatments have improved these properties considerably. ‘To understand how fibres should be treated, a closer look into the fibre is required. ‘TENSOR POLYNOMIAL (TSAI-WU) FAILURE CRITERION. In general, the bast consists of a wood core surrounded by a stem. Within the stem there are a number of fibre bundles, each containing individual fibre cells or filaments. The filaments are made of cellulose and hemicellulose, bonded, by a matrix, which can be lignin or pectin. The pectin surrounds the bundle thus, jem on {0 the stem. The pectin is removed during the retting process. This enables, the bundles from the rest of the stem (scutching), After fibre bundles are impre} cocessing of a composite, the weakest part in the mater Especially in the case of flax, a much stronger ck in a way that the cells are separated, by remov’ separate the individual cel Flax delivers s rate climates. The fibres can be spun to fine yams in warmer climates. The most common is jute, whicl . strength and resistance to rot, Jute is As far as composite applications grned, flax and hemp are two fibres that have replaced glass in a number of components, especially in the German automotive industries. In general the leaf fibres are coarser than the bast fibres. Applications are ropes, and coarse textiles. Within the total production of leaf fibres, sisal is the most important. It is obtained from the agave plant. The stiffness is relatively high and it is often applied as binder twines. As far as composites is concemed, sisal is often applied with flax in hybrid mats, to provide good permeability when the mat has to be impregnated with a resin. In some interior applications sisalis prefered because of its low level of smell compared to fibres like flax. Especially manufacturing processes at increased temperatures (NMT) fibres like flax can cause smell. Cotton is the most common seed fibre and is used for textile all over the world. Other seed fibres are applied in less demanding applications such as stuffing of upholstery. Coir is an exception to this, Coir is the fibre of the coconut husk, it is a thick and course but durable fibre, Applications ‘are ropes, matting and brushes. With the rise of composite materials there is a ren rest for natural fibres. Their moderate mechanical properties restrain the fibres from, em in high-tech applications, but for many reasons they can compete with glass fibre; and disadvantages determine the choice: PREDICTION OF LAMINA’ Metal-matrix. composi i Shuttle, commercial airliners, electronic sul applications, atrix composites, a growing number of applications ium, copper, magnesium, or iron Like all composite single material but a family of materials whose stiffnes \d electrical properties can be tailored. ‘The matrix alloy, the reink fume and shape of the reinforcement, the location of the reinforcement, ibrication method can all be varied to achieve required properties. Regardless of the variat ever, aluminum composites offer the advantage of low cost over most other MMCs, In addition, they offer excellent thermal conductivity, high shear strength, excellent abrasion resistance, high-temperature operation, nonflammability, minimal attack by fuels and solvents, and the ability to be formed and treated on conventional ‘equipment. Aluminum MMCs are produced by casting, powder metallurgy, in situ development of reinforcements, and foil-and-fiber pressing techniques. Consistently high-quality products are now available in large quantities, with major producers scaling up production and reducingprices. They are applied in brake rotors, pistons, and other automotive components, as well as golf clubs, bicycles, machinery components, electronic substrates, extruded angles and channels, and a wide variety of other structural and electronic applications. Superalloy composites reinforced with tungsten alloy fibers are being developed for components in jet turbine engines that operate temperatures above 1,830 °F. Graphite/copper composites have tailorable properties are useful to high temperatures in air, and provide excellent mechanical characteristics, as w, fh electrical and thermal conductivity. They offer easier processing as compared wit im, and lower density compared with steel Ductile superconductors have been fabi matrix of copper and superconducting filaments of niobium-titanium. Copy ingsten particles or aluminum oxide particles is used in heat sinks andglectronic packaging. as skin material for the @ among the matrix -rings and other MMC reinforcements can fibers, whiskers, particulate into five major Eategories: continuous fibers, discontinuous, s. With the exception of wires, which are metals, reinforcements generally are ceramic Key continuous fibers include boron, graphite (carbon), alumina, and silicon carbide, Boron fibers are made by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) of this material on a tungsten core. Carbon cores have also been used. These relatively thick monofilaments are available in 4.0, 5.6, and 8.0-mil diameters. To retard reactions that can take place between boron and metals at high temperature, fiber coatings of materials such as silicon carbide or boron carbide are sometimes used.Silicon carbide monofilaments are also made by a CVD process, using a tungsten or carbon core. A Japanese multifilament yarn, designated as silicon carbide by its manufacturer, is also commercially available. This material, however, made by pyrolysis of organometallic precursor fibers, is far from pure silicon carbide and its properties differ significantly from those of monofilament silicon carbide. Continuous alumina fibers are available from several suppliers. Chemical compositions and properties of the various fibers are