o Most plants are green because they contain a green pigment called chlorophyll.

o Chlorophyll absorbs energy from sunlight.

o All the food that is eaten by animals was originally made by plants.
o Plants give out oxygen during the daytime.

1 The dark green areas show dense forest, and light green areas show other types of
vegetation, such as grassland.

2 The brown areas represent dry places deserts and semi-deserts. Few plants grow
here because there is not enough water.

3 a, b The answers will depend on where the student lives.

4 The two reasons given in the text are (1) that plants provide food for animals and (2)
that they provide oxygen.

The structure of a plant

o Leaves are the food factories of the plant. They absorb energy from sunlight, and use
it to make food .
o Flowers are reproductive organs. They produce seeds, which can grow into new
plants.
o The stem holds the leaves and flowers above the ground.
o The roots hold the plant firmly in the soil. They absorb water and minerals from the
soil.

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5 Branching roots make more contact with the soil. They have a large amount of surface.
This helps them to hold the plant firmly in the soil, and to absorb more water.

6 This gives them a large area to absorb energy from sunlight. Being thin allows the
sunlight to get right inside the leaf.

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 o A group of organs that work together is called an organ system.

The digestive system

o The digestive system is a long tube that runs all the way through the body. Food
usually takes one to three days to travel from one end of the tube to the other.
o The breaking down of the food into tiny particle is called digestion.
o The tiny particles move out of the digestive system, through its walls. They move into
the blood. The blood carries them to every part of the body.

1 mouth, stomach, small intestine, large intestine (colon), rectum.

2 It passes out through the anus, as faeces.

Digestive system Circulatory system Nervous system Respiratory system

The circulatory system

o The circulatory system transports substances all over the body.
o It is made up of tubes called blood vessels. These tubes contain blood.
o The blood is pumped around the circulatory system by the heart.

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The nervous system
o The nervous system helps different parts of the body to communicate with one
another.
o Signals travel along nerves from the brain and spinal cord to all the other body
organs.
o Sense organs are also part of the nervous system. For example, your eyes sense light.
Signals travel from your eyes to your brain.

The respiratory system

o The respiratory system is where oxygen enters your body and carbon dioxide leaves
it.
o All of your cells need oxygen, so that they can respire. This is how they get their
energy.
o When cells respire, they make carbon dioxide. It is a waste product of respiratory
system.
o Inside the lungs, oxygen moves into your blood. Carbon dioxide moves out of the
blood and into the lungs.
o Carbon dioxide moves out of the lungs when you breathe out.

3 Nerves pass signals between the brain and spinal cord, and other body organs.

4 Cells need oxygen for respiration. This is how they obtain their energy.

5 The lungs allow oxygen from the air to enter the blood, and carbon dioxide from the
blood to pass out into the air.

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Three functions of the skeleton:
 supports the body,
 helps it to move,
 protects the soft organs inside the body.

1. Support, protection and movement

2. Humerus bones of the arms are similar to Femur bones of the legs. Radius and ulna bones
of the arms are similar to tibia and fibula bones of the legs. The hand bones and foot
bones are also similar.

3. 24 (12 on each side)

4. The cranium protects the brain. The ribs and sternum protect the lungs and heart.

5. The X-ray of a mink shows that bones in the mink are equivalent to those in the human
skeleton. Having the same bones of cranium, vertebral column, ribs, bones of the legs, etc.
is the evidence.

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Fixed and moveable joints
o A joint is a place where two bones meet.
o We have two main types of joints in our bodies:
•fixed joints
•moveable joints.
o The skull has fixed joints in the cranium. This helps the cranium to protect the brain.
o The jawbone is joined to the skull by a moveable joint.
o This allows the jaw to move up and down and from side to side when you chew, talk
or yawn.

Hinge joints and ball-and-socket joints

o Your shoulder joint can move in almost all directions.
o The shoulder joint is a ball-and-socket joint.
o Your elbow joint is a hinge joint. It can move in only one direction.

1. In the cranium. This helps to make the cranium strong, so it can protect the
brain.
2. The scapula (socket) and humerus (ball).
3. The humerus and ulna.

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Structure of a moveable joint
o To reduce friction (to move joint easily):
 the ends of the bones are covered with a very smooth, slippery material called
cartilage
 a thick, slippery fluid called synovial fluid fills the spaces between the two
bones.
o The synovial fluid helps to lubricate the joint.

4. Friction between the bones would make it difficult to move them. More force
would be needed. The end of bones would be damaged. It would be painful.

5. Cartilage covers the ends of the bones. It is there to reduce friction, as it is very
smooth and slippery.
6. Synovial fluid lubricates the joint, reducing friction.
7. The joint capsule (made mostly of ligaments) helps to hold the bones together.

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 o Muscles are organs that help us to move.
o The muscles are attached to the bones by tendons. Tendons are very strong, and they
do not stretch.

How muscles work

o Muscles can get shorter. This is called contraction.
o When muscles contract, they produce a pulling force.
o When the biceps muscle contracts, it pulls on the radius and scapula. (The radius is
pulled upwards, towards the scapula.) The arm bends.
o You can see the biceps muscle bulging when it makes the arm bend.

1 Scapula and radius

2 Scapula, humerus and ulna
3 The biceps has two tendons attaching its upper end to bones. The triceps has
three.
4 The triceps will get shorter, It will pull the ulna towards the scapula. The arm will
get straighter.
5 The tendons must transmit the force of the contracting muscles to the bones. If
the tendons stretched, the bones would not move.

6 The biceps muscle cannot make itself get longer. It cannot push the radius
downwards.

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Antagonistic muscles
How do relaxed muscles work?
o (Muscles can contract and make themselves shorter. However, muscles cannot make
themselves get longer.)
o When a muscle is not contracting, we say that it is relaxed.
o A relaxed muscle does not do anything by itself. But if a force pulls on it, the relaxed
muscle get longer.
How do biceps and triceps muscle make the arm bend and straighten?
o When the biceps muscle contracts, the arm bend at the elbow joint. It also pulls the
relaxed triceps muscle and makes it longer.
o When the triceps muscle contracts, and the biceps muscle relaxes, the arm can be
straighten.
How do antagonistic muscles work together?
o The biceps and triceps work as a team.
o When one of them contracts, it pulls the bones in one direction, and when the other
contracts, it pulls the bones in the opposite direction.
o A pair of muscles that work together like this are called antagonistic muscles.

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Anatomists
o An anatomist studies the structure of the body.
o Anatomists can study living bodies using X-rays, CAT scans and MRI scans. These
techniques allow them to see inside the body, without having to cut it open

Physiologists
o Physiologists study the way that the body works.
o A sports physiologist studies what happens to the body when we exercise.
o Some sports physiologists work with professional sportswomen and sportsmen.
o They may study how a person’s diet and their training programme affects their heart
or lungs.
o A neuroscientist is a physiologist who studies how the brain and the rest of the
nervous system work.
o They do research, such as how we learn, or how the brain sends signals.

1 -ist

2 An anatomist studies the structure of the body. A physiologist studies how the body
works.

3 A sports physiologist can help a sportsperson to prepare their body to be able to do well in
their chosen sport. They can advise on the best diet to eat. They can advise on the best
training programme.

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