Mathematics for Economics

Amit Goyal∗

1. Proposition : A proposition is a statement that is either Different ways of saying “p implies q”:
true or false. For a particular proposition p, the truth “p implies q” ,
value of p is its truth or falsity. “if p, then q”,
“p only if q”,
2. Negation (not), (¬) : The proposition ¬p (“not p”,
“q whenever p”,
called the negation of the proposition p) is true when the
“q, if p” ,
proposition p is false, and is false when p is true.
“q is necessary for p”,
“p is sufficient for q”
p ¬p

n
T F
F T 6. Exclusive or, (⊕) : The proposition p ⊕ q (“ p exclusive

.i
or q” or, more briefly “p xor q”) is true when one of the
3. Conjunction (and), (∧) : The proposition p ∧ q (“p propositions p or q is true, but not both. Thus p ⊕ q is

ol
and q”, the conjunction of the propositions p and q) is false when both p and q are true, or when both p and q
true when both of the propositions p and q are true, and are false.
is false otherwise.

p q p∧q
ho p
T
q p⊕q
T F
sc
T T T T F T
T F F F T T
F T F F F F
on

F F F
7. If and only if, (⇔) : The proposition p ⇔ q (“p if ond
4. Disjunction (or), (∨) : The proposition p ∨ q (“p or
ec

only if q”) is true when the propositions p or q have the

q”, the disjunction of the propositions p and q) is false same truth value (both p and q are true, or both p and q
when both of the propositions p and q are false, and is are false), and false otherwise.
true otherwise.
• The reason that ⇔ is read as “if and only if” is that
p q p∨q p ⇔ q means the same thing as the compound propo-
T T T sition (p ⇒ q) ∧ (q ⇒ p).
T F T • It is also sometimes called the “biconditional ”.
F T T
F F F p q p⇔q
T T T
5. Implication, (⇒) : The proposition “p implies q” is false T F F
when p is true and q is false, and is true otherwise. F T F
F F T
p q p⇒q
T T T
8. Logical equivalence : Two propositions ϕ and ψ are log-
T F F ically equivalent, written ϕ ≡ ψ, if they have exactly iden-
F T T tical truth tables.
F F T
• Example: ((p ∧ q) ⇒ ¬q) ≡ ¬(p ∧ q)
In the implication p ⇒ q, p is known as the antecedent
p q (p ∧ q) ⇒ ¬q ¬(p ∧ q)
and q is known as the consequent.
T T F F
T F T T
F T T T
F F T T

9. Converse, Contrapositive, and Inverse : Consider

∗ Contact: amit.kr.goyal@gmail.com an implication p ⇒ q. Then:

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 • The converse of p ⇒ q is the proposition q ⇒ p. • ¬(∀x ∈ S, P (x)) ⇔ (∃x ∈ S, ¬P (x))
• The contrapositive of p ⇒ q is the proposition ¬q ⇒ • ¬(∃x ∈ S, P (x)) ⇔ (∀x ∈ S, ¬P (x))
¬p.
14. Vacuous quantification: Consider the proposition “All
• The inverse of p ⇒ q is the proposition ¬p ⇒ ¬q. even prime numbers greater than 12 have a 3 as their last
digit”. This proposition is vacuously true.
p q p ⇒ q q ⇒ p ¬q ⇒ ¬p ¬p ⇒ ¬q
T T T T T T 15. If the set S is nonempty then:
T F F T F T
• (∀x ∈ S, P (x)) ⇒ (∃x ∈ S, P (x))
F T T F T F
F F T T T T 16. Disjunctions, Conjunctions and quantifiers:

10. Some other Logically equivalent Statements: • ∃x ∈ S, (P (x) ∨ Q(x))

⇔ (∃x ∈ S, P (x)) ∨ (∃x ∈ S, Q(x))
• Commutativity:
• ∀x ∈ S, (P (x) ∧ Q(x))
p∨q ≡q∨p ⇔ (∀x ∈ S, P (x)) ∧ (∀x ∈ S, Q(x))
p∧q ≡q∧p • ∃x ∈ S, (P (x) ∧ Q(x))
p⊕q ≡q⊕p ⇒ (∃x ∈ S, P (x)) ∧ (∃x ∈ S, Q(x))
p⇔q≡q⇔p • ∀x ∈ S, (P (x) ∨ Q(x))
• Associativity: ⇐ (∀x ∈ S, P (x)) ∨ (∀x ∈ S, Q(x))

p ∨ (q ∨ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∨ r 17. Negating universal quantifiers:

p ∧ (q ∧ r) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∧ r ¬(∀x ∈ S, P (x)) ⇔ (∃x ∈ S, ¬P (x))
p ⊕ (q ⊕ r) ≡ (p ⊕ q) ⊕ r
18. Negating existential quantifiers:
p ⇔ (q ⇔ r) ≡ (p ⇔ q) ⇔ r
• Idempotence: ¬(∃x ∈ S, P (x)) ⇔ (∀x ∈ S, ¬P (x))
p∨p≡p 19. If everybody’s doing it, then somebody’s doing it:
p∧p≡p
(∀x ∈ S, P (x)) ⇒ (∃x ∈ S, P (x))
• Distribution of ∧ over ∨:
20. Order of Quantification: The order of the quantifiers
p ∧ (q ∨ r) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r)
matters! One of the following propositions is true; the
• Distribution of ∨ over ∧: other is false. Which is which?
p ∨ (q ∧ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r)
Proposition 1: ∃y ∈ R, ∀x ∈ R, x < y
• Contrapositive:
p ⇒ q ≡ ¬q ⇒ ¬p Proposition 2: ∀x ∈ R, ∃y ∈ R, x < y
• Mutual Implication : 21. Set : Any well-defined collection of objects is a set.
(p ⇒ q) ∧ (q ⇒ p) ≡ p ⇔ q 22. Element of a Set : If A is a set, then the objects in the
• De Morgan’s Laws: collection A are called elements of A, denoted by x ∈ A.
¬(p ∧ q) ≡ ¬p ∨ ¬q
23. Subset: Let U be the universal set. We say set A is a
¬(p ∨ q) ≡ ¬p ∧ ¬q subset of set B, denoted by A ⊂ B when the following is
• Few more examples are: true: (∀x ∈ U )(x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B).
p ⇒ q ≡ ¬p ∨ q 24. Defining the set using some property. Suppose we want
p ⇒ (q ⇒ r) ≡ p ∧ q ⇒ r to write the set of all natural numbers between 1 and 100
(including both 1 and 100), then we can use the following
p ⇔ q ≡ ¬p ⇔ ¬q
expression to write this set: {n ∈ N|n ≤ 100}. More
11. Universal quantifier (“for all”), (∀): The proposi- generally, we can define a set consisting of all elements
tion ∀x ∈ S, P (x) ( “for all x in S, P (x)”) is true when such as x that satisfy property P (x) in this way: {x|P (x)}.
for every possible x ∈ S, P (x) is true.
Some frequently used sets in mathematics :
12. Existential quantifier (“there exists”), (∃): The
proposition ∃x ∈ S, P (x) (“ there exists an x in S such • N : the set of all natural numbers
that P (x)”) is true when for at least one possible x ∈ S, • Z : the set of all integers
we have P (x) is true. • Q : the set of all rational numbers
13. De Morgan’s Law (quantified form): • R : the set of all real numbers

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 • R+ : the set of all non-negative real numbers • The union of an indexed family {Ai | i ∈ I} is defined
• Let a, b ∈ R, a < b. We define as [
Ai = {a | (∃i ∈ I)[a ∈ Ai ]}
– open interval : (a, b) = {x ∈ R | a < x < b} i∈I
– closed interval : [a, b] = {x ∈ R | a ≤ x ≤ b}
• The intersection of an indexed family {Ai | i ∈ I} is
– left-closed, right-open interval : (a, b] = {x ∈
defined as
R | a < x ≤ b}
– left-open, right-closed interval : [a, b) = {x ∈
\
Ai = {a | (∀i ∈ I)[a ∈ Ai ]}
R | a ≤ x < b} i∈I
• (−∞, a) = {x ∈ R | x < a} [
• (−∞, a] = {x ∈ R | x ≤ a} Consider for example, if I = {1, 2}, then Ai = A1 ∪ A2
i∈I
• (a, ∞) = {x ∈ R | x > a} \
and Ai = A1 ∩ A2
• [a, ∞) = {x ∈ R | x ≥ a} i∈I