significantly diffi. Graphite fibers are made from two precursor materials, polyacrilonitrile (PAN) and im pitch. Efforts to make graphite fibers from coal-based pitch are under way. Graph with a wide range of strengths and moduli are available. ‘The leading discontinuous fiber seinforcements at this th Jumina and alumina-silica. Both originally were developed as ins ‘The leading U.S. comm boron carbide, the key industry. Silicon carbid make whisl materials. The maj +r material is silicon carbide. A number of m, and molybdenum have been used to reinforce mel wire reinforcements are tungsten wire in superalloys and s orating niobium-titanium and niobium- tin in a copper matrix. The r ents cited above are the most important at this time. Many others have been tried over the [a in the future, lecades, and still others undoubtedly will be developed IERGY FORMULATIONS. Composites are one of the most widely used materials because of their adaptability to different situations and the relative ease of combination with other materials to serve specific purposes and exhibit desirable properties. In surface transportation, reinforced plastics are the kind ofcomposites used because of their huge size. They provide ample scope and receptiveness to design changes, materials and processes. The strength-weight ratiois higher than other materials. Their stiffness and cost effectiveness offered, apart from easy availability of raw mater makethem the obvious choice for applications insurface transportation. In heavy transport vehicles, the composites are used in processing of component parts with cost-effectiveness. Good Reproductivity and resilience handling by semi-skilled workers are the basic requirements of a ‘good composite material. While the costs of achieving advanced composites may not justify the savings obtained interms of weight vis have been used in racing cars and recently fo fely of cars, Polyester resin with suitable fillers and reinforcements were the first of composites in road transportation. The choice was dictated by properties like convention: are used to bui parts where specific mechanical pri fare required and appearance is not very important. Heater housings, which find uses for sisal, are produced by compression moulding. Since a variety of glass fibers are available, it is used as reinforcement for a large range of parts of different types. Rovings, non-woven matsare the commonly used low cost versions. Woven cloth is applied in special cases, where particular properties are required as cloth is not known to be amenable to large quantity production methods. Since the automobile industry is replete with models, options and changes in trends, the material selection and combinations offered by the materials is also wide-ranging. Along with a measure of conservation, the choice is alsodictatedby the demands of the competitive market for new and alternate materials. A reinforced-plastic composite is likely to costmore than sheet steel, when considered on the basis of cost and performance. In such a ease, other qualities must necessarily justify the high expenditure. ‘Mechanical properties of the parts, which affect the thickness and weight, must offer enough savings to render them more effective than steel. It however shows a higher machining waste than reinforced plastics. The fabrication costs of reinforced plastics is controlled by the devices and tooling used for producing them, In turn, it is dependent on the basis of the quantity of components needed. Some complicated parts of Ii mercial vehicles, which need casting, may be compression moulded from compo: the sheet or bulk variety. State-of-art technologies of moulding, tooling and fal we thrown open possibilities of increased . Materials used in automotive body for steel sheets. Reinfoi lastics a the cost of achieving this continues to be pr defects in painted she werlooked, the fiber pattern texture is obvious.tl that it is smoother. In commercial vehicles, t. Since a commercial vehicle is more a capital inves suc nit that are considered. The rate of retum depends on initia e costs. Reinforced plastic is a boon in the sense that it uses shorter es and tooling cost is considerably cheaper. Commitments to Jaunich a new model are kept eas ce the time between production and introduction can be co-ordinate perfectly. Studies have at composite panels may be used as the complete ‘outer skin of the body to give a unique look. Sheet moulding compounds of resins are most suited for this purpose. Inner and outer reinforcing is done by panel assembled by adhesive bonding and riveting.STATIC BENDING ANALYSIS ‘Composites have high stiffness, strength, and toughness, often comparable with structural metal alloys. Further, they usually provide these properties at substantially less weight than metals: their “specific” strength and modulus per unit weight is near five times that of steel or aluminum, ‘This means the overall structure may be lighter, and in weight-critical devices such as airplanes oor spacecraft this weight savings might be a compelling advantage. + Composit scan be made anisotropic, i.ggpbave different properties in different directions, and this can be used to design a my ‘ent structure. In many structures the stresses are also different in different directi instance in closed-end pressure vessels ~ such as a rocket motor case — the circ sses are twice the axial stresses. Using composites,such a vessel can be m: circumferential direction as in the axial +Many structures experi nal stresses vary with time. Axles on tolling stoc jidally from tension to compression as the axl the maximum stress is jeasured in a static desired levels by suitable formulation + Composites can be excellent in applications involving sliding friction, with tribological (*wear”) properties approaching those of lubricated steel. + Composites do not rust as do many ferrous alloys, and resistance to this common form of environmental degradation may offer better life-cycle cost even if the original structure is initially more costly. + Many structural parts are assembled from a number of subassemblies, and theassembly process adds cost and complexity to the design. Composites offer a lot of flexibility in processing and property control,and this often leads to possibilities for part reduction and simpler manufacture. FREE VIBRATIONS A fiber-reinforced composite (FRC) is a composite building material that consists of three components: (i) the fibers as the discontinus ispersed phase, (ii) the matrix as the continuous phase, and (iii) the fine interphase ‘also known as the interface.!"'"! This is a type of advanced composite group, whig ye of rice husk, rice hull, and plastic as ingredients. This technology involves, . blending, and compounding natural FRC to be reused again and again. ‘The failure mechanisms in FRC materials include delamination, intralaminar matrix cracking, longitudinal matrix splitting, fiber/matrix debonding, fiber pull-out, and fiber fracture.UNIT V THERMAL ANALYSIS \UMPTION OF CONSTANT CO-EFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION (C.T.E.) Hand lay-up technique is the simplest method of composite processing. The infrastructural requirement for this method is imal. The processing steps are quite simple. First of all, a release gel is sprayed on, id surface to avoid the sticking of polymer {o the surface. Thin plastic sheets are uss and bottom of the mold plate to get good surface finish of the product. Reinfo ‘woven mats or chopped strand mats are cut as per the mold size a mold alter perspex sheet. Then thermosetting polymer in liq prescribed hardner (ct suitable proportion with a ready placed in the mold. ‘The polymer is unifor c at is then placed on the polymer surface ani release gel is spra hich is then kept on the stacked layers and the presst ther at room temperature or at some specific temperature, mold is posite part is taken out and further processed. The schematic of -up is shown in figure 1. The time of curing depends on type of polymer used for compo: essing. For example, for epoxy based system, normal ‘curing time at room temperatur is 24 rs. This method is mainly suitable for thermosetting polymer based composites. Capital and infrastructural reuirement is less as compared to other methods. Production rate is less and bigh volume fraction of reinforcement is difficult to achieve in the processed composites. Hand lay-up method finds application in many areas like aircraft components, automotive parts, boat hulls, diase board, deck etc.MODIFICATION OF HOOKE’S LAW Filament winding is a fabrication technique mainly used for manufacturing open (cylinders) or closed end structures (pressure vessels or tanks). The process involves winding filaments under tension over a rotating mandrel. The mandrel rotates around the spindle (Axis 1 or X: Spindle) while a delivery eye on a carriage (Axis 2 or Y: Horizontal) traverses horizontally in line with the axis of the rotating mandrel, laying down fibers in the desired pattem or angle. The most common filaments are glass or carbon and are imy ited in a bath with resin as they are wound onto the mandrel. Once the mandrel is ly covered to the desired thickness, the Filament winding is we small pressure vessel th: ising this technique range from pipes, golf clubs, Reverse sis Membrane Housings, 0 (cle forks, bicycle rims, power and trans ission poles, pressure vessels to missile casings, a selages and lamp posts and yacht masts. MODIFICATION OF LAMINATE CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS Consider the stress strain curve _ = f(_) of a linear elastic material subjected to uni-axial stress loading conditions.This further reduces the number of material constants to 21. The most general anisotropic linear elastic material therefore has 21 material constants. We can write the stress-strain relations for a linear elastic material exploiting these symmetries, Anisotropy refers to the directional dependence of material properties (mechanical or otherwise). It plays an important role in Aerospace Materials due to the wide use of engineered ‘composites. The different types of material anisotropy are determined by the existence of symmetries in the internal structure of the material. The mo, internal symmetries, the simpler the structure of the sti_ness tensor. Bach type of s3 results in the invariance of the stiffness erials because of their adaptability materials. Their stifft wailability of raw materials, choics tions insurface transportation. In heavy transport v ing of component parts with cost- effectiveness. Reproductivity and ® are the basic requirements of a ‘good composite materials vanced composites may not justify the -vis vehicle production, carbon fibers reinforced epoxies have been used in racing cars a ly for the safety of cars. Polyester resin with suitable fillers and reinforcements were the ications of composites in road transportation. The choice was dictated by properties like low cost, ease in designing and production of functional parts etc, Using a variety of reinforcements, polyester has continued to be used in improving the system and other applications. Most of the thermoplastics are combined with reinforcing fibers in various proportions. Several methods are used to produce vehicle parts from thermo plastics Selection of the material is made from the final nature of the component, the volume required, apart from cost-effectiveness