25. Operations on Sets: Suppose U is the universal set. Let 29. Question
[ \ each n ∈ N, let An = {n}. What are
: For
A, B ⊂ U . An and An ?
n∈N n∈N
• Complement of set A : A′ = {x ∈ U | x ∈
/ A}
• Union (A ∪ B) : It is the set of elements of U which 30. Question : For each r ∈ R+ , let Ar = {x ∈ R | 0 ≤ x[ < r},
are member of either A or B (or both). Formally, where R+ is the set of all positive reals. What are Ar
{x | (x ∈ A) ∨ (x ∈ B)} \ r∈R+

• Intersection (A ∩ B) : It is the set of all members and Ar ?

which A and B have in common.Formally, {x | (x ∈ r∈R+

A) ∧ (x ∈ B)} 31. Power Set : The Power set of A is the set of all subsets
• Disjoint sets: Two sets A, B are disjoint if they of A, denoted by P(A) and 2A . Note that the cardinality
have no elements in common, that is, if A ∩ B = ∅. of the power set is 2|A| .
26. Laws on set operations: Suppose U is the universal 32. Cartesian product : Given two sets A and B, the Carte-
set. Let A, B, C ⊂ U . sian product of A, B is defined to be the set:

• A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C A × B = {(x, y) | x ∈ A ∧ y ∈ B}
Associative laws • A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C
33. Relation: Relation between a set A and a set B is a
subset of the Cartesian product A × B.
• A∪B =B∪A
Commutative laws • A ∩ B = B ∩ A 34. Relation on a set: A relation on the set S is formally
defined as a subset of S × S i.e R ⊆ S × S
• A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
Distributive laws • A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) 35. Example : Let S = {1, 2, 3}. Consider the following rela-
tions defined on S.
• (A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B ′
• R1 = {(1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 3)}
De Morgan laws • (A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B ′
• R2 = {(1, 1), (2, 3)}
Complementation • A ∪ A′ = U • R3 = {(x, y) ∈ S × S | x ≤ y}
laws • A ∩ A′ = ∅
36. Properties of Relations :
• Reflexivity : ∀x ∈ S : (x, x) ∈ R
Self-inverse law • (A′ )′ = A
• Completeness : ∀x, y ∈ S : x ̸= y ⇒ (x, y) ∈ R or
(y, x) ∈ R
27. Question: For each of the following pairs of sets A, B, find
• Transitivity : ∀x, y, z ∈ S : ((x, y) ∈ R and (y, z) ∈
A ∪ B and A ∩ B:
R) ⇒ (x, z) ∈ R
(a) A = {a, b, c}; B = {c, d, e, f } • Symmetry : ∀x, y ∈ S : (x, y) ∈ R ⇒ (y, x) ∈ R
(b) A = {x ∈ R | x < 0}; B = {x ∈ R | x ≥ 0} • Anti-symmetry : ∀x, y ∈ S : ((x, y) ∈ R and (y, x) ∈
(c) A = {1, 2, {1, 2, 3}} ; B = {1, {1, 2}} R) ⇒ x = y
28. Arbitrary Unions and Intersections: We refer to the • Asymmetry : ∀x, y ∈ S : (x, y) ∈ R ⇒ (y, x) ∈
/R
collection {Ai | i ∈ I} as an indexed family of sets and the • Negative transitivity : ∀x, y, z ∈ S : ((x, y) ∈
/
set I as the index set. R and (y, z) ∈
/ R) ⇒ (x, z) ∈
/R