and mechanical strength. Components that needconventional paint finishing are generally made with thermosetting resins, while thermoplastics are used to build parts that are moulded and can be pigmented. Press moulded reinforced polyester possess the capability to produce large parts in considerable volume with cost- effectiveness. In manufacturing of automobile parts, glass and sisal fibers usually find the maximum use. Sisal costs very less and this alone has prompted extensive research to come up with applications in which sisal is the dominant reinforcing material infilled polyester resin, in parts where specific mechanical properties are required and appearance is not very important. Heater housings, which find uses for sisal, are by compression moulding. Since a variety of glass fibers are available, forcement for a large range of parts of different types. Rovings, non-woven mats: jonly used low cost versions. Woven cloth by the demands of the composite is likely to performance, Mechanical savings to rendet than reinforced plas and tooling used for p: ndent on the basis of the quantity of ‘components needed. Some c fed parts of lig! commercial vehicles, which need casting, may be compression moulded omposites of the sheet or bulk variety. State-of-art technologies of moulding, tooling a ating have thrown open possibilities of increased manufacturing of vehicles that use reinforced polyesters. Materials used in automotive body parts show high tensile strength and flexural moduli, The material is not ductile and hence will not yield and the failure is accounted only in terms of fracture. These properties and thickness, determine the maximum bending moment which is several times higher than the pointof fracture for steel sheets. Reinforced plastics can be given the metal finish, although the cost of achieving this continues to be prohibitive. They are restricted in their use in car components. While the defects in painted sheet metal parts are easily overlooked, the fiber pattern texture isobvious.though the surface-roughness measurements report that it is smoother. In commercial vehicles, appearance is also important as is the functional aspect. Since a commercial vehicle is more & capital investment, it is the returns from such investment that are considered. The rate of retum depends on initial cost, durability and maintenance costs. Reinforced plastic is a boon in the sense that it uses shorter lead times and tooling cost is considerably cheaper. Commitments to launch a new model are kept easily, since the time between production and introduction can be co-ordinate perfectly. Studies have shown that composite panels may be used as the complete outer skin of the body to give a unique look. Sh Iding compounds of resins are most suited for this purpose. Inner and outer reink done by panel assembled by adhesive bonding and riveting. ORTHOTROPIC LAMINA C.T.E" metal alloys. Further, they usua antially less weight than metals: their “specific” times that of steel or aluminum. This means: -ecraft t pal devices such as airplanes or made anisotropic, we different properties in different directions, and d to design a more e ructure, In many structures the stresses are also dif ions; for instanee in closed-end pressure vessels ~ such as a rocket motor ses are twice the axial stresses. Using ‘composites,such a vessel ca twice as strong. in the circumferential direction as in the axial. +Many structures experience wading, in which the internal stresses vary with time, Axles on rolling stock are examples; here the stresses vary sinusoidally from tension to compression as the axle turns, These fatigue stresses can eventually lead to failure, even when the maximum stress is much less than the failure strength of the material as measured in a static tension test. Composites of then have excellent fatigue resistance in comparison with metal alloys, and often show evidence of accumulating fatigue damage, so that the damage can be detected and the patt replaced before a catastrophic failure occurs.*Materials can exhibit damping, in which a certain fraction of the mechanical strain energy deposited in the material by a loading cycle is dissipated as heat. This can be advantageous, for ins ance in controlling mechanically-induced vibrations. Composites generally offer relatively high levels of damping, and furthermore the damping can often be tailored to desired levels by suitable formulation and processing. + Composites can be excellent in applications involving sliding friction, with tribological (“wear”) properties approaching those of lubricated steel. + Composites do not rust as do many ferrous and resistance to this common form of environmental degradation may offer better cost even if the original structure is initially more costly. * Many structural parts are asses assembly process adds processing and property conts manufacture. LAMINATE CONFI fibers from cellulosic wast fi Fstrength fiber composite material in a polymer matrix. The designate or base raw materials used in this instance are those of waste thermoplastics and various cal of cellulosic waste including rice husk and saw dust. FRC is high-performance fiber composite achieved and made possible by cross linking cellulosic fiber molecules with resins in the FRC material matrix through proprietary molecular re- engineering process, yielding a product of exceptional structural properties. ‘Through th are successfully cloned and vested in the FRC product, in addition to other critical attributes to feat of molecular re-engineering selected physical and structural properties of wood yield performance properties superior to contemporary wood.This material, unlike other composites, can be recycled