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 • Equivalence : Relation which is symmetric, reflexive
and transitive.
37. Question: Let A = {1, 2, 3}. Define a relation on A that 44. Question: Select the correct option. Suppose ⪰ is com-
is:
(a) reflexive, not symmetric, not transitive;
(b) not reflexive, symmetric, not transitive;
(c) not reflexive, not symmetric, transitive;
(d) not reflexive, symmetric, transitive;
(e) reflexive, not symmetric, transitive;
(f) reflexive, symmetric, not transitive;
(g) not reflexive, not symmetric, not transitive;
(h) reflexive, symmetric, transitive;
38. Question: Let S = {1, 2, 3}. Determine if the following
relations defined on S are reflexive, transitive and sym-
metric.
(i) A = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 1)}
(ii) B = {(1, 1), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (3, 1)}
(iii) C = {(x, y)|x ≤ y}
(iv) D = {(x, y)|x < y}
(v) E = {(x, y)|x < |y|}
2 2
(vi) F = {(x, y)|x + y = 1}
2 2
(vii) G = {(x, y)|x + y < 0}
39. Question: Let R be a relation on A such that
(∀a ∈ A)(∃b ∈ A)[aRb]. Show that if R is symmetric and
transitive, then R is reflexive.
40. Question : Prove that if R defined on a set A is asymmet-
ric, then it is antisymmetric. What can you say about the
converse?
41. Question : A relation on A that is reflexive, antisymmet-
ric, and transitive is called a partial order on A. Prove 47. WARP : The choice structure (B, C(·)) satisfies the weak
that each of the ordering relations < and ≤ are partial
orders on R and that ⊂ is a partial ordering on P(X) for
any set X.
42. Question : Let F be a partition of a set A. Define a
relation R on A by
aRb ⇐⇒ (∃X ∈ F)[a, b ∈ X]
Then R is an equivalence relation on A. Moreover, the
equivalence classes for R are precisely the sets in the par-
tition F.
43. Question: Consider a binary relation ⪰ on a set A. Sup-
pose ⪰ is transitive. Define relations ≻ and ∼ on A by:
for x, y ∈ A,
x ≻ y if and only if x ⪰ y and not y ⪰ x
x ∼ y if and only if x ⪰ y and y ⪰ x
Prove the following.
(i) If x ≻ y and y ≻ z then x ≻ z
(ii) If x ∼ y and y ∼ z then x ∼ z
(iii) If x ≻ y and y ⪰ z then x ≻ z
plete, reflexive and satisfies the following condition: x ≻
y, y ∼ z =⇒ x ≻ z, for all x, y, z ∈ X. Then which of the
following is necessarily true? Prove the correct option.
(a) ≻ is transitive
(b) ∼ is transitive
(c) ⪰ is transitive
(d) None of the above is necessarily true
45. Question: Consider a binary relation ⪰ defined on the set
A = {x, y, z}. Define relations ≻ and ∼ on A by: for
a, b ∈ A,
a ≻ b if and only if a ⪰ b and not b ⪰ a
a ∼ b if and only if a ⪰ b and b ⪰ a
Suppose x ≻ y, y ∼ z and x ∼ z. Then which of the
following holds.
(a) ≻ is transitive
(b) ∼ is transitive
(c) both ≻ and ∼ are transitive
(d) we cannot conclude anything about the transitivity
of ≻ and ∼
46. Choice Structure : Let X be the consumption set. A
choice structure (B, C(·))consists of two ingredients:
(a) B : It is a family (a set) of non-empty subsets of X;
that is, every element of B is a set B ⊂ X.
(b) C(·): It is a choice rule that assigns a nonempty set
of chosen elements C(B) ⊂ B for every budget set
B∈B
axiom of revealed preference (WARP) if the following
property holds:
If for some B ∈ B with x, y ∈ B we have x ∈ C(B),
then for any B ′ ∈ B with x, y ∈ B ′ and y ∈ C(B ′ ),
we must also have x ∈ C(B ′ ).
48. Revealed Preference : Given a choice structure
(B, C(·)) the revealed preference relation ≿∗ is defined by
x ≿∗ y ⇔ ∃B ∈ B such that x, y ∈ B and x ∈ C(B)
• We read x ≿∗ y as “x is revealed at least as good as
y.”
• With this terminology we can restate the weak axiom
as follows: “if x is revealed at least as good as y, then
y cannot be revealed preferred to x.”
49. Question: Suppose that X = {x, y, z} and B =
{{x, y}, {x, y, z}}. Consider the following choice struc-
tures:
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 (a) (B, C1 (·)), where C1 (·) is C1 ({x, y}) = {x} and 56. Injective, or One-to-one: If a function f : A → B is
C1 ({x, y, z}) = {x}.
(b) (B, C (·)), where C (·) is C ({x, y}) = {x} and
2 2 2
C2 ({x, y, z}) = {x, y}.
Now suppose that X = {x, y, z} and B
{{x, y}, {y, z}, {x, z}} and the choice structure is:
′
(c) (B , C3 (·)), where C3 (·) is C3 ({x, y}) = {x},
C3 ({y, z}) = {y} and C3 ({x, z}) = {z}.
Which of the these choice structures satisfy the weak ax-
iom?
50. Question: Let X = {x, y, z}, and consider the choice
structure (B, C(·)) with
B = {{x, y}, {y, z}, {x, z}, {x, y, z}}
and C({x, y}) = {x}, C({y, z}) = {y} and C({x, z}) =
{z}. Show that (B, C(·)) must violate the weak axiom.
51. Absolute Values: The absolute value of a real number x
is defined by:
( that f (a) = b.
x, if x ≥ 0
|x| =
−x, if x < 0
In geometric terms, |x| is the distance of the point x from
the origin (on the real line).
52. Consider the following inequalities (equalities):
(i) For any a, b, |ab| = |a||b|
(ii) Let a > 0. Then for any x : |x| ≤ a ⇐⇒ −a ≤ x ≤ a
(iii) Triangle inequality: For any a, b, |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|
53. Question : Solve the following inequalities.
(i) |5x − 1| ≥ 2
(ii) x2 > x + 2
(iii) (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) > 0
54. Function : Let A and B be any non-empty sets. A func-
tion from A to B is a rule that associates with each mem-
ber of A a unique member of B.
The notation is f : A → B, where input comes from the
set A and output belongs to the set B.
If a ∈ A, we denote the unique element of B that the rule
associates to a by f (a)
We refer to the element a of A as an argument of the
function, and the corresponding element f (a) of B as the
value of the function at that argument (or sometimes the
image of the point a under f ).
Consider an example f (x) = x2 + x + 1. The value of the
function f at argument 2 is f (2), which is further equal
to 7.
55. Domain & Codomain : If f : A → B, we refer the set
A as the domain of f and the set B as the codomain.
such that it never happens that different arguments lead
to the same value, we say that f is injective.
Mathematically, f : A → B is injective iff (∀a, b ∈ A)[a ̸=
′
= b ⇒ f (a) ̸= f (b)]
Alternatively, we may express this condition using contra-
positive: f : A → B is injective iff
(∀a, b ∈ A)[f (a) = f (b) ⇒ a = b]
The function f : R → R defined by f (x) = x2 is not
injective but the function g : R+ → R defined by g(x) = x2
is injective.
57. Surjective, or Onto: If every member of B is the value
of the function at some argument, we say f is surjective.
Mathematically, a function f : A → B is surjective iff
(∀b ∈ B)(∃a ∈ A)[f (a) = b]
Note the order of the quantifiers in the above condition.
For every b in B it must be possible to find an a in A such
The function f : R → R defined by f (x) = x2 is not
surjective but the function g : R → R+ defined by g(x) =
x2 is surjective.
58. Pre-image: A pre-image of an element b ∈ B for a func-
tion f : A → B is any element a of A for which f (a) = b.
59. Bijective : A function that is both injective and surjective
is bijective.
Functions are also called mappings, maps, or transforma-
tions.
60. Range : Let f : A → B. If X ⊂ A, the set {f (x) | x ∈ X}
is the range of f on X, denoted by f (X).
Alternatively, we can define range of f on X as the set
{b ∈ B | (∃x ∈ X)(f (x) = b)}
We denote the set f (A) as the range of f .
61. An alternative definition of surjective function is the func-
tion for which the range and the codomain coincide.
62. Functions as Relations : Given a function f : A → B,
we can identify f with the set
fˆ = {(a, b) ∈ A × B | f (a) = b}
The characteristic property of any function is that for any
argument there is exactly one value associated with that
argument. In terms of the set fˆ, this says
(∀a ∈ A)(∃!b ∈ B)[(a, b) ∈ fˆ]
For example, the function f : R → R defined by f (x) = x2
can be identified by the relation
{(x, y) ∈ R × R | y = x2 }
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63. Question : Let A = {1, 2}, B = {1, 2, 3}. List all the
functions from A to B. Now categorise these functions as
injective, surjective and bijective. Also, write down the
range of every function.
64. Question : Define f : R → R by
(v) Greatest integer function : f : R → Z defined
by: f (x) = the largest integer z such that z ≤ x, de-
noted by ⌊x⌋.
(vi) Identity function : For any set A, the identity
function, IA , on A is defined by:

f (x) = 0.5(x + |x|) IA (a) = a (∀a ∈ A)

Evaluate f (0), f (1), f (2). Is f injective? What is the (vii) Characteristic/Indicator function : If U is a
range of f on (a) R; (b) R+ ? universal set and A is any subset of U , then as-
sociated with A is the characteristic function of A,
65. Question : Identify injective and surjective functions.
XA : U → {0, 1}, defined by:
(i) f : R → R, f (x) = 5x + 6 (
(ii) f : R → R, f (x) = x3 1, if x ∈ A
XA (x) =
0, if x ∈
/A
(iii) f : R → R × R, f (x) = (x, x)
√
(iv) f : R → R, f (x) = x
72. Question : Let R be the universal set and let A = {x ∈
(iii) f : Z × Z → Z, f (m, n) = m − n R | 1 ≤ x < 5}. Sketch the graph of each of the following
charateristic functions.
66. Composition of g and f : Suppose f : A → B and
g : B → C are given. Then h : A → C defined by
(i) XA (ii) XA′ (iii) X{2} (iv) XN
h(a) = g(f (a)), (∀a ∈ A)

is the composition of g and f , denoted by g ◦ f . 73. Question : Let U be the universal set, and A ⊂ U such
that A ̸= ∅ and A ̸= U . Identity each of the following sets.
For real valued functions defined on real line, the following
terms are commonly used:
(i) {x ∈ U | XA (x) = 1} (iii) {x ∈ U | XA (x) = −1}
67. Even function : If a function f satisfies f (−x) = f (x) (ii) {x ∈ U | XA (x) = 0}
for every number x in its domain, then f is called an even
function.
74. Vertical and Horizontal Shifts : Suppose c > 0. To
68. Odd function : If a function f satisfies f (−x) = −f (x) obtain the graph of
for every number x in its domain, then f is called an odd
function. • y = f (x) + c, shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance
c units upward.
69. Increasing function : A function f is increasing on an
• y = f (x) − c, shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance
interval I if f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 in I.
c units downward.
70. Decreasing function : A function f is decreasing on an • y = f (x − c), shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance
interval I if f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 in I. c units to the right.
71. Examples of different kind of functions: • y = f (x + c), shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance
c units to the left.
(i) Polynomial : f : R → R given by function of the
form f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn 75. Vertical and Horizontal Stretching, Shrinking,
(ii) Absolute value function: f : R → R+ defined by and Reflecting : Suppose c > 1. To obtain the graph
of
(
x, if x ≥ 0 • y = cf (x), stretch the graph of y = f (x) vertically
f (x) =
−x, if x < 0 by a factor of c.
• y = 1c f (x), shrink the the graph of y = f (x) verti-
(iii) Exponential function : f : R → R given by
cally by a factor of c.
f (x) = ax , where a > 0.
• y = f (cx), shrink the the graph of y = f (x) horizon-
(iv) Logarithmic function : f : R++ → R given by
tally by a factor of c.
f (x) = loga x, where a is a positive constant.
Laws of Logarithms : If x and y are positive numbers, • y = f ( xc ), stretch the graph of y = f (x) horizontally
then by a factor of c.
loga (xy) = loga x + loga y • y = −f (x), reflect the graph of y = f (x) about the
 
x x-axis.
loga = loga x − loga y
y • y = f (−x), reflect the graph of y = f (x) about the
loga (xr ) = r loga x (where r is any real number) y-axis.

6
76. Invertible: Let f : A → B. We say f is invertible if there
exists a function g : B → A such that for all a ∈ A and
all b ∈ B
f (a) = b ⇐⇒ g(b) = a
We call such a function g an inverse of f .
Example : Let f : R → R defined by f (x) = 2x + 3, there
is an inverse function g : R → R defined by g(x) = x−3
2 f (n) = 1/n.
Alternatively, g is an inverse of a function f : A → B iff
g : B → A and
g ◦ f = IA and f ◦ g = IB
where IA , IB are the identity functions on A,B, respec-
tively.
Let f : A → B. Then f is invertible iff it is a bijection.
Moreover, if f is invertible, its inverse function is unique.
The unique inverse of a bijective function f is denoted by
f −1 .
77. Question : Define f : R → R by
(
x2 + 1, if x ≥ 0
f (x) =
x + 1, if x < 0
Show that f is a bijection and find f −1 .
78. Countability : The fundamental notion behind counting
is that of pairing off.
If we count the elements of some (finite) collection A of
objects, “one, two, three”, etc., we are explicitly defining
a bijection between a subset of natural numbers and the 84. Question : Show that the set of all positive multiples of 3
elements of A. We may picture the counting process as
follows: 85. Question : Show that the set {n ∈ N | n ≥ 10} is count-
The above counting process determines the bijection be-
tween the set {1, 2, . . . , n} and A. Since the counting pro-
cess stops when we get to the number n, we say that the
set A has n elements, or that “ the number of elements 88.
of A is n”, or “the cardinality of A is n”. Notationally,
|A| = n.
79. Finite set: A non-empty set A is finite iff, for some natu-
ral number n, there is a bijection from the set {1, 2, . . . , n−
1, n} to A. We also consider ∅ as a finite set because it
has 0 elements.
80. Infinite set: If a set is not a finite set then, we call it an
infinite set.
81. Countable set: An infinite set A is countable if there is
a bijection f : N → A
82. Examples of Countable set:
(i) The set of natural numbers N : The identity function 91. Bounded above : If X has an upper bound then we say
on N is a suitable bijection.
(ii) The set of even natural numbers, let’s denote it by E.
We can define f : N → E defined by f (n) = 2n is a
bijection. Now think of a bijection for the set of odd
natural numbers to show that the set of odd natural
numbers is countable.
(iii) The set R = {1/n |n ∈ N} is countable, the corre-
sponding bijection is defined as f : N → R such that
(iv) The set of all integers Z is countable. To see this,
define a function f : N → Z by:
(
n/2, if n is even
f (n) =
−(n − 1)/2, if n is odd
(v) The set P of all prime numbers is also countable. We
define a function f : N → P by the following defini-
tion : let f (1) = 2, and for any n ≥ 1, let f (n + 1) be
the least prime number bigger than f (n). Convince
yourself for two things: (a) that f is a function; and
(b) that it is in fact a bijection.
83. Few results on Countability :
(i) If A is any infinite set of natural numbers, then A is
countable.
(ii) If T is countable and there is a bijection f : T → A
then A is countable.
(iii) An infinite subset of a countable set is countable.
(iv) The set N × N is countable.
(v) The set Q+ is countable.
is countable.
able.
86. Question : Show that the set N − {4, 5} is countable.
87. Uncountable set : Not every infinite set is countable.
Thus, the infinite sets which are not countable are un-
countable. Example: Consider an open interval (0, 1)
Question: The set [0, 1] can be expressed as
(i) the union of a finite family of open intervals
(ii ) the intersection of a finite family of open intervals
(iii) the union of an infinite family of open intervals
(iv) the intersection of an infinite family of open intervals
\ 1 1

Solution : [0, 1] = − ,1 +
n n
n∈N
89. Upper bound : For any X ⊂ R, A number c is an upper
bound for X if c ≥ x for all x ∈ X.
90. Lower bound : A number c is a lower bound for X if
c ≤ x for all x ∈ X.
that X is bounded above.
7
 92. Bounded below : If X has a lower bound, then we say 106. Question : Find the value of lim sin π .
that X is bounded below. x→0 x

93. X is bounded if and only if it is bounded above and below. 107. Question : Consider the function H defined by
(
94. Maximum : If x ∈ X is an upper bound for X, then 0, if t < 0
H(t) =
x = max X, called the maximum of X. 1, if t ≥ 0
95. Minimum : If x ∈ X is a lower bound for X, then x =
Find lim H(t).
min X, called the minimum of X. t→0

96. Extreme Point : If x is either a maximum or minimum 108. Left-hand limit & Right-hand limit : We write
of X, then x is called an extreme point of X.
lim f (x) = L
x→a−
97. Supremum : A number c ∈ R is the supremum of X,
denoted by sup X, if c is an upper bound of X and c ≤ y and say the left-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a [or
for any upper bound y of X. The supremum is sometimes the limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the left] is equal
called the least upper bound. to L if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to
L by taking x to be sufficiently close to a and x less than
98. Infimum : A number c ∈ R is the infimum of X, denoted
a. Similarly, if we require that x be greater than a, we get
by inf X, if c is a lower bound of X and c ≥ y for any
“the right-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a is equal
lower bound y of X. The infimum is sometimes called the
to L” and we write
greatest lower bound.
99. Note that if the is not bounded below (bounded above) lim f (x) = L
x→a+
then the infimum (supremum) is negative infinity (infin-
ity). We use the symbol −∞ to denote negative infinity 109. lim f (x) = L if and only if lim f (x) = L and
and ∞ to denote infinity. We are not saying that the x→a x→a−
infimum (supremum) exists but that’s how we write the lim f (x) = L
x→a+
infimum (supremum) for sets that are not bounded below
1
(bounded above). 110. Question : Find lim 2 if it exists.
x→0 x
100. Examples :
111. Precise Definition of a Limit : Let f be a function
• An open interval (a, b) has no maximum nor mini- defined on some open interval that contains the number
mum, but inf(a, b) = a and sup(a, b) = b. a, except possibly at a itself. Then we say that the limit
of f (x) as x approaches a is L, and we write
• Infimum of an empty set is ∞ and supremum of an
empty set is −∞. lim f (x) = L
x→a
101. Definition of the limit: Suppose f (x) is defined when
x is near the number a. (This means that f is defined on if for every number ε > 0 there is a corresponding number
some open interval that contains a, except possibly at a δ > 0 such that if 0 < |x − a| < δ then |f (x) − L| < ε
itself.) Then we write
112. Limit Laws : Suppose that c is a constant and the limits
lim f (x) = L
x→a lim f (x) and lim g(x)
x→a x→a
and say “the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, equals L” if
we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L (as exist. Then
close to L as we like) by taking x to be sufficiently close (1) lim [f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x)
to a (on either side of a ) but not equal to a. x→a x→a x→a
(2) lim [f (x) − g(x)] = lim f (x) − lim g(x)
102. An alternative notation for x→a x→a x→a
(3) lim [cf (x)] = c lim f (x)
x→a x→a
lim f (x) = L
x→a
(4) lim [f (x)g(x)] = lim f (x) · lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a
is f (x) → L as x → a which is usually read “f (x) ap-
f (x) lim f (x)
proaches L as x approaches a.” (5) lim = x→a if lim g(x) ̸= 0
x→a g(x) lim g(x) x→a
x−1 x→a
103. Question : Find the value of lim . in
x→1 x2 − 1
h
(6) lim [f (x)]n = lim f (x) where n is a positive
√ x→a x→a
t2 + 9 − 3 integer.
104. Question : Estimate the value of lim .
t→0 t2 (7) lim c = c
x→a
sin x
105. Question : Find the value of lim . (8) lim x = a
x→0 x x→a