up to 20 times, allowing scrap FRC to be reused again and again. ‘The failure mechanisms in FRC materials include delamination, intralaminar matrix cracking, longitudinal matrix splitting, fiber/matrix debonding, fiber pull-out, and fiber fracture. UNIDIRECTIONAL, OFF-AXIS, SYMMETRIC BALANCED LAMINATES 8.0-mil diameters. To temperature, fiber coati used. Silicon ties differ significantly from those of monofilament silicon carbide. Continuous alumina fibers are avail yom several suppliers. Chemical compositions and properties of the various fibers are significantly different. Graphite fibers are made from two precursor materials, polyacrilonitrile (PAN) and petroleum pitch. Efforts to make graphite fibers from coal-based pitch are under way, Graphite fibers with a wide range of strengths and moduli are available. silica. Both ‘The leading discontinuous fiber reinforcements at this time are alumina and alumina originally were developed as insulating materials. The major whisker material is silicon carbide,The leading U.S. commercial product is made by pytolysis of rice hulls. Silicon carbide and boron carbide, the key particulate reinforcements, are obtained from the commercial abrasives industry. Silicon carbide particulates are also produced as by-product of the process used to make whiskers of this material. A number of metal wires including tungsten, beryllium, titanium, and molybdenum have been ‘used to reinforce metal matrices. Currently, the most important wire reinforcements are tungsten wire in superalloys and superconducting materials i xing niobium-titanium and niobium- tin in a copper matrix. The reinforcements cited e the most important at this time, Many still others undoubtedly will be developed in the future ZERO C.T.E LAMINATES. Metal-matrix composites ice Shuttle, commercial airliners, electronic. s 5 if a variety of other applications. While the wing number of applications require the n sium, or iron. Like all comy 2 single material but a family of materials whose sti ty, and thermal andi@lectrical properties can be tailored. ‘The matrix alloy, the ie and shape of the reinforcement, the location of the reinforcemel jod can all be varied to achieve required properties. Regantless of the vi however, aluminum composites offer the advantage of low cost over most other MMCs, jon, they offer excellent thermal conductivity, high shear strength, excellent abrasion resistance, high-temperature operation, nonflammability, minimal attack by fuels and solvents, and the ability to be formed and treated on conventional ‘equipment. Aluminum MMCs are produced by casting, powder metallurgy, in situ development of reinforcements, and foil-and-fiber pressing techniques. Consistently high-quality products are now available in large quantities, with major producers scaling up production and reducing prices. They are applied in brake rotors, pistons, and other automotive components, as well asgolf clubs, bicycles, machinery components, electronic substrates, extruded angles and channels, and a wide variety of other structural and electronic applications, Superalloy composites reinforced with tungsten alloy fibers are being developed for components, in jet turbine engines that operate temperatures above 1,830 °F. Graphite/copper composites have tailorable properties, are useful to high temperatures in air, and provide excellent mechanical characteristics, as well agshigh electrical and thermal conductivity. ‘They offer easier processing as compared with tity \d lower density compared with steel Ductile superconductors have been fabricat ‘a matrix of copper and superconducting filaments of niobium-titanium. Copper ith tungsten particles or aluminum oxide jories: continuous fibers, discontinuous fibers, whiskers, particulat wires. With He exception of wires, which are meta reinforcements generally are cer Key continuous fibers include boron, nite (carbon), alumina, and silicon carbide, Boron fibers are made by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) of this material on a tungsten core, Carbon cores have also been used. These relatively thick monofilaments are available in 4.0, 5.6, and 8.0-mil diameters. To retard reactions that can take place between boron and metals at high temperature, fiber coatings of materials such as silicon carbide or boron carbide are sometimes used.Silicon carbide monofilaments are also made by a CVD process, using a tungsten or carbon core. A Japanese multifilament yarn, designated as silicon carbide by its manufacturer, is also commercially available. This material, however, made by pyrolysis of organometallic precursor fibers, is far from pure silicon carbide and its properties differ significantly from those of monofilament silicon carbide. Continuous alumina fibers are available from several suppliers. Chemical compositions and properties of the various fibers are significantly diffi. Graphite fibers are made from two precursor materials, polyacrilonitrile (PAN) and pitch, Efforts to make graphite fibers from coal-based pitch are under way. Graph with a wide range of strengths and moduli are available. ‘The leading discontinuous fiber seinforcements at this th Jumina and alumina-silica. Both originally were developed as ins ‘The leading U.S. comm boron carbide, the key industry. Silicon carbid materials. The maj +r material is silicon carbide. make whisl A number of m, and molybdenum have been used to reinforce mel wire reinforcements are tungsten wire in superalloys and s orating niobium-titanium and niobium- tin in a copper matrix. The r ents cited above are the most important at this time. Many others have been tried over the [a in the future, lecades, and still others undoubtedly will be developed