8
 (9) lim xn = an where n is a positive integer 125. Continuous at a number a:
x→a
A similar limit holds for roots as follows. A function f is continuous at a number a if
√ √ lim f (x) = f (a)
(10) lim n x = n a where n is a positive integer (If n x→a
x→a
is even, we assume that a > 0.) Notice that the above definition
More generally, we have the following law. implicitly requires three things if f is continuous at a :
q
1. f (a) is defined (that is, a is in the domain of f )
p
(11) lim n f (x) = n lim f (x) where n is a positive
x→a x→a
integer [If n is even, we assume that lim f (x) > 0.] 2. lim f (x) exists
x→a
x→a
3. lim f (x) = f (a)
x→a
113. Direct Substitution Property : If f is a polynomial or
a rational function and a is in the domain of f , then 126. Right-continuous & Left-continuous : A function f
is continuous from the right at a number a if
lim f (x) = f (a)
x→a
lim+ f (x) = f (a)
x→a

x2 − 1 and f is continuous from the left at a if

114. Find lim .
x→1 x − 1
lim f (x) = f (a)
115. If f (x) = g(x) when x ̸= a, then lim f (x) = lim g(x), x→a−
x→a x→a
provided the limits exist.
127. A function f is continuous on an interval if it is con-
116. Question : lim g(x) where tinuous at every member in the interval. (If f is defined
x→1 only on one side of an endpoint of the interval, we un-
( derstand continuous at the endpoint to mean continuous
x+1 if x ̸= 1 from the right or continuous from the left).
g(x) =
π if x = 1
128. If f and g are continuous at a and c is a constant, then
the following functions are also continuous at a:
(3 + h)2 − 9
117. Question : Evaluate lim .
h→0 h (a) f + g (d) f g
√ (b) f − g f
t2 + 9 − 3 (e) , if g(a) ̸= 0
118. Question : Find lim . (c) cf g
t→0 t2
119. Question : Show that lim |x| = 0.
x→0 129. (a) Any polynomial is continuous everywhere; that is, it
is continuous on R = (−∞, ∞)
|x| (b) Any rational function is continuous wherever it is de-
120. Question : Prove that lim does not exist.
x→0 x fined; that is, it is continuous on its domain.
121. Question : The greatest integer function is defined by 130. The following types of functions are continuous at every
⌊x⌋ = the largest integer that is less than or √equal to number in their domains: polynomials, rational functions,
x. (For instance, ⌊4⌋ = 4, ⌊4.8⌋ = 4, ⌊π⌋ = 3, ⌊ 2⌋ = 1, root functions, trigonometric functions
⌊− 21 ⌋ = −1.) Show that lim ⌊x⌋ does not exist.
x→3
131. If f is continuous at b and lim g(x) = b, then
x→a
122. If f (x) ⩽ g(x) when x is near a (except possibly at a) and lim f (g(x)) = f (b). In other words,
x→a
the limits of f and g both exist as x approaches a, then
 
lim f (g(x)) = f lim g(x)
lim f (x) ⩽ lim g(x) x→a x→a
x→a x→a

132. If g is continuous at a and f is continuous at g(a), then

123. Squeeze Theorem : If f (x) ⩽ g(x) ⩽ h(x) when x is the composite function f ◦ g given by (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
near a (except possibly at a ) and is continuous at a.

lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L 133. The Intermediate Value Theorem : Suppose that f
x→a x→a
is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and let N be any
then number between f (a) and f (b), where f (a) ̸= f (b). Then
there exists a number c in (a, b) such that f (c) = N .
lim g(x) = L
x→a
134. Show that there is a root of the equation
1
124. Question : Show that lim x2 sin = 0. 4x3 − 6x2 + 3x − 2 = 0
x→0 x

9
135. Infinite Limits: The notation 144. Question : Find lim x3 and lim x3 .
x→∞ x→−∞
lim f (x) = ∞ 2
x→a 145. Question : Find lim (x − x)
x→∞
means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily large
x2 + x
(as large as we please) by taking x sufficiently close to a 146. Question : Find lim
x→∞ 3 − x
(on either side of a ) but not equal to a.
147. Precise Definitions :
136. The symbol lim f (x) = −∞ can be read as “the limit of
x→a
f (x), as x approaches a, is negative infinity” or “ f (x) de- • Let f be a function defined on some open interval
creases without bound as x approaches a.” As an example that contains the number a, except possibly at a it-
we have self. Then
lim f (x) = ∞
 
1
lim − 2 = −∞ x→a
x→0 x
means that for every positive number M there is a
Similar definitions can be given for the one-sided infinite positive number δ such that
limits
if 0 < |x − a| < δ then f (x) > M
lim− f (x) = ∞ lim+ f (x) = ∞
x→a x→a
lim− f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = −∞ • Let f be a function defined on some interval (a, ∞).
x→a x→a+
Then
137. Vertical asymptote : The line x = a is called a vertical lim f (x) = L
x→∞
asymptote of the curve y = f (x) if at least one of the means that for every ε > 0 there is a corresponding
following statements is true: number N such that
lim f (x) = ∞ lim f (x) = ∞ lim f (x) = ∞
x→a x→a− x→a+ if x > N then |f (x) − L| < ε
lim f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = −∞
x→a x→a− x→a+ • Let f be a function defined on some interval (a, ∞).
2x 2x Then
138. Question : Find lim+ and lim− lim f (x) = ∞
x→3 x−3 x→3 x − 3 x→∞

139. Question : Find the vertical asymptotes of f (x) = tan x. means that for every positive number M there is a
corresponding positive number N such that
140. Limits at Infinity : Let f be a function defined on some
interval (a, ∞). Then if x > N then f (x) > M

lim f (x) = L 148. The tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the point
x→∞
(P (a, f (a)) is the line through P with slope
means that the values of f (x) can be made as close to L
as we like by taking x sufficiently large f (x) − f (a)
m = lim
x→a x−a
141. Horizontal asymptote : The line y = L is called a hor-
izontal asymptote of the curve y = f (x) if either provided that this limit exists.

lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L 149. The derivative of a function f at a number a, de-
x→∞ x→−∞ noted by f ′ (a), is
x2 − 1 f (a + h) − f (a)
For instance, the function f (x) = has the line y = 1 f ′ (a) = lim
x2 + 1 h→0 h
as a horizontal asymptote because
if this limit exists.
x2 − 1
lim 2 =1 150. The tangent line to y = f (x) at (a, f (a)) is the line
x→∞ x + 1
through (a, f (a)) whose slope is equal to f ′ (a), the deriva-
1 1 tive of f at a.
142. Question : Find lim and lim
x→∞ x x→−∞ x
151. Average rate of change of y with respect to x over
143. Infinite Limits at Infinity : The notation the interval [x1 , x2 ] is
lim f (x) = ∞ ∆y f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
x→∞
=
∆x x2 − x1
is used to indicate that the values of f (x) become large
as x becomes large. Similar meanings are attached to the 152. Instantaneous rate of change:
following symbols:
∆y f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
lim f (x) = ∞ lim f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = −∞ lim = lim
x→−∞ x→∞ x→−∞ ∆x→0 ∆x x2 →x1 x2 − x1

10
153. Derivative as a function: 163. The Product rule : If f and g are both differentiable,
then
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim d d d
h→0 h [f (x)g(x)] = f (x) [g(x)] + g(x) [f (x)]
dx dx dx
Some common notations for the derivative are as follows:
164. The Quotient rule : If f and g are both differentiable,
′ ′ dy df d then
f (x) = y = = = f (x) = Df (x) = Dx f (x)
dx dx dx
  g(x) d [f (x)] − f (x) d [g(x)]
154. Definition of derivative in Leibniz notation: d f (x) dx dx
=
dx g(x) [g(x)]2
dy ∆y
= lim
dx ∆x→0 ∆x 165. The Chain rule :If f and g are both differentiable and
F = f ◦ g is the composite function defined by F (x) =
dy
If we want to indicate the value of a derivative dx in Leib- f (g(x)), then F is differentiable and F ′ is given by the
niz notation at a specific number a, we use the notation product
 F ′ (x) = f ′ (g(x)).g ′ (x)
dy 
dx x=a
155. A function is differentiable at a if f ′ (a) exists. It is dif-
ferentiable on an open interval (a, b) [or (a, ∞) or (−∞, a)
or (−∞, ∞)] if is differentiable at every number in the
interval.
156. If f is differentiable at a, then f is continuous at a. The
converse is false i.e there are functions that are continuous
but not differentiable.
157. Types of non-differentiablity :
• If the graph of a function f has a “corner” or “kink”
in it.
• At any point of discontinuity, f fails to be differen- 169. Linear approximation: We use the tangent line at
tiable.
Alternatively, if y = f (u) and u = g(x) are both differen-
tiable functions, then
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
166. Implicit differentiation: This involves differentiating
both sides of the equation with respect to x and then solv-
ing the resulting equation for y ′ .
dy
167. Question : If x2 + y 2 = 25, find
dx
168. Question : Find an equation of the tangent to the circle
x2 + y 2 = 25 at the point (3, 4).
(a, f (a)) as an approximation to the curve y = f (x) when
x is near a. An equation of this tangent line is
• The curve has a vertical tangent line when x = a i.e
 f (x) − f (a)  y = f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a)
when f is continuous at a and lim  =
√
x→a x − a 
∞. For example, 3 x is not differentiable at x = 0. and the approximation

158. Higher Derivatives: The function f ′′ is second deriva- f (x) ≈ f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a)
tive of f because it is the derivative of the derivative of f .
We write the second derivative of y = f (x) as is called the linear approximation or tangent line approx-
imation of f at a.
d2 y
 
d dy
= 2 170. The function f (x) = loga x is differentiable and
dx dx dx
1
d f ′ (x) =
159. Derivative of a Constant function: (c) = 0 x ln a
dx
160. The Power rule: If n is any real number, then 171. Derivative of the Natural Logarithmic function:

d n d 1
(x ) = nxn−1 (ln x) =
dx dx x

161. The Sum rule If f and g are both differentiable, then 172. The exponential function f (x) = ax , a > 0, is differen-
tiable and
d d d d x
dx
[f (x) + g(x)] =
dx
f (x) +
dx
g(x) (a ) = ax ln a
dx
162. The Difference rule : If f and g are both differentiable, 173. Derivative of the Natural Exponential function:
then
d d d d x
[f (x) − g(x)] = f (x) − g(x) (e ) = ex
dx dx dx dx

11
174. Indeterminate form of type 00 : We have a limit of the 183. Definition: A critical number of a function f is a num-
form ber c in the domain of f such that either f ′ (c) = 0 or f ′ (c)
f (x) does not exist.
lim
x→a g(x)
184. If f has a local maximum or minimum at c, then c is a
where both f (x) → 0 and g(x) → 0 as x → a, then this critical number of f .
limit may or may not exist and is called an indeterminate
form of type 00 . 185. The Closed Interval Method: To find the global max-
imum and minimum values of a continuous function f on
x2 − x a closed interval [a, b] :
175. Question: Find lim 2
x→1 x − 1
(i) Find the values of f at the critical numbers of f in
176. Indeterminate form of type ∞ ∞ : If we have a limit of (a, b).
f (x) (ii) Find the values of f at the endpoints of the interval.
the form lim where both f (x) → ∞ (or −∞) and
x→a g(x)
(iii) The largest of the values from Steps (i) and (ii) is the
g(x) → ∞ (or −∞) then the limit may or may not exist global maximum value; the smallest of these values
and is called an indeterminate form of type ∞ ∞ is the global minimum value.
x2 − 1 186. Applications
177. Question: Find lim
x→∞ 2x2 + 1
• Quasi linear utility maximization problem
178. L’Hospital’s Rule: Suppose f and g are differentiable
• Two plants and how to utilise them optimally
and g ′ (x) ̸= 0 near a (except possibly at a). Suppose that
• Location for a facility in an interval
lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0
x→a x→a 187. Question: Find the global maximum and minimum values
of the function
or that
1
f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 1 − ⩽x⩽4
lim f (x) = ± ∞ and lim g(x) = ± ∞ 2
x→a x→a

0
188. Rolle’s Theorem: Let f be a function that satisfies the
In other words, we have an indeterminate form of type 0 following three hypotheses:
or ∞
∞ . Then
f (x) f ′ (x) (i) f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b].
lim = lim ′
x→a g(x) x→a g (x) (ii) f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b).
if the limit on the right side exists (or is ∞ or −∞). (iii) f (a) = f (b)

179. Definition: Let c be a number in the domain D of a func-
tion f . Then f (c) is the
• Global maximum value of f on D if f (c) ≥ f (x)
for all x in D.
• Global minimum value of f on D if f (c) ≤ f (x)
for all x in D.
The maximum and minimum values of f are called
extreme values of f .
180. Definition: The number f (c) is a
• Local maximum value of f if f (c) ≥ f (x) when x
is near c (i.e in some interval containing c)
• Local minimum value of f if f (c) ≤ f (x) when x
is near c (i.e in some interval containing c)
181. Extreme Value Theorem: If f is continuous on a closed
interval [a, b], then f attains a global maximum value f (c) 191. Increasing/Decreasing Test:
and a global minimum value of f (d) at some numbers c
and d in [a, b].
182. Fermat’s Theorem: If f has a local maximum or minimum
at c, and if f ′ (c) exists, then f ′ (c) = 0.
Then there is a number c in (a, b) such that f ′ (c) = 0.
189. The Mean Value Theorem: Let f be a function that
satisfies the following hypotheses:
(i) f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b].
(ii) f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b).
Then there is a number c in (a, b) such that
f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (c) =
b−a
or, equivalently,
f (b) − f (a) = f ′ (c)(b − a)
190. Theorem: If f ′ (x) = 0 for all x in an interval (a, b), then
f is constant on (a, b).
(i) If f ′ (x) > 0 on an interval, then f is strictly increas-
ing on that interval.
(ii) If f ′ (x) < 0 on an interval, then f is strictly decreas-
ing on that interval.

12
192. Question: Find where the function f (x) = 3x4 − 4x3 − • Asymptotes : Check for Horizontal Asymptotes and
12x2 + 5 is increasing and where it is decreasing. Vertical Asymptotes.

193. First Derivative Test: Suppose that c is a critical num- • Intervals of Increase or Decrease
ber of a continuous function f . • Critical points
• Concavity and Points of Inflection
(i) If f ′ changes from positive to negative at c, then f
has a local maximum at c. Use the above information to sketch the curve.
′
(ii) If f changes from negative to positive at c, then f 201. Question: Sketch the graph of f (x) = xex .
has a local minimum at c.
(iii) If f ′ (x) does not change sign at c (for example, if 202. Newton Raphson Method: We use this method to find
f ′ is positive on both sides of c or negative on both the root of an equation f (x) = 0. In general, if the nth
sides), then f has no local maximum or minimum at approximation is xn and f ′ (xn ) ̸= 0, then the next ap-
c. proximation is given by
f (xn )
194. First Derivative Test for Global Extreme Values: xn+1 = xn −
Suppose that c is a critical number of a continuous f ′ (xn )
function f defined on an interval. If the numbers xn become closer and closer to r as n be-
(i) If f ′ (x) > 0 for all x < c and f ′ (x) < 0 for all x > c, comes large, then we say that the sequence converges to r
then f (c) is the global maximum value of f . and we write
lim xn = r
(ii) If f ′ (x) < 0 for all x < c and f ′ (x) > 0 for all x > c, n→∞

then f (c) is the global minimum value of f . √

203. Question: Use Newton’s method to find 6 2 correct √to
195. What does f ′′ say about f ? : eight decimal places. First we observe that finding 6 2
Definition: If the graph of f lies above all of its tangents is equivalent to finding the positive root of the equation
on an interval I, then it is called convex on I. If the x6 − 2 = 0.
graph of f lies below all of its tangents on I, it is called
204. Quadratic approximation:
concave on I.
f ′ (a) f ′′ (a)
196. A point P on a curve y = f (x) is called an g(x) = f (a) + (x − a) + (x − a)2
inflection point if f is continuous there and the curve 1! 2!
changes from concave to convex or from convex to con-
205. Taylor Series:
cave at P .
∞
197. Concavity Test: X f (n) (a)
g(x) = (x − a)n
n!
• If f ′′ (x) > 0 for all x in I, then function f is convex n=0

on I.
206. Indefinite Integral: If F ′ (x) = f (x), then
• If f (x) < 0 for all x in I, then function f is concave
′′
Z
on I.
f (x)dx = F (x) + C
′′
198. The Second Derivative Test: Suppose f is continu-
ous in some open interval containing c. where C is an arbitrary constant.

• If f ′ (c) = 0 and f ′′ (c) > 0, then f has a local mini- 207. Definite Integral:
mum at c. b
Z b
• If f ′ (c) = 0 and f ′′ (c) < 0, then f has a local maxi-

f (x)dx =  F (x) = F (b) − F (a)
mum at c. a a

199. Question: Discuss the curve y = x4 − 4x3 with respect where F is any indefinite integral of f over an interval
to concavity, points of inflection, and local maxima and containing both a and b.
minima.
208. Properties of Definite Integrals: If f is a continuous
200. Curve Sketching: The most important aspects of a func- function in an interval that contains the points a, b and c,
tion are: then
Rb Ra
• Domain • a f (x)dx = − b f (x)dx
Ra
• Intercepts • a f (x)dx = 0
Rb Rb
• Symmetry : Such as checking if the function is an • a αf (x)dx = α a f (x)dx, where α is an arbitrary
even function or, an odd function number.

13
 Rb Rc Rb
• a
f (x)dx = a
f (x)dx + c
218. Convergence of a sequence of real numbers. (xn ) is said to
f (x)dx
converge to x if, for each ϵ > 0, there exists a real number
209. Differentiation with respect to the Limits of Integration: M (that may depend on ϵ) such that |xn − x| < ϵ for all
Suppose that F ′ (x) = f (x) for all x. If a(t) and b(t) are m ∈ N with m ≥ M .
differentiable and f (x) is continuous then
219. Proposition: A sequence cannot have more than one limit.
d b(t)
Z
f (x)dx = f (b(t))b′ (t) − f (a(t))a′ (t) 220. Proposition: Let (xn ) and (yn ) be two real sequences such
dt a(t)
that xn → x and yn → y for some real numbers x and y.
Then:
210. Integration by Parts:
Z Z (a) |xn | → |x|
f (x)g ′ (x)dx = f (x)g(x) − f ′ (x)g(x)dx (b) xn + yn → x + y
(c) xn yn → xy
211. Proposition: If f (x)g(x) is differentiable on the interval 1 1
(d) → , provided that x, xn ̸= 0 for each n.
[a, b], then xn x
Z b Z b 221. Proposition: Let (xn ) and (yn ) be convergent sequences
′ b ′
f (x)g (x)dx = f (x)g(x)|a − f (x)g(x)dx. in R and xn ≤ yn for infinitely many n. Then lim xn ≤
a a lim yn .

212. Integration by parts is often written in a more compact 222. Proposition (Squeeze Theorem): Let (xn ) and (yn ) and
form Z Z (zn ) be sequences in R and xn ≤ yn ≤ zn for almost all n.
udv = uv − vdu If lim xn = lim zn = a, then (yn ) converges to a.
223. Bounded sequence of real numbers. We say that a real
where u = f (x), v = g(x), du = f ′ (x)dx and dv = g ′ (x)dx. sequence (xn ) is bounded from above if there exists a real
To use this technique we need to identify likely candidates number K with xn ≤ K for all n = 1, 2, . . .. This is
for u = f (x) and dv = g ′ (x)dx. equivalent to saying that
213. Compute:
sup{xn |n ∈ N} < ∞
Z
• ln(x)dx Dually, (xn ) is said to be bounded from below if inf{xn :
Z n ∈ N} > −∞. Finally, (xn ) is called bounded if it is
• x sin(x)dx bounded from both above and below, that is,

214. Change of Variable: Suppose that g is continuously dif-
ferentiable, and f (u) is continuous at all points u belong-
ing to the relevant range of g. Then,
Z Z
′
f (g(x))g (x)dx = f (u)du
sup{|xn ||n ∈ N} < ∞
224. Subsequence of a sequence. Given a sequence (xn ), a sub-
sequence (ym ) is formed by choosing an infinite collection
of the entries of the original sequence in the order that
these elements appear in the original sequence.

where u = g(x) 225. Proposition: If (xn ) is a convergent sequence with limit x,

then every subsequence (xnk ) of (xn ) converges to x.
215. Proposition: If u(x) is differentiable on the interval [a, b]
and f (x) is differentiable on the interval [u(a), u(b)], then 226. Proposition: Let (xn ) be a sequence in R. We define
Z b
′ ′
Z u(b) lim sup xn = lim sup{xn : n > N }
f (u(x))u (x)dx = f ′ (u)du. N →∞
a u(a)
and
216. Compute: lim inf xn = lim inf{xn : n > N }
N →∞

Then, lim xn exists if and only if lim sup xn = lim inf xn .

Z

99
• x4 x5 + 1 dx
227. Proposition: Every convergent real sequence is bounded.
Z 3
1
• dx 228. Monotonic sequence. A real sequence (xn ) is said to be
2 x ln(x)
increasing if xn ≤ xn+1 for each n ∈ N, and strictly in-
217. Sequences of real numbers. A sequence of real numbers is creasing if xn < xn+1 for each n ∈ N. It is said to be
an assignment of a real number to each natural number. (strictly) decreasing if (−xn ) is (strictly) increasing. Fi-
In other words, it’s a function x : N → R which gives nally, a real sequence which is either increasing or decreas-
{x1 , x2 , x3 , . . .}. A sequence is usually written as (xn ). ing is referred to as a monotonic sequence.

14
 ∞
229. Proposition: Every increasing (decreasing) real sequence X
238. Proposition: Consider the series ak , and suppose c
that is bounded from above (below) converges.
k=0
∞ ∞
230. Proposition: Every real sequence has a monotonic subse- X X
is a nonzero constant. Then ak and cak share a
quence.
k=0 k=0
231. Proposition: Every bounded real sequence has a conver- common fate: either both series converge, or both series
∞
X
gent subsequence. diverge. Moreover, when ak converges,
k=0
232. Suppose (an ) is a sequence then the associated series is
∞ ∞
∞ X X
X cak = c · ak
ak = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + · · ·
k=0 k=0
k=1
∞ ∞
233. Definition: Suppose (an ) is a sequence with associated 239. Proposition: Suppose
X X
∞ a k and bk are convergent se-
X
k=0 k=0
series ak . The sequence of partial sums associated to ∞
X
k=1 ries. Then (ak + bk ) is convergent, and
these objects is the sequence
k=0
n
∞ ∞ ∞
X ! !
sn = ak X X X
(ak + bk ) = ak + bk
k=1
k=0 k=0 k=0
∞
∞
X
234. Definition: Consider the series ak . This series con- X
k=1
240. Proposition: If ak converges then lim an = 0.
n→∞
n
X k=0
verges if the sequence of partial sums sn = ak con- The contrapositive of this proposition can be used a diver-
∞
k=1
X
verges. More precisely, if lim sn = L, we then write gence test: Consider the series ak . If the limit lim an
n→∞
n→∞ k=0
∞
does not exist or has a value other than zero, then the
series diverges.
X
ak = L
k=1
241. Definition: The series
∞
X ∞
and say, “the series ak converges to L.” If the sequence X 1 1 1 1 1
= + + + + ···
k=1
n=1
n 1 2 3 4
of partial sums diverges, we say that the series diverges.
is called the harmonic series.
235. Definition: Geometric Series - A series of the form
∞
X
∞
X 242. Proposition: Consider the series ak . Assume the terms
a0 rk k=0
k=0 ak are nonnegative. If the sequence of partial sums sn =
is called a geometric series. a0 + · · · + an is bounded, then the series converges.

236. Proposition: Suppose a0 ̸= 0. Then for a real number r 243. Proposition: Suppose that an and bn are non-negative for
such that |r| < 1, the geometric series all n and that, for some N , whenever n ≥ N , we have
X∞ X∞ X∞

X∞ an ≤ b n . If bn converges, so does an . If an
k n=0 n=0 n=0
a0 r ∞
X
k=0
diverges, so does bn .
a0 n=0
converges to . For a real number r where |r| ≥ 1,
1−r ∞
the aforementioned geometric series diverges. 244. Proposition: The Ratio Test- Consider the series
X
an
X∞ n=0
237. Proposition: Suppose ak is a convergent series, and c where each term an is positive. Suppose that
k=0 an+1
∞
X lim =L
is a constant. Then cak converges, and n→∞ an

k=0 ∞
X
∞
X ∞
X If L < 1 the series an converges. If L > 1 the series
cak = c ak n=0
k=0 k=0
diverges. If L = 1 this test is inconclusive.

15
245. Proposition: Integral test: Suppose that f (x) > 0 and is 251. Open Set and Closed Set. Let (X, d) be a metric space.
decreasing on the infinite interval [k, ∞) (for some k ≥ 1 Then Y ⊂ X is open in X if for each y ∈ Y , there exists
∞
X ϵ > 0 such that Nϵ (y) ⊂ Y ; Z ⊂ X is closed in X if X \ Z
) and that an = f (n). Then the series an converges if is open in X.
Z ∞ n=k
n
and only if the improper integral f (x)dx converges. 252. Continuous Preferences. Let X = R+ be the consump-
k tion set. Metric on X is the Euclidean metric. Given a
∞
preference relation ≿ on X, define these sets -
X
p
246. Definition: p-series is any series of the form 1/n . Upper Contour Set or upper level set: Given any x ∈ X,
n=1 B(x) = {y ∈ X|y ≿ x} is the upper contour set corre-
sponding to the bundle x.
247. Proposition: p-series converges if and only if p > 1.
Lower Contour Set or lower level set: Given any x ∈ X,
248. Metric Space. Let X be a nonempty set. A function W (x) = {y ∈ X|x ≿ y} is the lower contour set corre-
d : X × X → R+ is a metric (distance function) if, for any sponding to the bundle x.
x, y, and z in X, it satisfies the following three conditions: We can also call these sets as at-least-as-good-as-x set and
the no-better-than-x set respectively.
(a) (Properness) d(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y,
Preferences ≿ are said to be continuous on X, if for all
(b) (Symmetry) d(x, y) = d(y, x), and
x ∈ X, B(x) and W (x) are closed sets.
(c) (Triangle Inequality) d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y).
253. Sequences in a metric space. Let (X, d) be a metric space.
A nonempty set X equipped with a metric d constitutes A sequence is an assignment of an element from X to each
a metric space (X, d). natural number. In other words, it’s a function x : N → X.
In this definition, as in all mathematical definitions that
follow, “if” is used instead of “if and only if,” since the 254. Convergence of a sequence in a metric space. (xn ) is said
context makes it clearer that the notion (e.g., “metric”) to converge to x if, for each ϵ > 0, there exists a real
is being defined by the mathematical statements following number M (that may depend on ϵ) such that d(xm , x) < ϵ
it: thus “if and only if” is implicit. for all m ∈ N with m ≥ M .

255. Bounded sequence in a metric space. Let (X, d) be a met-

249. Examples of Metric Spaces. The following are examples of
ric space. We say that a sequence (xn ) in X is bounded if
metric spaces. In each case, properness and symmetry are
there exists a real number r > 0 and a vector x ∈ X such
easy to verify, but verifying that the triangle inequality
that xn ∈ Nr (x) for all n ∈ N, that is, d(xn , x) < r for all
holds requires some work:
n ∈ N.
(a) For any X ⊂ RK , let xi be the ith component of 256. Proposition: Let (Rm , d) be the Euclidean metric space,
x ∈ X. Then the usual Euclidean distance d(x, y) = and (xn ) a sequence in Rm . We have:
P 1
K 2 2
i=1 |xi − yi | is a metric, and thus the Eu-
clidean space with its usual distance constitutes a xn → x
metric space. It is typically referred to as the K- if and only if
i i
dimensional Euclidean space. x n → x in R for each i = 1, 2, . . . , m

(b) For any nonempty set X, one can construct the dis- 257. Proposition: Let (Rm , d) be the Euclidean metric space,
crete metric, defined as d(x, y) = 1 if x ̸= y and and (xn ) a sequence in Rm . We have:
d(x, y) = 0 if x = y. In this case (X, d) is a discrete
space.
(xn ) is bounded
(c) For any nonempty set X, one can construct the sup if and only if
metric, defined as d(x, y) = supi |xi − yi |. (xin ) is bounded in R for each i = 1, 2, . . . , m

Metric spaces enable us to define neighborhoods and open 258. Proposition: Let (Rm , d) be the Euclidean metric space.
sets, which are the building blocks of mathematical analy- Every bounded sequence has a convergent subsequence.
sis and are essential in the study of optimization problems.
259. Bounded Set. Let (X, d) be a metric space. Then Y ⊆ X
250. Open Ball around x. Let (X, d) be a metric space and is bounded if there exists x ∈ X and δ ∈ (0, ∞) such
ϵ > 0 be a real number. Then for any x ∈ X, that Y ⊆ Nδ (x). If Y ⊆ X is not bounded, then it is
unbounded.
Nϵ (x) = {y ∈ X : d(x, y) < ϵ}
260. Limit points of a Set. x is a limit point or a cluster point of
is the ϵ-neighborhood of x. set A if for any open set U containing x, (U −{x})∩A ̸= ∅.
In the simplest case where X ⊂ R and x ∈ X, d(x, y) = Equivalently, x is a limit point or a cluster point of set A if
|x − y|, Nϵ (x) = (x − ϵ, x + ϵ) ∩ X. for any ϵ-neighborhood of x (Nϵ (x)), (Nϵ (x)−{x})∩A ̸= ∅.

16
261. Proposition: A set S in a metric space X is closed if, and
only if, it contains all its limit points.
262. Proposition: A set S in a metric space X is closed if, and
only if, every sequence in S that converges in X converges
to a point in S.
263. Proposition: Let S be a nonempty bounded subset of R.
Show that there is an increasing sequence (xn ) in S such
that xn → sup S and a decreasing sequence (yn ) in S such
that yn → inf S.
264. Compact Set: Let (X, d) be a metric space. A subset S of
a metric space X is compact if every sequence in S has a
subsequence that converges to a point in S.

17